MERRELL, K.W., ERVIN, R. A., & PEACOCK, G. G.
(2006). SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY FOR THE 21ST
CENTURY: FOUNDATIONS AND PRACTICES. NEW
YORK, NY: THE GUILFORD PRESS.
Chapters 7 and 9
Chapter 7
Facilitating Change through Data-Driven
Problem Solving: A Model for School Psychology
Practice.
Roles of the School Psychologist
Expected Role





Diagnostic
Refer
Test
Place
SEARCH FOR
PATHOLOGY!
Future Roles


Non-categorical
diagnostics
Problem-solving model
 Assessment
 Intervention
 Systems
Change
 Research

Focus on prevention
Aptitude by Treatment Interaction (ATI)

Assumptions:
Characteristics of the person affect response to treatment
 Person will learn more easily from one method than another
 The method differs from person to person
 The method can be determined based on data from
assessment.


Data:
Fails to support these assumptions
 Individuals are not simply one variable deep (mediating
and moderating variables and multiple aptitudes).

Problem Solving Model






Focuses on the problem
Emphasis on early intervention (fix it before it gets
bigger).
Uses research and not “assumptions” to guide
practice. [Evidence-based practice]
Uses direct assessment tools for measuring academic
and behavioral outcomes.
Links the assessment to the intervention.
Outcome-focused and context-specific
Problem Solving Model
What is
the
problem?
Did it
work?
Why is it
occurring?
What
should be
done
about it?
Basic Problem Identification
School:
where
student is.
School:
where
they
should be.
• This will vary across
different academic and
behavioral tasks.
•Changes to make this
gap smaller need to
focus on all aspects of
the child’s issues.
•This distance may
widen and shorten
throughout the span of
time a child is in school.
What is the problem?


Requires objective
means to measure the
problem.

Measurement must be
quantifiable.
 Intensity
 Precise
 Frequency
 Practical
 Duration
 Objective
 Severity
 Socially
 Magnitude
valid
Problem morphs into
goals (short- and longterm)
 Complexity
 Resistance
to
intervention.
Why is it Occurring?




Linking assessment to
treatment and
evaluation
Analysis of problem
context and function
Hypothesis formation
phase
Assess when, where and
with whom the problem
is better or worse.
Why is it Occurring?
Ways to Test

Variety of Sources:
Student
 Teacher
 Parent
 Peers
 Admin


Variety of Tools
Formal
 Informal

Review of the reasons for
problems:
 Low
motivation
 Rewarded for not
doing the tasks
 Work is too hard.
 Work is not sufficiently
explained or not
enough help provided.
 Work is too different
from what is expected.
What Should Be Done About It?



Use the collected data to determine the basis of the
intervention.
Design the intervention around this data AND
around research-based interventions in the
literature.
Interventions chosen for:
 Relevance
to the problem
 Contextual fit
 Likelihood of success.

Establish progress monitoring tools and timelines
Did it Work?




To be completed,
problem should be
resolved.
Examine data collected
through progress
monitoring.
Compare pre-post
intervention data.
Single-subject design
techniques are good.
Chapter 9
The School Psychologist’s Role in Prevention and
Intervention: Part 1: Academic Skills
Fundamentals




Children learn and develop at different rates.
Developmental progress varies over time and across
domains.
Interventions must be adapted to meet the
individual student’s needs.
Problem solving model cannot guarantee success
BUT it should increase the probability of success.
Risk and Protective Factors
General Risk Factors

Poverty (lack of resources)






Economic Dependence
Overcrowding
Disorganization within the
family system
Uncaring parents
Chronic family conflict
Abuse/ Maltreatment
Protective Factors



Quality parent/child
relationships
Good cognitive
development
Self-regulation of
attention, emotion, and
behavior
Intervention Considerations

Trustworthy and effective









For your student
In that context
Relevant to the problem and context
Efficient
Practical
Acceptable
Feasible in context
Produces desired outcomes
Evaluated for your child in this situation
Things to note:

Early Intervention in
Reading:
 Phonological
awareness
 Alphabetic
understanding
 Accuracy and fluency

Learning needs
interactions and
alignments between
 Student
(who is being
taught)
 Curriculum (what is
being taught)
 Instruction (how it is
being taught)
Student (Who is being Taught?)

What is the student’s prior knowledge: skills, strategies,
perceptions, expectations, and beliefs

Task specific: information needed for that task.



Task related: skills needed for learning.




Know the foundational information
Can access needed information with automaticity
Can solve problems
Can self-monitor
Can self-regulate
Student variables that affect learning:



Selective attention
Motivation
Ability to recall
The Curriculum (What to Teach?)

Types of curriculum:
 Intended:
formally recommended and adopted
 Taught: what is actually taught by teachers
 Learned: what is actually learned by students

Problems when significant difference between
intended and learned.
Instruction (How and When to Teach)

Should be timed for
hierarchical learning
(example below)
 Step
one = mastered
 Step two = in progress
 Step three = on hold

Learning facilitated
through:
 Explanations
 Demonstrations
 Guided
practice
 Timely correction
 Task-specific feedback
Improve Academic Engagement, Motivation,
Self-Regulation, & Problem Solving

Structuring the Classroom
Environment:






Organizing a productive
classroom
Establishing rules and
procedures
Managing transitions
Managing independent
seatwork
Communicating competency
with students
Teaching pro-social behavior

ContingencyManagement:
Systems of rewards and
punishments
 Established expectations


Teaching Strategies:

Interactive strategies
over lecture
Peer tutoring
 Cooperative Learning
 Teacher questioning

Improve Academic Engagement, Motivation,
Self-Regulation, & Problem Solving

Self-Monitoring:
 Teachable
skill
 Observing
behavior
 Recording observations
 Self-evaluation
 Self-reinforcement

Self-Instruction
 Teach
them to
verbalize information
that is unfamiliar.
 Teaching strategies for
learning.
 Mneumonics
 Study
skills
Improve Skill Development, Fluency, and
Retention of Information
Organizing Materials


Techniques:

Demonstration

Modeling

Cueing

Prompting
Considerations

Break into smaller bits

Identify what will be confusing
and focus on it.

Relate new information to older
information

Teach to mastery

Strategies for
Improving Academics
 Math
= number sense
 Reading = phonemic
awareness
 Reading Fluency =
repeated readings
Prevention

Primary prevention: All students are target
 Who
receives intervention (nature of population)
 What will be the nature of the services
 How and when to be implemented



Collect data to determine who needs help
Begin problem solving model to provide help
Repeat at secondary and tertiary levels if
applicable
Class Discussion

Read the Discussion Question #5 (pg 204-205) and
discuss with the group.