A2 Sport Psychology
Revision
Guide
Sport Psychology


Individual Aspects of Sport Performance
 Group Dynamics
Mental Preparation for Sport Performance
 Competition Effects
 Consequences of Sport Performance
Individual Aspects of Sport
Performance
Personality
 Attitude
 Motivation

Personality
• Inherited
• Stable
• Enduring
• e.g Eyensenk
Interactionist Theories
Trait Theories
Social Learning
Theories.
• Learned
• Unstable
• Environment
• e.g Bandura
‘Personality is the sum total of an individual’s characteristics which
make him or her unique’ (Hollander)
Cattells 16PF (Trait Theory)
16 Personality
Factors
Questionnaire.
Answering a series of
questions on a scale
of 1-5 on how much
you agree with a
statement.
Eysenck (Trait Theory)
Eysenck proposed that only two factors were necessary to explain individual
differences in personality. He argued that Cattell's model contained too many factors
which were similar to each other, and that a simple two factor model could encompass
the 16 traits proposed by Cattell. This model had the following dimensions:
Extrovert – Lively,
outgoing, sociable,
expressive.
Introvert – Quiet,
independent,
private.
Stable – Calm,
controlled.
Unstable (Neurotic)
– Anxious, worried.
Personality Types (Trait Theory)
Leading on from Eysenck, two distinct personality types were identified.
TYPE A
•characterised by :
•impatience
•works at a rapid pace
•higher levels of stress
•easily aroused
•strong desire to succeed
•anxiety in stressful
situations
•has a need to be in
control
TYPE B
characterised by :
•relaxed and patient
•allow time for tasks to be
completed
•tolerance of others’
mistakes
•delegates easily
•low personal stress
•calm and unflappable in
most situations
•less competitive
Concentric Ring Theory
PSYCHOLOGICAL CORE
 beliefs and values that remain more
or less permanent
 example : a sportsman’s belief that
fair play underlies his attitude on the
field of play
TYPICAL RESPONSES
• the way in which an individual
responds in certain situations
example : Not arguing with the ref.


