Critical Thinking and Child Welfare
Training
Dr. Carolyn Hilarski
SUNY College of Buffalo
School of Social Work
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
1
Critical Thinking and Child Welfare Training

Child welfare service providers need to be empowered with
effective thinking skills to increase the likelihood of child
safety, permanence, and well being (Brandon et al., 2005).

But, how is this done? What professional training programs
have included critical thinking and what were their
outcomes?

Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
Develop a literature review on critical thinking and job training outcome studies
Summarize the literature review
Develop a power point presentation of suggestions for critical thinking methods
that might be infused in child welfare training modules
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
2
Critical Thinking is Imperative

The department of defense asserts that critical thinking
skills are essential in this time of global complexity and
ambiguity (Gerras, 2006).

A review of the literature suggests that critical thinking
is crucial “not only in the clinical practice setting but
also as a daily experience in nursing education…”
(Simpson & Courtney, 2002, p. 96).
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
3
Can Better Thinking be Learned?

Lehmann and Nisbett (1995) examined the
spontaneous transfer of selected thinking skills both
in and out of the classroom.

Results were supportive that critical thinking can be
learned and used in novel domains as students
reported using the thinking skills taught in class
several months after the semester ended across
milieus.
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
4
What Models are Useful in Teaching/learning
Critical Thinking (CT)?

Active Learning Promotes Critical Thinking (Burbach,
et al, 2004)
 The professional is actively involved in acquiring and
applying new knowledge through active learning
approaches
 Active learning may include but is not limited to the
following teaching methods *
 Concept mapping
 Problem-based or case based instruction, and
 Logic modeling.
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
5
Concept Mapping

Concept mapping can promote critical thinking through the
visual representation of relationships among ideas or
suppositions (Hsu, 2004; Plotnick, 2001) procedures, or
principles (Akinsanya & Williams, 2004).

New meanings are constructed regarding events or objects
based on the professional’s prior beliefs or experiences
(All, et al, 2003).


The theoretical framework for concept mapping comes from the
 Constructivist learning theory,
 Cognitive continuum theory, and
 Experiential learning theory (Sewchuk, 2005)
Concept mapping is suggested as an easy teaching strategy
when complex material or circumstances are at issue
(Fonteyn, 2007)
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
6
Concept Maps

Four basic concept maps are described in the
literature (All et al., 2003; Ferrario, 2004; Glendon & Ulrich, 2004)

Basic Maps
 Hierarchical
 Spider
 Flowchart
 Systems concepts
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
7
Fatigue
Unhappiness
Strain
Loss
Decreased
interest in
activities
Weight loss
or gain
Trauma
Tension
Suicidal
ideation
Attributes
Antecedents
Hopelessness
Insomnia or
hypersomnia
Stress
Beck’s
Inventory
Psychology
Epidemiologic
Studies
Depression Scale
Depression
Empirical
Referents
Integrated
health care
Disciplines
consequences
suicide
death
Sociology
Zung
Depression
Scale
Hamilton
Rating Scale
of Depression
Self-neglect
All & Huycke (2007)
Example of a spider concept map that shows system relationships
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
8
Reaction to an
event
Beck’s Depression
Inventory
Chemical
imbalance
Hamilton’s
Depression
Scale
Trauma
Substance
Abuse
Lack of coping
Instruments
Death
Antecedents
Negative
Stress
Depression
Consequences
Self Neglect
Suicide
Psychology
Hopelessness
Integrated
health care
Disciplines
Attributes
Work
difficulty
Self Image
change
Contrary Case:
Self-Harm
Anxiety
Sociology
Social
Withdrawal
Sense of
Failure
Less
community
involvement
Invented Case:
Borderline case:
All & Huycke (2007)
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
9
Research and Concept Mapping

A quasi-experimental study evaluated the effectiveness of
concept mapping in a convenience sample of 76 nursing
students.

The experimental group (n=44) was taught to use concept
mapping as a tool for clinical assessment while the control
group (n=32) used traditional methods.

Results suggested that concept mapping was effective in
helping to develop critical thinking skills in the clinical
experience (Wheeler, & Collins, 2003)
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
10
Example of flowchart
concept map
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
11
Developed by W. Huitt, 1999
Concept Mapping a CT model
Military

Based on interviews with active duty naval officers
(N=31), a framework was developed for decision
making called Recognition/Meta-cognition R/M)
model (Cohen, et al, 1996).

