Class 20:
Cognitive Dissonance
Social Exclusion and the Need to Belong
Williams, Cheung, & Choi, (2008) JPSP
Need to belong is powerful.
Groups punish members by excluding them.
Ostracism understood as potent social tactic, even in childhood.
Function: Keeps groups cohesive, but devastating to targets.
Reactions to ostracism: depression, loneliness, anxiety, frustration,
invisibility, helplessness.
Frustrates four basic needs: Belonging, self-esteem, control, meaning.
Cyberball:
Williams, K. D., & Jarvis, B. (in press). Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers.
Effects of Ostracism on Basic Needs
Williams, Cheung, & Choi, (2008) JPSP, Study 1
NOTE: Higher scores = worse outcome
25
20
Included
Partial Ost.
Total Ost
15
10
5
0
Belonging
Control
Meaning
Esteem
Mood
Ostracism and Conformity
Williams, Cheung, & Choi, (2008) JPSP, Study 2
Ss ostracized, not ostracized
Ss complete Asch-like visual task, designated the "last" responder
60
50
40
Included
Excluded
30
20
10
0
Belonging Need
Trials Conformed
Percent Ss conformed
1 or more times
Social Exclusion, Need to Belong, and Behavioral Mimicry
Lakin, Chartrand, & Arkin, Psych Science (2008)
Behavioral Mimicry: People automatically, unconsciously
mimic behaviors of those with whom they interact.
Ss included or excluded by member of in-group (same
gender) or out-group (diff. gender)
Excluded by:
In-group
In-group Out-group
"mover" "mover"
1
4
Out-group
2
5
Not Excluded
3
6
Proportion Time Mimicking
Ss interact with confed (same/diff gender) whose foot moves.
Results?
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
In-Group Mimicry Confed
Out-Group Mimicry Confed
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
Excluded by InGroup
Excluded by
Outgroup
No Exclusion
A Case Study in Mirroring
Marx, Marx, & Marx, 1933
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5lU52aWTJo
Cognitive Dissonance
CD Defined: Cognitive Dissonance is a negative drive state
that occurs when a person holds two inconsistent thoughts.
To reduce dissonance, person must:
a. Change behavior
b. Change cognitions
Humans are not a rational animal, but a rationalizing one.
Leon Festinger
Cognitive Dissonance Key Contributors
Kurt Lewin
Leon Festinger
Eliot Aronson
Daryl Bem
(bete noire)
When Prophesy Fails (Festinger, 1954):
A (Late Night) Field Observation of CD
Festinger and associates read news article about doomsday cult:
Marian Keech (L.R. Hubbard associate) receives "automatic writing"
message from Planet Clarion--world to end in great flood on 12/21/1954.
Keech and followers prepare for rescuing flying saucer by leaving
spouses, jobs, college, and giving away money and possessions.
Festinger et al. infiltrate cult to observe.
When Prophesy Fails (Festinger, 1954):
Sequence of Events
Group develops belief system from automatic writing
Messages state world ends in great flood on 12/20/1954 at 7:00 AM, except for
Keech and followers, to be rescued at midnight.
Dec. 20 -- Rescue Day: At midnight Visitors to rescue cult; all metallic items
removed (watches, bras, belts, zippers)
12:05 -- No Visitors!!! Clock may be running fast; wait 5 more min.
12:10 -- No Visitors!!! Group sits in stunned silence. Cataclysm only 7 hrs away!!
4:00 -- Group sits in stunned silence. Keech begins to cry.
4:45 -- Another message via auto-writing: Destruction called off b/c of faith of little
group of believers!!!
Afternoon -- Group no longer publicity shy; begins urgent campaign to spread its
message.
Brehm (1956):
Spreading of Alternatives Following Choice
Ss rate two appliances of near equal appeal (e.g., toaster, can-opener)
At later time, Ss choose between appliances.
Ss then re-rate how much they like chosen, dislike rejected.
Time 2 ratings compared to Time 1 Ratings. Finding?
Selected item liked more, rejected item liked less. Why?
Cognizance of selected items deficiencies, rejected items benefits,
create dissonance. Dissonance alleviated by enhancing
chosen, denigrating rejected.
Social, inter-group, interpersonal implications?
College Choice, Dissonance, and Theology
Colleague explains "Spreading of Alternatives” to her class.