ROLE RELATED BEHAVIOUR
in other situations we may behave
differently
 example : Getting frustrated
during a game and arguing with
the ref.
SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
 how the behaviour and
expectations of others affect our
role
example : a player argues with the
referee because others have done
so and got away with it before
Psychodynamic Theory
Fullfill the ID
(Steal Food/
Fight)
The
EGO
The
SUPEREGO
The ID
The Basic Instinct
(Hunger/Anger)
The moral Arm
Stealing and
Fighting
Are Wrong.
Social Learning Theory
SOCIALISATION
 sport has a socialising effect
 participation in sport establishes
norms and values of our society
BANDURA
 behaviour is determined by the
situation
 social comparison
 behaving the same way as
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
the peer group
 explains behaviour in terms of the
 social approval or disapproval
reaction to specific situations
determines our responses
 we learn to dea with situations by
 behaviour is reinforced or
observing others
penalised
 or by observing the results of our own
VICARIOUS CONDITIONING
behaviour on others
 and by modelling our own behaviour  the learning of emotional
responses through observational
on what we have seen
learning
 athletes learn behaviour by
 learning to become angry after a
watching others
valid referee decision has gone
against him / her by watching
other players do the same
Interactionist Theory
Personality is a combination of both genetically inheritted traits and
learned behaviour.
• Somebody who is born with outgoing, aggressive and hot-headed
personality characteristics may learn to control and modify them to be
more controlled and less aggressive in their personality. – Parental
discipline when a child misbehaves, negative reinforcement from
peers.
• Somebody who is born with more introverted and quiet personality
traits may develop a more open and extroverted personality through the
environment that they are brought up in. – Lots of interaction with other
people, opportunity to play sports and join teams.
MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY
INTERVIEWS
QUESTIONNAIRES
OBSERVATION
 before or after the
 before or after the
 made during an actual
event
event
event
 not directly related to
 not directly related to
 directly related to
performance
performance
performance
 open ended and
 rigidly and
 varies according to the
flexible
systematically set out
competitive nature of the
 difficult to quantify
 able to quantify
event
accurately
accurately
 difficult to quantify
 may be influenced by
 would not be
accurately
the interviewer
influenced by another
 may be influenced by the
 demand characteristics  can be used to assess
observer’s views and
specific traits
attitudes
 demand characteristics
Demand characteristics refers to an experiment where participants form an
interpretation of the experiment's purpose and unconsciously change their
behavior accordingly
Limitations of Personality Profiling
• Not always an
accurate predictor of
type of activity
undertaken.
• Extroverts – will enjoy
individual sports,
• Introverts will play
team games.
•Not always an accurate
predictor of levels of
success in sport.
Damn it!
Attitudes
ATTITUDES
a combination of beliefs and feelings about :
objects
people
situations
(called attitude objects)
this predisposes us to behave in a certain way towards them
learned or organised through experience
evaluative
they lead us to think and behave positively or negatively
about an attitude object
tend to be deep seated
and enduring
but can change or be changed
FORMATION OF ATTITUDES
Past
Experiences
Family
Where do our
attitudes come
from?
Peers
Media
Teachers/Coaches
COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE THE TRIADIC MODEL
Cognitive
(Knowledge/Beliefs)
Going to the
gym will get
you fit.
I enjoy going to
the gym
I go to the gym
twice a week.
Affective
Behavioural
(feelings/emotions)
(Intended
behavior)
PREJUDICE AND SPORT
STEREOTYPES
PREJUDICE
 a prejudgement of a person,
group, or situation
 usually based on inadequate
information
 or inaccurate or biased
information
 which reinforces stereotypes
 example :
 women are often excluded
from male dominated
sports clubs or events



NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES
women in strength, endurance
and contact sports
 participation of particular
ethnic groups in specific
sports or positions within
teams
participation of the disabled in
physical activity
older age groups interest and
ability at sport
Positive Prejudice = my opponent will be quick at running
because he is black.
Negative Prejudice = She can’t play football because she is
a girl.
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE
ATTITUDES TO SPORT
POSITIVE ATTITUDE
 has a positive physical selfconcept
 satisfaction from participation in
sport
 believe sport promotes health
 success at sport
 willing to try new activities
 encouraged by significant
others
 participates regularly
 opportunity to participate
NEGATIVE ATTITUDES
 had negative experiences at
sport
 have lifestyle which makes
regular sport difficult
 find sport frustrating
 lack encouragement
 unlikely to participate in sport
 have a negative self concept
 find sport boring
Changing Attitudes
Persuasive Communication:
Cognitive Dissonance:
Changing attitudes through
the process of persuasion.
If a person holds 2 ideas that
oppose & conflict with each other
an element of discomfort arises.
The persuader needs to be
significant & have high
status.
The message needs to be
presented in a way that
makes the recipient want to
change attitude.
The recipients needs to
want to change their attitude
The situation has to be right
– attitudes are easier to
change if others are present.
This emotional discomfort is called
dissonance.
e.g. You want to join the gym but
don’t think you have enough time
Changing one aspect of the triadic
model can change your attitude.
e.g. – You get a better
understanding of the health
benefits of joining the gym and
make time in your life to attend
twice a week.
Motivation
Extrinsic
Intrinsic
• Competence
• Mastery
• Feeling good.
Motivation
“Drive to succeed”
• Praise/Critisism
• Fame
• Trophies/Medals
• Money
• Pace Points
Achievement Motivation
ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
 the drive to achieve success for its own
sake
 related to
 Competitiveness (sport specific)
 persistence
 striving for perfection

