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Any opinion held by a majority of citizens?
– Democratic view - The General Will
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Any opinion about public affairs?
– Liberal Democratic view - All are valid
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Only reasoned opinion about issues?
– Elitist view - Only informed opinions count
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Each of these is about forming preferences and expressing those views


Public opinion is any opinion that can expressed publicly without sanctions
– Can state without fear of social isolation
• Here, public opinion is a matter of visibility
• Minority opinions must be seen for those who hold them to feel comfortable expressing themselves

This is about the perceptions of the opinion climate and the ability to speak out without risks

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Direct Method - Communication events, arguments, and opinions that change the mind of audience members
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Indirect Method - Present indicators of what already seems to be public opinion
– Media convey an impression of how accepted an opinion may be now or in future


Societal norms can be intimidating

Understand public opinion as a tangible force
– Intense social pressure can be brought to bear on the person who dares to test the boundaries

Perception of distribution of opinion shapes willingness to express opinions
– People express opinions more confidently when they see they are in the majority or “gaining ground”
– People are unwilling to express opinions that run counter to their perception of majority view


What opinions can be expressed?
– Opinions that do not risk fear of social isolation
– Opinions that are publicly visible
• Can be a minority opinion, but minority must speak out and act as if it is, or will be, majority
 People have a “quasi-statistical organ”
– A sixth sense that provides information about what society is thinking and feeling
– Constantly scan the environment to gauge the climate of opinion and future trends.


Fear of social isolation is the key force that drives the spiral of silence
– Group pressure has tremendous influence
– We don’t like to be excluded for our views

Theory about obedience to authority in
World War II - citizens in Nazi Germany
– Noelle-Neumann was Nazi Party member
• She worked for Goebbels, head of Nazi Propaganda
• Wrote for Das Reich, but later withdrew/recanted


Considers effects of group settings on attitudes, opinion expression, behavior

Largely based on experimental research
– Solomon Asch’s work on social conformity
• When do we go along with the group?
– Stanley Milgram’s work on social compliance
• When do we obey authority?

The Asch studies
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Unambiguous situation

Small group setting (10-12)
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Uniform incorrect assessment
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Over one-third concur with incorrect assessment - go along with the group


Judgments about color of slides
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Consistent incorrect assessment by minority

Portion of subjects agree in error
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Implication:
– Minority opinion can exert power
– Bandwagon vs. Siding with the underdog

 Subjects “randomly” assigned the role of
"teacher" and asked to administered shocks to
"pupils” for incorrect responses

Pupils were actually part of the experiment.
– Act out the effects of progressively higher “shocks”
– What proportion will continue to the highest level when prodded by the supervisor?
• Highest voltage switches (450 volts) were marked with labels of “Danger: Severe Shock” and then “XXX”

QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture.
Voltage
75
120
150
200
300
330+
Confederate Response
Grunts
Shouts in pain
Refuses to continue
Blood-curdling screams
Refuses to answer
Silence
Objection Supervisor’s response
First "He's fine. go on.”
Second "The experiment requires you to go on.”
Third
Fourth
"It is absolutely essential to go on.”
"You have no choice. You must go on."


Different subjects, locations (~)

Decrease proximity of authority (-)

Increase connection to student (-)

Involve obedient others (+)

Involve disobedient others (-)


Conformity and compliance have great social power over individuals
– Those in minority positions tend to keep quite if they do not sense support
– Not that they change their minds
• “Duck their heads and keep their own council”


People have the ability to gauge trends of public sentiment

People justifiably fear social isolation

People are hesitant to express minority viewpoints, especially if “losing ground”

But where do they get their perceptions?


Mass media work jointly with majority opinion to silence minority views
– Mass media, particularly TV, suggest what others are thinking through portrayals
– People look to the media to see if there is support and legitimization for views
• Index the media to gauge current climate
• Provide the words and phrases that people can use to defend a certain point of view


Hardcores - the minority that remains vocal in defiance of threats of isolation
– Bill Maher, Dixie Chicks, War Protesters

Pluralistic ignorance and Projection - we tend to misestimate the prevalence of our views
– Quasi-statistical organ doesn’t work so well

Weak support outside of WW II Germany
– Maybe only operates in totalitarian regimes
– The ability to find like-minded views online