智力测量的沿革
智力测量简史
• Sir Francis Galton
– 个别差异研究之父
– 坚信智力是某种遗传特征
• “杰出人物”的遗传性
– 卓越者往往同出家族
– 进行卓越者的家族研究
Galton study of eminence
• 每百万人出现250位杰出人物 (.025%)
• 他所确认的1000 位杰出人物只来自 300 个
家庭
• 因此，杰出者同出家族
• 该结论有否问题？
人体测量(Anthropometric)实验室
• Galton (later Cattell) 设计了几个感知运动
测验来测量智力
– 对音高、视线或纹理做精细辨别
– 诸如脑围、胳膊长度、抓握力量等躯体特质的
测量
• 会有怎样的研究结果？
Galton other discoveries
• 婚姻选配
– “clever men marry silly women”
– NO, eminent men marry eminent women
• 积极多面
– “men of genius are uhealthy puny beingall brain and no muscle-weak sighted and
generally poor constitutions”
– NO, intellect is associated with health,
strength, vitality, and long, productive life
人类能力范围
• 低于均数的人与高于均数的人一样多
• 才能偏离普通
• 智力呈对称、正态分布
2 类智障(MR)
• 家族性MR
– Individuals at the low end of the intelligence
distribution
– MR due to “natural” causes; mild MR; runs in
families
• 器质性MR
– MR due to some unusual event
– Congenital factors (e.g., Down’s syndrome) or
serious brain injury
– Severe impairment; doesn’t run in families
Alfred Binet
• 成功设计出第一个广泛为人所用的智力测
验 (1904)
• 试图在公立学校辨别出哪些孩子需要特殊
干预
• 为什么使用测验，而不是教师推荐？
Binet & Intelligence tests
• 智力测验比较客观
– 可预测成功与否，容许采用已有分类方式
• 诊断MR
– 大夫可咨询，但不是标准
– 形成年龄常模
– 设定区分分数
Binet测验实质内容
• 测量高级心理过程
– Memory
– General knowledge
– Abstract Reasoning
– Attention
– Comprehension
– Coordination
– Visual judgment
智商 (IQ)
• Evaluate intelligence with respect to age
• IQ = (mental age / chronological age)*100
IQ = (MA/CA) * 100
Binet测验&IQ
• 应用成效如何？ Good！
– Discriminated MR from “normal” children
– Discriminated MR from behavior problems
– IQ scores predicted grades
• Terman 将其移植到美国，演变为the
Stanford-Binet Test
Spearman两因素理论 (1904)
• 所有智力测验均包含两个可加的变差成分：
– General variance (g)
– Specific variance (s)
– [Also error variance, (e)]
两因素理论
• “g” is the variance shared by all tests of
intelligence
– General intelligence （智力的g因素）
• If two tests are heavily loaded with “g”,
expect them to correlate highly
Factor Analysis
• Data reduction technique
• Identifies “latent” or unobserved variables
that account for the correlations among
the observed variables
• Each observed variable is a function of the
latent variable(s)
Factor Analysis (Cont)
• FA attempts to understand the structure of a
correlation/covariance matrix by simplifying
the information
• An alternative way of organizing the
information
Factor Loadings
• Regression coefficient (correlation) between
the factor and the observed variable
• How much variance the factor accounts for in
the observed variable (standardized to 1.0)
• Higher factor loadings indicate the observed
variable is a better marker (measure) of the
factor
r voc-arith = .55
r voc-memory = .50
r arith-memory = .39
G-factor
.80
Vocabulary
.60
V specific
.70
Arithmetic
.70
A specific
.60
Memory
.80
M specific
r voc-arith = .55
r voc-memory = .50
r arith-memory = .39
G-factor
.80
.70
Vocabulary
.40
V specific
.45
Error
.60
Arithmetic
.55
A specific
Memory
.45
Error
.58
M specific
.55
Error
多因素论
• G is not the whole story
• “Group” factors are at a level between
specific (primary) measures and g
• These factors are common to a group of
tests
因素旋转矩阵
Test
V ocabulary
A nalogies
Sentence C om pletion
D isarranged Sentences
R eading C om prehension
A ddition
M ultiplication
A rithm etic Problem s
Equation R elations
N um ber Series C om pletion
Factor I’
.91
.75
.80
.39
.86
-.09
.07
.18
.16
.13
Factor II’
-.06
.02
.00
-.02
-.04
.55
.64
.68
.54
.38
群因素举例
• From Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Verbal comprehension (vocabulary)
Word fluency (letter naming)
Number (capacity for arithmetic)
Space (visualizations)
Associative memory (paired associates)
Perceptual speed (visual processing speed)
Reasoning (number series)
Cattell gf-gc 理论 (1905)
• Raymond Cattell (1905 - )
--Spearman的学生
--修正了Spearman的智力理论
--认为一般智力并非但因素，而是二因素（晶体&
流体）
gf-gc 理论
• Fluid intelligence (gf)
– Abilities to think, reason, and acquire new
knowledge
• Crystalized intelligence (gc)
– Knowledge and understanding that a person
has acquired
层级理论
• Integrate the single (“g”) and multiple
group factor approaches
层级结构
• G is at the top
• Second level is Major Group Factors
• Third level is Minor Group Factors
• Bottom level is specific factors
(Spearman’s s)
层级结构
G-factor
K:m
V:ed
Verbal
S1
Number
S2
S3
Visualization
Spatial
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
经典IQ测验
• The Stanford-Binet Scale
--Binet-Simon测验的美国修订版
--智商(intelligence quotient, IQ) = 儿童智龄(mental
age)/儿童实龄(chronological age)
--曾广泛应用于美国，不过现在不如以前
经典IQ测验
• The Wechsler tests
--如今，其比S-B的使用更广泛
--模仿Binet测验，还设计了成人测验
WISC-III for children
WAIS-III for adults
IQ测验已经过时(Das, 2005)
• Binet的本意并没有想把基于学习成就而编制的折衷测验提
高到一般认知能力测验的地位，但Binet的测验成为美国智力
测验的根源，多少年过去了类似测验却没有多少实质变化；
• IQ测验所测量的一般能力也显著受到学校教育的影响；
Ceci (2003)从一系列关于学校教育可能直接影响IQ得分的研
究中得出结论：“多在学校额外学习一个月都可能提高学生
的IQ得分”(pp.855-864)；
• IQ是一种有害的标签，它的基础不可靠；“最不可靠的是
它一无例外地依赖于相关研究”(Tyler, 1986)
IQ测验已经过时(Das, 2005)
• 智力是认知过程：Broadbent强调信息加工和工作记忆的认
知理论；Estes强调学习在智力中的重要性；Buz Hunt强调对
智力测验的内容分析；Sternberg的三元理论；Gardner求助
于质朴的经验，呼吁用7到9种智力来代替g；PASS理论
(Das, Naglieri & Kirby, 1994)的认知神经观，均是对IQ构成
挑战的理论观点；
• 甚至新近的因素分析技术，诸如验证性因素分析，也不支持
一个一般因素是描绘智力的最好方式；因素分析并不必然支
持存在一个“g”因素或一般能力；“g是什么，决定于这些
测验以及选择这些测验的人”。
智力的准则(Das, 2000, 2005, in press)
• 智力不是IQ，而是认知过程；
• 智力因为学习和文化要求而发生变化，它不是不可改变的
或固定的；
• 心理模块很可能为外显的范畴化目的或处理某种类型的信息
加工而存在；
• 智力的一些方面是领域一般的，而其他某些方面则可能是领
域特殊的。