influenced by
 personality factors
 need to achieve
 need to avoid failure
 situational factors
 probability of success
 incentive value of success
NEED TO ACHIEVE (NACH)
Tendency to approach success (TAS)
 this personality type likes a
challenge (approach behaviour)
 is not afraid of failure
 has high task persistence
 Attribute success to internal
factors
NEED TO AVOID FAILURE (NAF)
Tendency to avoid failure (TAF)
 this personality type avoids
challenges (avoidance behaviour)
 does not take risks
 often gives up
 Attribute success to external
factors.
Achievement Motivation
A = TAS




someone with a high need to
achieve
will probably have a low need
to avoid failure
will choose difficult or
demanding tasks which are
more risky
the hard route up a rock face
B = TAF




someone with a high ne to
avoid failure
will probably have a low need
to achieve
will choose tasks which are
less risky and more easily
achieved
the easy route up the rock
face
Incentive Value (Achievement Motivation)
A=





probability of success low
(competing against the world
champion)
therefore strive very hard to
win
(incentive high)
(will be highly chuffed if win)
B=






probability of sucess high
(competing in local club
match)
therefore don’t need to try as
hard to win
(incentive low)
(and expect to win easily)
(not so pleasing)
Group Dynamics

Groups and Teams
 Leadership
What is A Group?




2 or more people
Mutual awareness
Interacting with each other
Common goal or purpose.


ENVIRONMENTAL
factors binding members to a team
 contracts, location, age,
eligibility
avoid star system, provide
opportunities for socialising



PERSONAL
factors which members believe are
important
 motives for taking part
give opportunities for motives to be realised
develop ownership feelings and social
groupings within the team
Cohesion

LEADERSHIP
the behaviour of leaders and coaches
 coaches should use all leadership
behaviours to influence different
individuals



TEAM
factors relating to the group
 team identity, targets, member ability and
creation of team short and long-term goals
rewarding of individual and team efforts
Steiner’s Model of Group
Performance
Actual productivity = Potential productivity - Losses due
to faulty processes.

Potential productivity is primarily decided by the individual skill levels of
team members,

Faulty Processes are either Motivational Loses or Co-ordination Loses.
Motivational Loses (Social Loafing)
Motivational Problems
 People seem to work less hard in a group than they do on their own
 Example : in rowing, times of winning double sculls are often only slightly
faster than single sculls
 This is social loafing ‘the Ringlemann Effect’
Why?
 Individuals may not share the same motives, this leads to loss of group
cohesion
 can hide their lack of effort amongst the effort of other group members
 Performers are not recognised for their contribution to the team.
 Example : some players may play a game for social reasons, others in order
to win/or
What can a coach do?
 Loafing can be eliminated if the contribution of an individual can be
identified
 Setting specific and measurable goals
 Recording individual data/statitics – passes/shots etc
Co-Ordination Losses
Co-ordination losses is depended on how
players on the pitch co-ordinate their
movement and decision making with each
other. Factors that affect it include;



The number or players on the pitch.
if one player is being selfish or aggressive
if a defence is not working together
The greater the task cohesion and
understanding of each others roles there is
between players, the less the losses dues to
co-ordination. Practice makes Perfect!
Leadership
Leaders
 can influence the behaviour of
others towards required goals
 will influence effective team
cohesion
 will help fulfil expectations of a
team
 develops an environment in which a
group is motivated rewarded and
helped towards its common goals
Where do leaders come from?
• emergent leaders come from within a
group
because of their skill and abilities
or through nomination / election
• prescribed leaders are appointed by an
agency outside the
group
Characteristics of a good leader
• Empathetic
• Experienced
• Committed
• Communication Skills
Leadership Theories
The ‘great man’ theory (trait)

NATURE
 leaders are born not made

leaders have relevant innate personality
qualities
Social learning theory

NURTURE
 leaders learn their skills through watching and
imitating models

leaders are formed throughout life
 by social or environmental influences
 observation of a model
 high status of a model
 imitation or copying of behaviour
Was Martin Johnson born
to be a great leader or did
he learn the necessary
qualities?
Or was it a combination of
the two? (Interactionist)
Leadership Styles
Three different types of leadership styles
have been identified.