Imagine you were accepted by two colleges, of near equal appeal,
perhaps for different reasons. College A has better social life, College B
has better academics.
You can only attend one. Creates a crisis. You pick College A.
After you make choice College A seems like a much better school, and
College B seems less good. This is dissonance reduction.
Student approaches instructor, says had exactly this crisis.
Prayed for insight, and after making choice it all made sense. But, you're
saying it wasn't The Lord, it was (pointing at PowerPoint slide) THAT!?!
Aronson & Mills Initiation Study, 1959
1. Ss go through a difficult or easy initiation in order to
qualify to join a sex-issues discussion group.
2. Group turns out to be dull and boring.
Which subjects experience
the most dissonance?
Which group is more likely to rate the
dull discussion group as more interesting?
Why?
Easy Initiation
X
Hard Initiation
Easy Initiation
X
Hard Initiation
Paid high cost for unsatisfying outcome  "Underjustification".
Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959
"Believing Own Lies"
1. Ss perform very dull task, repeatedly.
2. Ss asked to inform next subject that the task is interesting.
3. Ss offered low pay ($1) or high pay ($20) to lie.
4. Ss later asked to rate how interesting they found the task.
Which group experiences
most dissonance?
X
$1
$20
Which group rates the task
as more interesting?
X
$1
$20
Why?
$1 = low justification  dissonance
$20 = high justification  no dissonance
Dissonance and Behavioral Control: Robbie the Robot Study
Lepper, 1972
1. Child rates toys, including desirable "Robbie the Robot".
2. E. leaves room, tells child "don't play w' Robbie, and if you do:"
a. Low threat: I will be a little annoyed with you.
b. High threat: I will be very angry, and will do something.
3. Child returns to study later, new E., can play with any toy including
R. the R.
4. Which child plays w' R the R? Low threat or high threat? Why?
Low threat
X High threat
Low threat = under-justification  dissonance
Why?
Dissonance Disrupts Behaviorism
Premise of behaviorism: Punishments are negatively reinforcing.
Question: What conditions produce more liking of neutral stims?
Neutral Stimuli
Reinforcement
Beh. Predicts
CD Shows
Dull discussion group
Embarrassment
Dislike
Liking
Fill bin with spools
Low pay
Dislike
Liking
Mediocre toys
Punishment threat
Dislike
Liking
Self Perception Theory
Challenges Cog. Dissonance
Cog. Dissonance Theory: Discordance btwn. actions and beliefs
creates negative arousal. Hence, dissonance is motivational/affective
Daryl Bem: No need to posit any underlying arousal. Could be purely
self-perception. People evaluate own actions as they would others.
NOTE: Harks back to "Symbolic Interactionism"
No internal conflict or complex motives, just attributions based on
self-observed behavior.
Testing Self-Perception Vs. Dissonance
Bem & McConnell, 1970
Premise: We infer own attitudes from our most recent behavior.
Beh. due to "insufficient justification", infer corresponding attitude.
After new attitude adopted, old attitude will be forgotten.
No "change in attitude" Instead earlier attitude "overwritten" by
self-perceived new attitude.
Method: Counter-Attitudinal Essay, low justification vs. high justification
DV:
Attitude recall
Result: Which group better recalls initial attitude, low or high justification?
High justification. Why?
Saw selves voicing views under powerful external pressure.
Views voiced under pressure probably not sincere.
Arousal as a Necessary Condition for Cog.
Diss. and Attitude Change
Cooper, Zanna, & Taves, 1978
Premise: Damn you Bem, it is arousal!!!!
If arousal, then if arousal dampened, less CD; if arousal boosted, more CD
"Attitudes will change following counter-attitudinal behavior if and only
if arousal accompanies behavior."
Method: Ss complete counter-attitudinal essay--"Should Richard Nixon be
pardoned?" Either high-choice or low choice conditions.
Before essay, as part of "separate study" Ss ingest pill. Told it is
placebo but in actuality it is either: tranquilizer, placebo, amphetamine
Tranquilizer
Predict: Attitude change in "high choice" but not if pill is _____________?
Arousal as a Necessary Condition for Cog.
Diss. and Attitude Change
Cooper, Zanna, & Taves, 1978
Tranq'zer