Introduction to Linguistics
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Problems of orthography
Introduction to Linguistics

Problems of orthography

In English, as in the case of many other
languages, one sound can be represented by
more than one symbol (letter); likewise, one
symbol can represent more than one sound.
Introduction to Linguistics

Problems of orthography


In English, as in the case of many other
languages, one sound can be represented by
more than one symbol (letter); likewise, one
symbol can represent more than one sound.
/k/ in kick
Introduction to Linguistics

Problems of orthography



In English, as in the case of many other
languages, one sound can be represented by
more than one symbol (letter); likewise, one
symbol can represent more than one sound.
/k/ in kick
“ough” in bought, through, tough
Introduction to Linguistics

Problems of orthography
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To overcome the problems presented by
orthography, linguists have developed
phonemic and phonetic transcription systems.
Introduction to Linguistics

Problems of orthography


To overcome the problems presented by
orthography, linguists have developed
phonemic and phonetic transcription systems.
However, it’s important to remember that
these transcription systems are still idealized
ways of describing sounds, and are still
abstract.
Introduction to Linguistics

Consonants of American English
Introduction to Linguistics

Consonants of American English

How is a consonant defined?
Introduction to Linguistics

Consonants of American English
How is a consonant defined?

–
–
–
1) voiced or voiceless
2) place of articulation
3) manner of articulation
Introduction to Linguistics

Consonants of American English
How is a consonant defined?

–
–
–
1) voiced or voiceless
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Ex. /z/ and /s/, voiced and voiceless; /s/ is
produced when vocal chords are tenser and
further apart, thus causing less vibration.
2) place of articulation
3) manner of articulation
Introduction to Linguistics

Consonants of American English
How is a consonant defined?

–
–
–
1) voiced or voiceless
2) place of articulation

Refers to where the sound is articulated:
bilabial, labiodental, interdental, alveolar,
alveopalatal, velar, glottal
3) manner of articulation
Introduction to Linguistics

Consonants of American English
How is a consonant defined?

–
–
–
1) voiced or voiceless
2) place of articulation
3) manner of articulation

Describes how the sound is articulated:
stops; fricatives, affricates, nasals, liquids and
glides.
Introduction to Linguistics

Stops
Introduction to Linguistics

Stops are produced when the airflow is
completely obstructed during speech.
Introduction to Linguistics

Stops are produced when the airflow is
completely obstructed during speech.
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/p/ voiceless bilabial stop
/b/ voiced bilabial stop
/t/ voiceless alveolar stop
/d/ voiced alveolar stop
/k/ voiceless velar stop
/g/ voiced velar stop
Introduction to Linguistics

Fricatives
Introduction to Linguistics

Fricatives are produced when the
airflow is forced through a narrow
opening in the vocal tract so that noise
produced by friction is created.
Introduction to Linguistics
/f/ voiceless labiodental fricative
 /v/ voiced labiodental fricative
 /ø/ voiceless interdental fricative (as in
think)
 /ð/ voiced interdental fricative (as in
this)
 /s/ voiceless alveolar fricative
 /z/ voiced alveolar fricative
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Introduction to Linguistics
// voiceless alveopalatal fricative (as
in ship)
 // voiced alveopalatal fricative (as in
measure)
 /h/ “glottal” fricative
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Introduction to Linguistics

Affricates start life out as a stop, but
releases into a fricative
Introduction to Linguistics

Affricates start life out as a stop, but
releases into a fricative.
– // voiceless alveopalatal affricate (as in
chip)
– // voiced alveopalatal affricate (as in
judge)
Introduction to Linguistics

Nasals
Introduction to Linguistics

Nasals
– In English, nasals are voiced oral stops,
similar to other stops, with the exception
that airflow and energy are channeled
through the nasal passage
Introduction to Linguistics

Nasals
– In English, nasals are voiced oral stops,
similar to other stops, with the exception
that airflow and energy are channeled
through the nasal passage.
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/m/ bilabial nasal
/n/ alveolar nasal
// a velar nasal
Introduction to Linguistics
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Liquids
Introduction to Linguistics
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Liquids share aspects with both vowels
and consonants, refers to their quality
of flowing easily or smoothly.
Introduction to Linguistics

Liquids share aspects with both vowels
and consonants, refers to their quality
of flowing easily or smoothly. In
English, both examples are voiced.
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
/l/ lateral alveolar liquid
/r/ nonlateral alveolar liquid
Introduction to Linguistics
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Glides
Introduction to Linguistics
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Glides
– Glides are vowel-like articulations that
precede and follow true vowels, sometimes
called “semi-vowels”
Introduction to Linguistics

Glides
– Glides are vowel-like articulations that
precede and follow true vowels, sometimes
called “semi-vowels”
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/y/ alveopalatal glide
/w/ labialized velar glide
/hw/ labialized velar glide with a voiceless
beginning), as in which.
Introduction to Linguistics

Vowels of American English
Introduction to Linguistics

Vowels of American English
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How is a vowel defined?
Introduction to Linguistics

Vowels of American English
How is a vowel defined?
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–
–
As a relatively open sound
Formed by the different shapes of the open,
resonating vocal tract and the variety of shapes
determined by the position of several anatomical
structures.
Introduction to Linguistics

Vowels of American English
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What flavors do they come in?
Introduction to Linguistics

Vowels of American English
What flavors do they come in?
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–
–
–
–
Lax (or short)
Tense (or long)
Reduced
Described variously as: high/mid/low and
front/back relative to position of the part of the
tongue closest to the roof of the mouth
Introduction to Linguistics
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Lax:
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/I/ lax high front, ex bit, wish
/e/ lax mid front, ex get, mess
/æ/ lax low front, ex ash
/U/ lax high back, ex put, foot
/ / lax mid back, ex putt, luck
/Y/ lax low back, ex hot, pot
/]/ lax low back rounded, ex caught
Introduction to Linguistics

Tense
– /iy/ tense high front (with /y/ offglide), ex bead, three
– /ey/ tense mid front (with /y/ offglide), ex clay, weigh
– /uw/ tense high back (rounded with /w/ offglide) ex. shoe,
crude
– /ow/ tense mid back (rounded with /w/ , ex boat, tow
– /oy/ tense mid back (rounded with /y/ offglide), ex boy
– /aw/ tense low back (with /w/ offglide), ex cow, blouse
– /ay/ tense low back (with /y/ offglide), ex my, thigh
– /a/ tense low - East Coast Variant, “Park the car in Harvard
yard.”
Introduction to Linguistics
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Reduced (always unstressed)
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Schwa (mid back) /c/ - sofa
Barred-i (high back) /v / - chiken
Introduction to Linguistics

The distinct sounds of a language are
called phonemes (a minimal unit of
sound)
Introduction to Linguistics
The distinct sounds of a language are
called phonemes (a minimal unit of
sound)
 English has 39 phonemes (24 con’nts,
15 vowels)

Introduction to Linguistics
The distinct sounds of a language are
called phonemes (a minimal unit of
sound)
 English has 39 phonemes (24 con’nts,
15 vowels)
 Hawaiian has 13 (8/5); Georgian has 90
(70/20)
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Introduction to Linguistics
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Vowels tend to have little variation,
consonants a great deal.
– Xhosa and the click phoneme