Autocratic (Task) Orientated – makes all
the decisions.
Democratic (Social) Orientated – shares
the decisions with members of the group,
seeks advice and is prepared to change
his/her mind.
Laissez Faire – lets others make
decisions.
Each type of leader can be effective in
different situations.
Fiedler’s Contingency Model
Fiedler's model assumes that group performance depends on:
Leadership style and Situational favourableness determined by three factors:
1. Leader-member relations - Degree to which a leader is accepted and supported
by the group members.
2. Task structure - Extent to which the task is structured and defined, with clear
goals and procedures. (facilities/equipment/weather/support)
3. Position power - The ability of a leader to control subordinates through reward
and punishment.
High levels of these three factors give the most favourable situation, low levels,
the least favourable.
Democratic (Relationship-motivated) leaders are most effective in moderately
favourable situations.
Autocratic (Task-motivated) leaders are most effective at either end of the scale.
Fiedler suggests that it may be easier for leaders to change their situation to
achieve effectiveness, rather than change their leadership style.
Chellandurai’s Mutli-Dimensional
Model of Leadership
Member
Characteristics
Preferred (Leader)
Behaviour
Leader
Characteristics
Actual (Leader)
Behaviour
Situational
Characteristics
Required (Leader)
Behaviour
Satisfaction/Performance
Mental Preparation for Sports
Performance
Commitment
 (Self) Confidence
 Concentration
 (Emotional) Control

Goal Setting
Effective goal setting is a useful tool that can be used to manage anxiety
(control), raise motivation and therefore commitment levels and develop self
confidence of the performer.
Goals can be either
Process – Technique

Performance – Time

Product – Position

And…

Mastery/Task – Self
improvement
Ego/Ability – comparison
with others
Socially approved. –
Seeking social
reinforcement.



Specific
Measurable
Accepted
Realistic
Time Phased
Exciting
Recorded
Goals should be
progressive from
short to long term.
Short Term
Medium Term
Long Term
Self Confidence
A generic belief
that one can
succeed.
A situational
specific form of
self-confidence.
Self-Confidence
Self-Efficacy
An attitude
The perception of an
ability to perform a
particular sporting task
Bandura
Performance
Efficacy Expectation
Emotional
Vicarious
Verbal
Previous
Arousal
Experiences
Persuasion
Accomplishments
consist of what has been
observed in others
performing a similar
skill
example : observing
another player in your
team dribbling a soccer
ball, if the model is of
similar age / ability
and is successful
then this may lead to
greater self-efficacy
encouragement can
lead to greater selfefficacy
if the person giving
encouragement is of
high status
compared with the
performer
consist of past
experiences
example : previously
performed skill at
dribbling a soccer ball
if this is successful
then this leads to
greater self-efficacy
at this particular task
in the future
if arousal is too high
state anxiety - Astate
this could lead to low
self-efficacy
mental rehearsal /
physical relaxation
could lead to greater
confidence and a
calmer approach
SELF-CONFIDENCE
Confidence
 arouses positive emotions
 allows the athlete to
 remain calm
under pressure






facilitates concentration
enables focus on the
important aspects of a task
enables the setting of
challenging but realistic goals
increases effort
affects game strategies
 a confident player plays to win even if it
means taking risks
affects psychological momentum
 a confident athlete take each point or pla
a time
 and never gives up
 even when defeat is imminent
VEALEY’s MODEL OF SPORT
CONFIDENCE
trait sport confidence
 the usual level of selfconfidence
 example :a footballer is confident
in his shooting ability.
Sports Confidence
competitive orientation



the perceived opportunity to
achieve a sport performance
Type of goals you set.
example : the footballer is
motivated to play well in the cup
final.
state sport confidence
 the level of self confidence
related to a specific situation
 example :a footballer has low
state confidence in taking a
penalty in the cup final.
Concentration

Involves focusing attention onto the relevant environmental cues
maintaining attention focus until the skill has been completed.

