The Axial Age
Karl Jaspers (1883 - 1969)

German philosopher Karl Jaspers coined
the term the axial age to describe the
period from 800 BC to 200 BC, during
which, according to Jaspers, similar
revolutionary thinking appeared in China,
India and the Occident. The period is
also sometimes referred to as the axis
age.
Karl Theodor Jaspers (February
23, 1883 – February 26, 1969)

was a German
psychiatrist and
philosopher who had a
strong influence on
modern theology,
psychiatry and
philosophy. After being
trained in and practicing
psychiatry, Jaspers
turned to philosophical
inquiry and attempted to
discover an innovative
philosophical system.
A Striking Parallel

Jaspers, in his Vom Ursprung und Ziel der Geschichte
(The Origin and Goal of History 1953), identified a
number of key axial age thinkers as having had a
profound influence on future philosophy and religion, and
identified characteristics common to each area from
which those thinkers emerged. Jaspers saw in these
developments in religion and philosophy a striking parallel
without any obvious direct transmission of ideas from one
region to the other, having found no recorded proof of any
extensive intercommunication between Ancient Greece,
the Middle East, India, and China. Jaspers held up this
age as unique, and one to which the rest of the history of
human thought might be compared.
Hundred Schools of Thought
諸子百家 zhūzǐ bǎijiā


The term that literally means "all philosophers, hundred
schools“ refers to philosophers and schools that flourished
from 770 to 221 B.C.E., an era of great cultural and
intellectual expansion. It is also known as the Golden Age
of Chinese philosophy because a broad range of thoughts
and ideas were developed and discussed freely. This
phenomenon has been called the Contention of a
Hundred Schools of Thought (百家爭鳴 bǎijiā
zhēngmíng). Professor David R. Knechtges prefers a
different term: Masters instead of philosophers.
The word “hundred” seems exaggerated. Nevertheless, it
is the golden age in Chinese intellectual history.
However, since the Han synthesis, Confucianism has
gained its dominant position.
Jixia Academy: Athens in China
in the State of Qi

The Jixia Academy or Academy of the Gate of
Qi/Chi-- 稷下学宫 was the most famous scholarly
academy of early China. It was founded around 318
BC in the city of Linzi 临淄, capital of the state of Qi
(modern Shandong province), and Jixia was a gate
in the city wall. At the time, Linzi was one of the
largest, most prosperous cities in the world. For the
first time on record a state began to act as a patron
of scholarship out of the apparent conviction that this
was a proper function of the state or a means of
increasing its prestige. Scholars came from great
distances to lodge in the academy, with the most
important scholar holding the rank of Great Prefect.
Pre-Qin (221 BC) Prose Writing
Historical Prose & Philosophical Prose


1. 尚书【shàngshū】 Classic
of History "Classic of History",
"Classic of Documents", "Book
of History", "Book of
Documents".
2. 春秋【chūnqiū】 the Spring
and Autumn Period (770-476
B.C.); The Spring and Autumn
Annals; annals; history-- is the
official chronicle of the State of
Lu covering the period from
722 BCE to 481 BCE. Intrigues
of the Warring States
3. 战国策【Zhànguó Cè】
Intrigues/Strategies of the
Warring States
4. Zuo Zhuan--the Commentary
of Zuo, 389 BC

Zi , ancient title of respect
for learned or virtuous man,
masters.

Confucianism: The
Analects (put together by
his students); Mencius by
Mengzi and Xunzi;
Daoism: Dao De Jing and
Zhuanzi/Liezi
Legalism: Shang Yang, Li
Si, and Han Fei
Mohism by Mozi
Philosophical Military
Treatise: The Art of War
by Sunzi
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The Warring States Period
403 BCE to 256 BCE
Partition of the Jin State (403 BC)
Political Hierarchy Defined by
Rites/Rituals of the Zhou Dynasty
Son of Heaven = Emperor
 duke, in charge of a state
 marquis; a nobleman or
high official;
 Ministers
http://dictionary.reference.co
m/browse/marquis?s=t
 If an emperor couldn’t go
to Mt. Tai, he had to build
a temple;
 The Temple of Heaven in
Beijing serves such a
function;

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
Only a son of heaven can
own nine ding, sacred
cauldrons, symbolic of
status;
At court, only a son of
heaven can order 64
dancing girls, 8 per
row/per line;
Who are qualified to go to
Mt. Tai to perform feng
and shan sacrificial
ceremonies?
During Duke of You’s (晋幽公)
r. 433 to 416 BC


Three ministers or houses, Zhao, Han
and Wei started to divide some territory.
In 416, Marquis Wen of Wei 魏文侯 killed
Duke of You.
Marquess Wen of Wei
魏文侯 (?～396 BC)



Wei became rich by
controlling salt.
(capital of salt
industry, 盐池).
Along with its salt
business, Wei
established a strong
army.
A well-learned man
Three Households/Ministers
Divided the State of Jin
Duke Lie of Jin
晉烈公 415 BC - 389 BC

In about 401, Zhi Boyao 智伯瑶, a senior
minister who became the “Secretary of the
State,” demanded more land from other
ministers: Wei Zi 魏斯, Zhao Ji 赵籍 and Han
Qian 韩虔. Duke of Lie could not control his
state at all. Wei and Han bowed to Zhi, but
Zhao refused.
Zhi Attacking Zhao
A Dramatic Turn

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
Zhi led the mid-army;
Wei led the left army;
Han led the right army;
Three armies surrounded Jin
Yang 晋阳 for two years.
Zhi used water (River Jin) as
soldiers 以水代兵 and had Jin
Yang flooded.
搬起石头砸自己的脚: the rock
he lad lifted landed on his own
feet.
To plan to make somebody else
miserable but end up getting
hurt themselves.




