Jerrell C. Cassady

Classically categorized into 2 components:
• Emotionality (Affective TA)
– Heightened physiological activity
– Appraisal of panic symptoms as related to tests
• Worry -- aka “Cognitive Test Anxiety”
– Self-deprecating ruminations
– Distraction
– Interference
– Poor cognitive processing

• Most commonly affiliated component with performance deficits:
– IQ
– Standardized tests of achievement
– Classroom tests
– Performance activities (alt. assessments)
– Memory tasks

Cognitive Interference Model
• Information is available to the learner, but the anxiety leads to interference with retrieval efforts.
• Cue overload due to inappropriate “restriction of range” for the memorial attempt
• Inappropriate attentional focus
• Strategically-flawed LTM search strategies

Information Processing Model
• Multiple aspects of the learning/retrieval system lead to poor outcomes
• Inappropriate encoding strategies prohibit effective acquisition
• Ineffective rehearsal strategies limit long term storage and retrieval
• Deficient organization prohibits optimal recall

Full awareness of impact of TA on learning is available only when considering both
“state” and “trait” components of TA.
• Trait-level test anxiety refers to typical level of anxiety for tests (present in all testing situations)
• State or situational factors include: threat of current test, self-confidence for content, awareness of study preparedness, external pressures (teacher, parent) for specific test

Test Preparation Phase
• Study skills & strategies
• Study time and efficiency (repetition)
• Procrastination -- impedes primarly at “finals”
• Cognitive processing/encoding
• Surface-level processing
• Low self-regulation (monitor effort and progress)
• Perceived threat of tests
• Misappraisal of need to study/prepare

Test Performance Phase
• Anxiety blockage phenomenon (high anxiety, good study skills, easy items)
• Interference during test session
• Distraction from test
• Decision-making impaired under stressful situations when “confidence” levels fall for knowledge
• Initial response to items on test -- panic and fear response

Test Reflection Phase
• Interpretation of failure/success (attributions)
• Self-efficacy judgments
• Goal establishment for future tests
(approach/avoidance)
• Development of “fear” for tests -- (ie, tests are seen as threatening events -- sparking avoidance, perseveration)
• Helplessness orientations
• Influence coping strategies in future test situations

Cassady, J. C. (2001). The stability of undergraduate students' cognitive test anxiety levels. Practical Assessment, Research
& Evaluation, 7(20).
Available online: http://PAREonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=20 .
• Report on stability of CTA over time
• Stable “trait-like” measure of test anxiety

Cassady, J. C., & Johnson, R. E. (2002). Cognitive test anxiety, procrastination, and academic performance.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 27, 270-295.
• High cognitive test anxiety associated with lower performance on course exams and
SATs
• Gender differences exist in reported CTA, but no impact on performance
• Moderate emotionality helps test performance.
• CTA related to procrastination -- however procrastination only impaired performance on final exam

Cassady, J. C. (2004). The influence of cognitive test anxiety across the learning-testing cycle. Learning and Instruction,
14(6), 569-592 .
• Test anxious students have same number of notes for test, but have more
“copied definitions”
• Higher “perceived threat” for tests
• Lower self-reported study skills
• Higher emotionality scores
• Lower test scores
• Higher rates of “helplessness”

Cassady, J. C. (2004). The impact of cognitive test anxiety on text comprehension and recall in the absence of salient evaluative pressure. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18(3),
311-325 .
• Cognitive test anxiety influences performance on memory and test tasks even when there is no salient external evaluative pressure.
• Performance did not vary greatly for test anxious students based on “form” of task in non-evaluative setting -- suggesting general processing issue
• Cognitive test anxiety had a larger loading factor for
“high evaluative pressure” situations -- supporting the additive model.
• Cognitive test anxiety is largely a trait construct.

Cassady, J. C., Mohammed, A., & Mathieu, L. (2004).
Cross-cultural differences in test anxiety: Women in Kuwait and the United States. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,
35(6), 715-718 .
• Females in US and Kuwait differ in their anxiety profiles for tests.
• US females -- higher perceived threat for testing situations
• Kuwait females -- higher levels of emotionality
• Collectivist vs competitive society view

Cassady, J. C. & Gridley, B. E. (2005). The effects of online formative and summative assessment on test anxiety and performance. Journal of Technology, Learning, & Assessment
4(1) . Available online: http://www.jtla.org
• No evidence that online testing induces greater test anxiety than in-class
• HIGHER perceived threat of tests for in-class tests
(lower personal control)
• Practice tests (online) provided boost to performance on summative tests (immediate post-performance feedback)
• Practice tests provide test anxious students with a reasonable strategy to overcome typical negative outcomes preparation
-greater personal control over

• Argentina & US sample -- demonstrated slight difference in representations for tests. Selfother comparisons unusual in Argentina
• Revision of CTA -- shorter, all positively worded, new items focusing on preparation phase
• Notes study -- content analysis of notes from students with varied levels of CTA
• CTA and online testing -- timing of tests as well as number of tests taken as practice

• Expanding “Academic Anxiety” conceptions
• Connection to depression and related disorders
• Examination from perspectives of coping and emotional intelligence
• Younger populations