The next slide uses mapping to explain the model’s
ideas and processes
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
12
Real World
Situation
Model
Plan
Verify
If YES, inhibit
Quick Test
Is cost of delay acceptable
Is the cost of an error high?
Is the situation unfamiliar or problematic
Revise
If YES
Look for
Incompleteness:
Missing arguments
If none…
Look for Conflict:
Arguments
w/contradictory
conclusions
Critiquing
Correcting
If none…
1. Collect more data
2. Shift focus/retrieve knowledge
3. Add/drop assumptions
Cohen & Freeman, 1997
Example of a hierarchy
concept map
Look for Unreliability:
Arguments that
depend on
unconsidered
assumptions
The map highlights the
distinction between
recognition and metacognitive processes (shaded
boxes). The meta-cognitive
levels exert control over the
recognition levels.
The R/M model is dynamic
and interactive and explains
how experienced decision
makers are able to exploit
their experience in a specific
domain and at the same time
handle uncertainty and
novelty.
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
13
Real World
Situation
Model
Plan
Verify
If YES, inhibit
Quick Test
Is cost of delay acceptable
Is the cost of an error high?
Is the situation unfamiliar or problematic
Revise
If YES
Look for
Incompleteness:
Missing arguments
If none…
Look for Conflict:
Arguments
w/contradictory
conclusions
Critiquing
Correcting
1. Collect more data
2. Shift focus/retrieve
knowledge
3. Add/drop assumptions
Look for Unreliability:
Arguments that depend
on unconsidered
assumptions
If none…
Critical Thinking Training based
on the R/M model has been
developed and positively
evaluated with active duty officers
at two Navy training facilities. The
officers increased their notations
of conflicting evidence (58%);
their understanding of underlying
assumptions regarding their initial
hypothesis (27%), and the
number of alternative
assessments they generated
((41%) while making decisions
under stressful circumstances. CT
improved the accuracy of
assessments by 79% (Cohen &
Freeman, 1997; Cohen, et al.,
1996, 1998).
Cohen & Freeman, 1997
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
14
Real World
Situation
Model
Plan
Verify
If YES, inhibit
Quick Test
Is cost of delay acceptable
Is the cost of an error high?
Is the situation unfamiliar or problematic
Revise
If YES
Look for
Incompleteness:
Missing arguments
If none…
Critiquing
Correcting
Look for Conflict:
Arguments w/contradictory
conclusions
The critiquing process
identifies problems in
the arguments that
support a conclusion
(e.g., evil intent) within
the situational model or
plan.
If none…
1. Collect more data
2. Shift focus/retrieve knowledge
3. Add/drop assumptions
Look for Unreliability:
Arguments that depend on
unconsidered assumptions
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
Cohen & Freeman, 1997
15
Real World
Situation
Model
Plan
Verify
If YES, inhibit
Quick Test
Is cost of delay acceptable
Is the cost of an error high?
Is the situation unfamiliar or problematic
Revise
If YES
Look for
Incompleteness:
Missing arguments
If none…
Critiquing
Correcting
Look for Conflict:
Arguments w/contradictory
conclusions
If none…
Critiquing can result in the
discovery of three kinds of
issues:
-Incompleteness,
-Unreliability
-Conflict
1. Collect more data
2. Shift focus/retrieve knowledge
3. Add/drop assumptions
Look for Unreliability:
Arguments that depend on
unconsidered assumptions
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
Cohen & Freeman, 1997
16
Real World
Situation
Model
Plan
Verify
If YES, inhibit
Quick Test
Is cost of delay acceptable
Is the cost of an error high?
Is the situation unfamiliar or problematic
Revise
If YES
Look for
Incompleteness:
Missing arguments
If none…
Look for Conflict:
Arguments
w/contradictory
conclusions
Critiquing
Correcting
1. Collect more data
2. Shift focus/retrieve
knowledge
3. Add/drop assumptions
If none…
Look for Unreliability:
Arguments that depend
on unconsidered
assumptions
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
Cohen & Freeman, 1997
Correcting can instigate
external action. These
processes in combination
help to
1. Fill gaps in the model or
plan
2. Resolve conflict among
arguments
3. Search for more reliable
arguments
17
Real World
Situation
Model
Plan
Verify
If YES, inhibit
Quick Test
Is cost of delay acceptable
Is the cost of an error high?
Is the situation unfamiliar or problematic
Revise
If YES
Look for
Incompleteness:
Missing arguments
If none…
Look for Conflict:
Arguments
w/contradictory
conclusions
Critiquing
Correcting
1. Collect more data
2. Shift focus/retrieve
knowledge
3. Add/drop assumptions
If none…
The quick test controls
critiquing and correcting. This
process considers the facts
and if conditions are
appropriate inhibits
recognition based responding
and interposes a process of
critical thinking. The quick test
allows immediate action
based on the current best
response.
Look for Unreliability:
Arguments that depend
on unconsidered
assumptions
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
Cohen & Freeman, 1997
18
Another example of Concept Mapping a
model

Gerras (2006) suggests the following CT model:



based on Halpern’s (2003) definition that critical thinking is a
purposeful, reflective, and careful evaluation of information as
a way to improve one’s judgment and
derived from Paul and Elder’s (2002) suggestions
But, how do we develop helpful judgment skills?