Jin Yang was in great danger.
Zhao appealed to Wei and Han.
When boasting about his
strategy on the bank of River
Jin, it dawned on Wei and Han
that they can use the same trick.
Teamed up with Zhao, they let
go the water from a branch of
River Jin, thus had Zhi’s
territory flooded. Zhi 智伯瑶
was killed during the battle.
In 403, Wei, Zhao, and Han
went to see the king of Zhou,
demanding the status of a state.
The new status was officially
granted. This incident marked
the beginning of the Warring
States Period.
What Shifted the Power Structure
at a Critical Moment?
Power of Rhetoric

Zhao Xiangzi or
Zhao Ji convinced
Wei and Han that if
they don’t stick
together, the Zhi
family will swallow
them one by one
sooner or later.
唇亡齿寒
【chúnwángchǐhán】
if the lips are gone,
the teeth will be cold;
if one (of two
interdependent
things) falls, the
other is in danger;
share a common lot.

Potential Danger
in the Partition of the Jin
http://www.globaled.org/chinaproject/confuci
an/quotes1.html

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Fragmentation vs.
Unification
Lessons from Russia
China is in chaos. What is
the best for China: united or
divided?
If China were fragmented,
what would be its impact on
the world?
After the First Opium War in
1842, China was divided by
invaders from the outside.
Partition of China





How to maintain order?
Contextualize the
significance of
Confucianism in China
Impact of family structure
and individual conduct on
government/nation
Confucius cites The Book of
Document, “…Simply by
being a good son and
friendly to his brothers a
man can exert an influence
upon government” (The
Analects 2.21).
Returning of a shopping
cart…
Guiguzi & Shang Yang
Two Consequential Figures
Shang Yang Reform
ca. 390-338 BC



a Chinese statesman
and political philosopher.
He was one of the
founders of Chinese
Legalism and organized
the rise to power of the
Ch'in dynasty.
The first reform: 359 BC;
The second reform: 350
BC;
Content of Shang Yang’s Reform



Establish the county system--31 total for a
stronger centralized government; county
magistrates are appointed directly by the
central government;
Household Registration system and chain
punishment to tighten the leash;
Grown up sons must live independently, which
enlarged the population for tax purpose;
Land Reform


His most famous
economic reform was
the abolition of the
idealized system of
landholding known as
the "well-field system,"
in which a section of
land was divided into
nine portions, tilled by
eight families in
common, with the
produce from the ninth
portion reserved for the
overlord--廢井田
【fèijǐngtián】


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
開阡陌【kāiqiānmò】
crisscross footpaths between
fields.
Basically get rid of boundaries,
carrying out private-ownership
by commoners.
This is a further development in
Guan Zhong’s land reform;
Private ownership marks a
break from that of the Zhou
Dynasty in which 分封制
【fēnfēngzhì】 the system of
enfeoffment dominated, (of the
Western Zhou Dynasty, c.11th.
century-771 B.C., investing the
nobility with hereditary titles,
territories and slaves).
重农轻商 来自商鞅
【zhòngnóngqīngshāng
láizì shāngyāng 】


Central to Shang Yang's economic theory was an
over-whelming emphasis on agriculture and a
rejection of "nonessential" activities such as
commerce and manufacturing. He proposed that
anyone engaging in secondary professions be sold
as slaves; different from Guan Zhong’s model.
In ancient China, merchants and businessmen
suffered a bad reputation. Nowadays, many college
students flood into business schools…
Double-Edged Military Reform



Establish a 20-rank
military system on the
one hand, and on the
other hand, eliminate
the old tenure system
(which fundamentally
challenged those
princes).
取【qǔ】 cut “ear” off to
claim credit
The goal is to set up
more centralized
government.