Arousal is linked to concentration. When arousal is low, the perceptual
field widens taking in too much information for information processing
system to deal with.

Selective attention is not in operation & concentration on relevant
information is difficult.

Information overload occurs & decision-making is impeded causing
mistakes in performance.

As arousal increases, the perceptual field adjusts to the ideal width enabling
the performer to focus on the most relevant information. Selective attention
is fully operational allowing selective attention to occur.
Awareness Cue Utilisation
Easterbrook states that an increase of arousal leads to a decrease in number
of cues that can be utilised.
Cues can be used by the sportsperson
•to direct attention
•to trigger appropriate arousal responses
•to enable attentional focus at a relevant moment
•sometimes, narrowing of attentional focus by an aroused player will cause
lack of awareness of broader play issues
ATTENTIONAL STYLES (Nideffer)
INTERNAL/NARROW - A
 the player decides to concentrate
on his own technique
INTERNAL/BROAD - B
 the player focuses on the team
tactics given by the coach before a
game.
EXTERNAL/BROAD - C
 a player concentrates on the whole
game
 all players’ positions and
movements
 open skills
EXTERNAL/NARROW - D
 the player concentrates on one
aspect of the game
 the goalkeeper
 closed skills
Emotional Control
Activation – a state of readiness to perform.
Arousal - a state of mental and physical preparedness for action
 this is the level of inner drives which forces the sportsperson to strive to
achieve
 it needs to be under control and at the right level depending on the task
and facilitates the ability to focus (concentrate)
 Extroverts, Skilful performers and simple tasks require higher levels of
arousal.
Anxiety – an emotional state similar to fear associated with;



physiological (somatic) arousal
psychological (cognitive) arousal
Can be both State and Trait
AROUSAL AND DRIVE THEORY
DRIVE THEORY



the higher the arousal level
the higher the achievement /
performance level
the more likely that a welllearned skill (a dominant
response) will be produced
Increased
Arousal
Expert
Increased in
Performance
Novice
Decrease in
Performance
WITH INCREASED AROUSAL
 the dominant habit / most
usual behaviour will be
reproduced
 a poorly-learned skill will give a
performance full of mistakes
 a well-learned skill will give a
skilled performance
INVERTED U THEORY
INVERTED U THEORY