Logic and reasoning skills
Self reflection and education
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
19
Stimulus
requiring
judgment
Make
Decision/Clarify
position/Use
judgment
Requires
Critical
Thinking
ASSUMPTIONS
POINT OF VIEW
INFERENCES
Egocentric
Tendencies
Often the first step
CLARIFY
CONCERN
EVALUATION
OF
INFORMATION
Argument
Analysis
IMPLICATIONS
Impact of
Bases and
Traps
Gerras, 2006
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
20
Stimulus
requiring
judgment
Make
Decision/Clarify
position/Use
judgment
Requires
Critical
Thinking
ASSUMPTIONS
An assumption is something
which is taken for granted and
believed to be true.
The more in touch we are with
our assumptions, the better we
are at critical thinking (CT).
Our assumptions influence all
aspects of the process of CT.
POINT OF VIEW
INFERENCES
Egocentric
Tendencies
CLARIFY
CONCERN
EVALUATION
OF
INFORMATION
Argument
Analysis
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
IMPLICATIONS
Impact of
Bases and
Traps
Gerras, 2006
21
Stimulus
requiring
judgment
Make
Decision/Clarify
position/Use
judgment
Requires
Critical
Thinking
ASSUMPTIONS
Egocentric tendencies
are a significant barrier
to effective CT (Gerras,
2006).
POINT OF VIEW
INFERENCES
Egocentric
Tendencies
CLARIFY
CONCERN
EVALUATION
OF
INFORMATION
Argument
Analysis
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
IMPLICATIONS
Impact of
Bases and
Traps
Gerras, 2006
22
Stimulus
requiring
judgment
People typically assess
the likelihood of an event
by
1. the ease with which
examples
of that event can be
brought to mind,
2. prior experiences with
the event,
3. overconfidence (look
for supporting evidence
of hypothesis), or
4. believing that people
behave according to their
personality type rather
than from some type of
external stimulus
Make
Decision/Clarify
position/Use
judgment
Requires
Critical
Thinking
ASSUMPTIONS
POINT OF VIEW
INFERENCES
Egocentric
Tendencies
CLARIFY
CONCERN
EVALUATION
OF
INFORMATION
Argument
Analysis
IMPLICATIONS
Impact of
Bases and
Traps
Gerras, 2006
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
23
Problem Based Learning (PBL)

In PBL, issues encountered in clinical settings (scenario)
are presented or discussed first before the professional is
exposed to new information (Winter, et al., 2002).

The scenarios becomes part of the explanation for new
knowledge that is encountered through group interaction
(Dane, 2000).

PBL improves clinical reasoning skills, increases retention
of learned material, and enhances self-directed study
(Williams, 2002, 2004).

Can be time consuming
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
24
Case-Based Instruction (CBI)

In CBI, professional learners are exposed to new concepts
or theories then introduced to cases as a way to develop
critical thinking.

Case studies provide a participatory process that facilitates
active and reflective learning (Gilboy & Kane, 2004).
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
25
CBI and CT

Physical therapy students explained that case based
instruction encouraged critical thinking behavior
regarding how they approached and perceived a
treatment plan (Hayward, 1999)
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
26
Logic Model and Critical Thinking

Logic has been identified as a cognitive dimension of
critical thinking and is a systematic appraisal used to
analyze cause and effect relationships that then allows
assumptions about inferences that are supported by the
evidence (Scheffer & Rubenfield, 2000)

Logic models are tools that are useful to conceptualize
actions (MacDonald & Hilton, 2001)
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
27
Logic Models

Using a logic model (e.g., the R/M model-slide 12) helps
the professional to






dialogue about a concern,
think about context in relation to the concern,
consider any time issues or ‘why now’, and
reflect on personal assumptions, flaws, and plan;
evaluate outcome
the core elements of the critical thinking process (Forneris,
2004).
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
28
(Alter & Egan, 1997)
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
29
More information about LM

