Chapter Three
Early Theories: The Foundations
of Modern Leadership
Three Eras of Modern
Leadership Research
 The trait Era – 1800s to mid 1940s
 The behavior era – mid 1940s to
1970s
 The contingency era – early 1960s to
present
The Trait Era
 Leaders are born; they have special
characteristics and traits
 Some traits are related to leadership
 No one trait defines leaders or effective
leaders
 Although traits play a role, they are not
the dominant factor in leadership
The Behavior Era
 Behaviors can be learned
 Two key categories of behavior: Task and
Relationship Orientations
 Behaviors alone do not determine effective
leadership
 Not clear which behaviors are most
effective
Examples of Major
Leadership Behaviors
Structuring/Task
Relationship/Consideration
 Set goals
 Show empathy and
understanding
 Clarify
expectations
 Set schedules
 Assign tasks
 Be friendly and
approachable
 Allow participation
 Nurture followers
Contingency Era
 No one best way to lead
 Simple traits or behaviors alone do
not fully explain leadership success
 Understanding both leader
traits/behaviors and the situation is
critical
 Personal and situational factors
affect leadership effectiveness
Elements of Fiedler’s
Contingency Model
 The leader’s style:
•Task or relationship motivation
measured by the LPC scale
 Situational control:
•Leader-member relations
•Task structure
•Position power
Task- and RelationshipMotivated Leaders
Task-Motivated
(Low-LPC)
 Draws self-esteem from
task completion
 Focuses on task first
 Can be harsh with failing
followers
 Considers competence to
be key employee trait
 Enjoys details
Relationship-Motivated
(High-LPC)
 Draws self-esteem from
interpersonal
relationships
 Focuses on people first
 Likes to please others
 Considers loyalty to be
key employee trait
 Gets bored with details
Fiedler’s Contingency Model
G
R
O
U
P
High
P
E
R
F
O
R
M
A
N
C
E
Low-LPC
High-LPC
Low
Leader-Member
Relations
GOO
D
HIGH
BAD
LOW
HIGH
LOW
Task Structure
Position Power
LO
W
HIGH
HIGH
LOW
HIGH
LOW
HIGH
MODERATE
SITUATIONAL CONTROL
LOW
HIGH
LOW
Implications of Fiedler’s
Contingency Model
 Leaders must understand their own style
(Task vs. Relationship) and their
leadership situation (Sit Con)
 Leaders should focus on changing the
situation to match their style
 Leaders can’t change their leadership style
 Leaders can seek training to compensate
for task ambiguity
Elements of the Normative
Decision Model
 The leader’s decision-making style:
• Autocratic
• Consultative
• Group
• Delegation
Contingency factors
Contingency Factors in the
Normative Decision Model
 Quality requirement (QR)
How important is the quality of the decision?
 Commitment requirement (CR)
How important is employee commitment to the decision?
 Leader information (LI)
Does leader have enough information to make a decision?
 Structure of the problem (ST)
Is the problem clear?
Contingency Factors in the
Normative Decision Model
 Commitment probability (CP)
How likely is employee commitment if leader makes the
decision alone?
 Goal congruence (GC)
Do employees agree with organizational goals?
 Employee conflict (CO)
Is there conflict among employees over the solution?
 Subordinate information (SI)
Do employees have enough information to make a highquality decision?
Implications of the Normative
Decision Model
 Leaders must understand the situation
and how to use different decision styles
 Leaders can change leadership styles
 Participation can waste time and is not
always desirable
 Leaders must pay attention to their
followers’ needs and reactions when
making decisions
Path-Goal Theory
Leader
structuring and
consideration
Situational
contingencies:
Task structure
Employee need
for autonomy
Leader’s Actions:
 Focus on obstacle
removal
 Employ task and
consideration behaviors
Understand followers’
needs
Effectiveness:
Employee
satisfaction and
motivation
Implications of Path-Goal
Theory
 Leaders must understand their followers’
perception of the task
 Leaders must take their followers’ need for
challenge and autonomy into account
 When followers need challenge or the task is
challenging, leaders must avoid being
directive
 When the task is routine, boring, or stressful,
leaders must be supportive to motivate their
followers
Attributional Models
Employees Are More Likely To Be Held
Responsible When:

The consequences of their actions are severe

When they have a mediocre track record in
other similar situations

When other employees are successful in
similar situations
The employee is defensive


The manager’s success depends on the
employee’s good performance
Implications of Attributional
Models
 Leaders must be aware of their biases
 Collecting objective data from multiple
sources helps in evaluating
subordinates
 Considering both situational and
personal causes of employee actions is
essential
Leadership Substitutes:
Follower Characteristics
 Experience and training substitute for
leader structuring
 Professionalism substitutes for
leader consideration and structuring
 Lack of agreement with leader’s goals
neutralizes leader consideration and
structuring
Leadership Substitutes: Task
Characteristics
 Unambiguous tasks substitute for
leader structuring
 Direct feedback from the task
substitutes for leader consideration and
structuring
 Challenging task substitutes for
leader consideration
Leadership Substitutes:
Organizational Characteristics
 A cohesive team substitutes for leader
consideration and structuring
 Leader’s lack of power neutralizes leader
consideration and structuring
 Standardization and formalization substitute
for leader structuring
 Organizational rigidity neutralizes leader
structuring
 Physical distance neutralizes leader
consideration and structuring
Implications of Leadership
Substitutes
 Leaders can use various substitutes to free
up their time for other activities or
develop and empower followers
 Technology can support the development
of substitutes
 Teams and autonomous work groups can
use substitutes positively
Leader-Member Exchange
LMX
Out-group
F
F
F
In-Group
Leader
F
F
F
F
F
F Follower
F
F
F
F
Stages of LMX
Creation of
Emotional Bond
Development of
Trust
Testing and
Assessment
Implications of LMX
In order to use in-groups effectively,
leaders should:

Base in-group membership on current
performance and/or future potential

Review criteria for in-group membership

Set clear performance-related guidelines for
in-group membership

Keep membership fluid and dynamic

Maintain different in-groups for different
activities