there is an optimum arousal level
if aroused more than this
performance will decline
THE POSITION OF OPTIMUM
AROUSAL DEPENDS ON
type of activity / task complexity
 gross skills (weight lifting) require
high arousal
 fine skills (snooker) require low
arousal
skill level of the performer
 the more skilful the performer
 the higher the optimum arousal
could be
personality of the performer
 the more extrovert the performer
 the higher the arousal likely for
optimum performance
 whereas introverts would optimise
performance at lower arousal
levels
EFFECT OF STRESS ON PERFORMANCE
INHIBITION
 inhibition of performance
PERFORMANCE OF SKILLS
 stress may act directly on the
information processing of skill
 motor elements of skill are
performed less well
 muscles tense
 muscular control is reduced
CONCENTRATION
 concentration is difficult
 span of attention is narrowed
STRESS
 awareness of being under
stress itself acts as a stressor
Peak Flow Experience
Flow state is attained
when the performer has a
balanced perception of the
demands of the situation &
his/her ability to cope.
Low
Cognitive
Arousal
When this happens the
athlete assumes control
over all internal &
environmental variables &
a time of great happiness
& self-fulfilment is
experienced.
High Somatic Arousal
Excitement
Peak Flow
Happiness
Anger
Relaxed
Drowsiness
Bored
Fatigue
Anxiety
Low Somatic Arousal
High
Cognitive
Arousal
Individual Zone of Optimal
Fuctioning (Hanin)
Top athletes have different ZOF. Optimal level of arousal does not always occur at the
mid point of the arousal continuum.
Optimal level of arousal is not a single point but a band width. Teachers and coaches
need to be aware of their performer’s ZOF and work towards this.
0
Characteristics of being in the zone:
Performance appears effortless & automatic with athlete feeling in full control; attention
& concentration is focused; the execution of the skill brings enjoyment & satisfaction.
Anxiety
‘Anxiety occurs when there is a substantial inbalance between the individual’s
perception of their ability & their perception of the demands & importance of
the situation.’
Speilberger identified both trait and state anxiety.
He measured them using simple aquestionaire.
Called the State-Trait-Anxiety-Inventory (STAI)
A similar test Sports Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT)was later devised to
specifically look at the affect competition has on anxiety.
1
2
3
4
Not At All
Somewhat
Moderately So
Very Much So
A.
I feel at ease
1
2
3
4
B.
I feel upset
1
2
3
4
2
3
4
Sometimes
Often
Almost Always
1
Almost Never
A.
I am a steady person
1
2
3
4
B.
I lack self-confidence
1
2
3
4
Questions are asked about
current feelings (state)
and general feelings (trait)
a score out of 80 is given.
Anxiety Management
Different methods can be used to reduce anxiety (and arousal levels) these include both
somatic and cognitive techniques. These can be used to improve performance, improve
focus (selective attention), increase self confidence and reduce the risk of aggression.
Cognitive
Somatic
• Mental Rehersal
• Progressive
Muscular Relaxation
• Imagery
• Positive Self Talk
• Thought Stopping
• Rational Thinking
• Biofeedback
Competition Effects

Social Facilitation
 Aggression
Social Facilitation
Social facilitation looks at the effect a crowd (other people watching) has on
a players performance. When a player knows they are being watched it can
have either positive or negative results.
Social Inhibition – the
negative effects an
audience has on
performance
Social Facilitation –
the positive effect
an audience has on
performance
Immediate effect of an audience is to:
•Increase the arousal level of a performer
•Increases speed of performance
•Releases energy
•Arouses competitive drive
Dominant Response (Social Facilitation)
Dominant Response
Zajonc believed that the ‘mere presence’ of others is sufficient to increase
arousal. He used drive theory to link the relationship between arousal and
performance.
However, the quality of the performance depends on how well the skill has
been learned.
Our ‘learned behaviours’ tend to be our dominant responses.
A dominant response is the behaviour most likely to occur when we are
pressured to respond.
As arousal increases we are more likely to see our dominant responses.
If you’re at the autonomous stage of learning, your dominant response is
most likely to be the correct action but if you’re at the associative phase of
learning you are more likely to show incorrect response.
Arousal
Evaluation Apprehension
The Evaluation Apprehension Theory was proposed by Cottrell. He argued
that we quickly learn that social rewards and punishments that we receive
from other people are based on their evaluations of us.
When we find ourselves with a social presence, we will experience an
acquired arousal based on evaluation apprehension. In other words,
performance will be enhanced or impaired only in the presence of persons
who can approve or disapprove the performance.
Audience Effects

Homefield advantage - Large supportive crowds are said to help the home
team. Most evident in indoor sports.

Proximity Effect - Crowds that are close to the action eg. basketball/ice
hockey are said to increase audience influence.

Distraction Effect – The above can cause players to lose focus and become
distracted from their performance.
As a result
Information Processing is inhibited.
Wrong decisions can be made.
Reaction time may be slowed down.