Logic modeling…



Is a technique that can help professionals think critically about
social work practice.
It enables professionals to organize what are often vague and
diffuse ideas about why we intervene, with whom, and to what
end.
Rather than simply accumulate facts, professionals organize
their ideas about practice into concise statements that, taken
together, are hypotheses which can be tested and replicated
(Alter & Egan, 1997)
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
30
Flow chart concept map example
Health
Nutrition
Education
System
Food Shopping
Environmental &
Practices &
Policy
Resource
Change
Management
Food Safety
Dietary Quality
and
Physical Activity
Food Safety
Outputs
Inputs
Activities
(Medeiros, et al., 2005)
Participants
Independence
Outcomes
Short
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
Medium
Long
31
INPUTS
OUTPUTS
Activities
S
I
T
U
A
T
I
O
N
Food Stamp
individuals &
households
those eligible
for Food
Stamps
Short Term
Medium Term
Long Term
Individuals…
Individuals & household level
Educational
programs on
core
elements
using direct
& indirect
methods
OUTPUTS-Impact
Participation
Gain awareness
knowledge & skills
Incorporate skills
change behaviors
Decrease risk factors
for health problems
Dietary Quality Indicator Examples
Plan menus/choose Improve intake of
Decrease chronic
foods using Pyramid food group servings disease risk factors
Food Security Indicator Examples
Identify emergency
food sources
P
R
I
O
R
I
T
I
E
S
Enroll in non emergency
Reduce anxiety related
food programs
to food security
Food Safety Indicator Examples
-Financial
resources
Able to practice
personal hygiene
-Planning
processes
Increase practice of Decrease illness due
to food contamination
personal hygiene
Shopping Behavior/Food Resource Management Indicator Examples
List available food Use three careful
resources
shopping practices
-Materials
Reduce reliance on
others for food
Communities & Institutions Level
-People
Community
partnerships
related to
core
elements
Agency
Partners
Agency partners…
Gain awareness
Develop plans
Indicators show:
involvement of
community groups in
actions to address
core elements
Indicators show:
Community group
actions to adopt plans
addressing core
elements
Social Structures, policies, practices
Efforts to
Policy
create/revise
social systems Makers
& public
policies related
to core
elements
ASSUMPTIONS
Solve community
problems
Indicators show:
evidence of improved
conditions related to
core elements
The goal of community
nutrition is to provide
educational programs that
increase the likelihood of
people making healthy
food choices consistent
with the most reflected in
the Dietary Guidelines for
Americans and the Food
Guide Pyramid, w/special
attention to people
w/limited budgets
Policy makers…
Identify & define
issues
Work toward
needed changes
Revise laws, policies
and practices
Indicators show:
Identification of
issues related to
core elements
Indicators show:
Actions to address
charges needed in
core elements
Indicators show:
Evidence of policy
changes related to
core elements
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
(Medeiros, et al., 2005)
EXTERNAL FACTORS
32
Literature Review Regarding Logic
Models and Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is developed through consistent
application of logical systems thinking via conceptual
mapping and reflection (Ellermann, et al., 2006)

Logic models enable the application of CT to assessment,
intervention planning, and evaluation at the individual,
organizational, and community level

Logic models make explicit the reciprocal connections
among practice, program, and policy in addition to the
connections between theories of human behavior and
social interventions

The professional must be able to explain the underling
logic of the action and outcome (causal relationships that
support the intervention) (Alter, et al, 1997)
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
33
Conclusion

Critical thinking is an essential skill for professional
practice

logic models, concept mapping, problem based, and case
based practice are empirically based methods intended to
aid in the development of critical thinking that benefits
both the consumer and the service provider.

Although these methods have been evaluated primarily in
military and nursing milieus, it is reasonable to assume a
successful outcome in other contexts such as child welfare
training.
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
34
CT Training Suggestions

The literature suggests that Child Welfare workers involved
in CT training would benefit from teaching methods that
include include concept maps, logic models, problem based
and case based practice issues.

These teaching techniques are found to increase the
frequency of critical thinking strategies, improve the
accuracy of assessment, and ultimately appropriate
interventions in real world venues (Cohen & Freeman,
1997).
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
35
CT Training Suggestions

As critical thinking skills develop in the trained supervisor,
for example, the ability to invite and empathize with other
points of view will emerge empowering co-workers to
contribute to the solution of issues and engage in CT
themselves increasing job satisfaction (Gerras, 2006).
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
36
CT Training Suggestions

Dynamic, multidimensional, and creative critical thinking is
an essential part of effective practice. The use of various
types of logic models encourage hypothesizing, gathering
data, and focusing on the client’s entire context
(Ellermann, et al., 2006).
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
37
Finally

Child welfare workers make critical decisions regarding the
care of their clients.

Enhancement of these decision making abilities is
significant.
© 2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of
SUNY/BSC
38