Important cues will be missed.
Strategies to Combat Social
Inhibition







Practice selective attention to cut out
awareness of others
Cognitive visualisation such as;
 imagery
 mental rehearsal
Ensure essential skills are over-learned
& grooved to ensure dominant response
is successful
Simulated crowd noises
Raise athlete’s awareness of ZOF
Incorporate stress management into
training
Appropriate use of attribution to raise
confidence
Aggression
‘Any behaviour that is intended to harm another individual by physical or verbal
means.’
Differences between aggression & assertion.
 Aggression – intent to harm
 Assertion – within the rules
3 types of aggression:
 Hostile (or reactive) Aggression: Prime motive is the intent to harm or
injury. Outside the rules of the game. Involves anger.

Instrumental (or channelled) Aggression: Within the rules and although
prime motive is successful execution of skill, there is still intent to harm.
Anger is not evident.

Assertive behaviour: Does not attempt to harm & is within rules & spirit of
the game. Described as ‘non-hostile self-protective mastery behaviour.
Causes of Aggression
Nature of the game (contact/non-contact)
 Wide division between scores
 Previous experiences could cause grudges or scores to settle
Frustration caused by poor form, opposition & referee’s decisions
 Hostile crowds
 Venue – home or away
 Excessively high arousal levels
 Extrinsic rewards


Theories of Aggression
Instinct Theory – Trait Perspective: Aggression is genetically inherit.
Social Learning Theory – Social Learning Perspective: Aggression is nurtured
through environmental forces. It is learned by watching & copying role models
& becomes more acceptable if reinforced.
Frustration Aggression Hypothesis - Interactionist Approach: Frustration
develops when goal-directed behaviour is blocked. If aggressive act is
successful, frustration is released & aggressor feels good & learns that violent
strategies are successful. If aggression fails & results in punishment, further
frustration is generated.
Aggressive Cue Hypothesis (Berkowitz) – Interactionist Approach:
Frustration leads to an increase in arousal which sometimes will result in
aggression. Aggressive cues such as bats or sticks will trigger aggression if
arousal is high. The best players have the ability to control frustration and arousal.
Methods to Combat Aggressive
Tendancies
•Positively reinforce non-aggressive behaviour & negatively reinforce aggressive
behaviour
•Punish aggressive players
•Violent players should be withdrawn from aggressive situations
•Stress performance rather than outcome goals
•Emphasise non-aggressive role-models
•Attribute successful performance to skilfulness
•Use cognitive strategies such as rational thinking, self-talk & imagery
•Lower arousal levels
Consequences of Sport
Performance
Attribution Theory
Attribution Thoery
Attribution theory (Weiner) explains how individuals interpret events and how
this relates to their thinking, motivation and behavior.
External
Internal
Stable
Locus of
Causality
Ability
Task Difficulty
Effort
Luck
Stability
Un-Stable
Concentration
Commitment
Control of arousal
Confidence
Attitude
Mental/physical preparation
Internal – factors within control
of the individual
External – factors out of
performer’s control
Stable – permanent
Unstable – temporary &
changeable
Attribution
According to attribution theory, high
achievers (TAS) will invite rather
than avoid tasks that could lead
them to success because they
believe success results from high
ability and effort, and they are
confident of their ability and effort.
However, they believe failure is
caused by bad luck or things that
are beyond their range of control.
Failure doesn't affect their selfesteem but success builds pride
and confidence.
Mastery Orientation
On the other hand, low achievers
(TAF) avoid success-related actions
because they tend to doubt their ability
and/or assume success is related to
luck or influence or to other factors
beyond their control.
Even when successful, it isn't as
rewarding to the low achiever because
he/she doesn't feel responsible.
Success does not increase his/her
pride and confidence.
Learned Helplessness
Attribution Retraining
Attribution retraining is when low achievers (usually TAF
personalities) are taught to alter their perception of why
something went wrong or well.
• By giving feedback to the performer and analysing why something
happened.
• The Athlete needs to have control over the situation.
• The coach needs to get the performer to attribute a lack of success
to internal unstable factors so the athlete has control over the
situation & provided the possibility of working through success.
This will help to
prevent learned
helplessness
The End