据《漢書》記載：“商君
為法于秦，戰斬一首賜
爵一級，欲為官者五十
石”。

According to Han shu or Book
of Han, Shang code regulates
that someone could be
promoted by one rank for one
chopped-off head in battle or
promoted as a minor officer
whose salary is 50 shi of grain;
a unit of dry measure for grain (
＝1 hectolitre)
Shang Yang’s Legal Code
Appeal lies in Equality




Central to Shang Yang’s new law is equality by
which a prince be punished the same way as a
commoner.
王子犯法与庶民同罪 a prince who commits a crime
will be punished the same way as commoners.
Once the crown prince Ying Si 嬴駟 or Zhao Si 赵驷
committed a crime—he killed someone (during a tax
season when some cheating was involved), he was
sent to an exile; and his teachers Ying Qian and
Gongsun Jia was punished by 劓刑【yìxíng】
劓【yì】 cutting off the nose (a punishment in
ancient China)
Ying Si vs. Shang Yang

Ying Si 赢驷 was the son of Duke Xiao 秦孝公, and
succeeded his father as ruler of Qin after the latter's death.
When Ying was still in his adolescent years as the crown
prince, he committed a crime and was severely punished
for it. Shang Yang was implementing his reforms to the
laws of Qin then, and he insisted that the crown prince
should be punished for the crime, regardless of his royal
status. Duke Xiao approved of the draconian punishments
and Ying Si's tutors, Prince Ying Qian and Gongsun Jia,
had their noses cut off, for neglecting their duties in
educating the crown prince, while Ying Si was banished
from the royal palace.
Shang Yang, a Chinese Draco

It was believed that Ying Si harbored a personal
grudge against Shang Yang and when he came to
the throne as King Huiwen of Qin, Ying Si had
Shang Yang put to death on charges of treason.
However, King Huiwen retained the reformed
systems in Qin left behind by his father and
Shang Yang.
Dra’conian punishments

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

–adjective
1.of, pertaining to, or characteristic of Draco or his code
of laws.
2.(often lowercase ) rigorous; unusually severe or cruel:
Draconian forms of punishment.
Draco (pronounced /ˈdreɪ.koʊ/; from Greek Δράκων,
pronounced [ˈdra.kɔːn]) was the first legislator of ancient
Athens, Greece, 7th century BC. He replaced the
prevailing system of oral law and blood feud by a written
code to be enforced only by a court. Because of its
harshness, this code also gave rise to the term
"draconian".
Unified Ideology

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定秦律，“燔詩書而明法令”
Books burning per Qin’s Legal Code;
As a result, Qin, either as a state or as
an empire, did not leave much literature
behind; the landscape is barren. It is a
cultural wasteland.
Unification of Weight
and Measurement

Unification in weight and measurement,
which paved the way for later regulations
standardized by Qinshihuang, the first
emperor in China.
Shang Yang’s Royal/Loyal Supporter
秦孝公Duke Xiao of Qin
(381 BC - 338 BC)

Duke Xiao is best known for employing the
Legalist statesman Shang Yang from the Wei
state (衛), and authorizing him to conduct a
series of upheaving political, military and
economic reforms in Qin. Although the
reforms were potentially controversial and
drew violent opposition from many Qin
politicians, Duke Xiao supported Shang Yang
fully and the reforms did helped to transform
Qin into a dominant superpower among the
Seven Warring States.
秦孝公 Duke Xiao of Qin

In a recent TV
series, The Great
Qin Empire, Duke
Xiao of Qin is
depicted more like a
brother to Shang
Yang than a king.
Posters
The Great Qin Empire
More brotherlike
Legalism: Rule by Law
Legalists: Shang Yang; Li Si; and Han Feizi




Legalism was a system that proved to be quite effective in
gaining power but was problematic for establishing a
stable political power.
The doctrine of Legalism originated in the practical
political operations of the State of Qin.
In the 3rd century BCE, the philosopher Han Fei
developed an intellectual rationale for Legalism. Han Fei
argues that people need careful guidance by strong rulers
to live in an orderly society.
The Qin State, with Legalism as its ideology, succeeded
in ending the Warring States era.
Theoretical Rationale
for Shang Yang’s Reform



The prime minister of Qin in the mid-4th
century BCE was Shang Yang who set out
the basic ideas of Legalism.
The central principle of Legalism was the use
of rewards and punishments to produce
conformity to the rule of clear and welldeveloped laws.
The law was to be applied uniformly and
strictly to both high and low so that everyone
understood their duties and knew the
penalties for failing to fulfill them.
Is Human Nature Good or Evil?

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Implicit or explicit behind Shang Yang’s
model of rewards and punishments lies a
crucial question regarding whether
human nature is good or evil.
Xunzi or Xun Kuang: Human Nature is
Evil; the essay is uploaded online on our
class website; (See Xun Kuang ppts)
Mencius: Human nature is good…
Two Idioms associated with
Shang Yang
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徙木为信
【 xǐmùwéixìn 】
Before the new law was
promulgated,
A three-yard pole to be moved
from the south gate to the north
gate for 50 gold pieces—to
establish credibility
Shiji 68: The Biography of
Lord Shang
See Burton Watson’s
translation: The Record of the
Grand Historian, Qin Dynasty
published by Columbia
University Press, page 93

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作法自毙
【zuòfǎzìbì】 make a law
only to fall foul of it
oneself; be hoist with or
by one's own petard; get
caught in one's own trap.
Right after Duke Xiao of
Qin passed away, Shang
Yang tried to escape. He
could not even check into
a hotel without an ID, a
law made by himself;
车裂【chēliè】 tearing a
person asunder by horse-drawn
chariots going in five
directions.
Wang Xu 王诩, better known
by his pseudonym Guiguzi 鬼谷子


A philosopher from the Warring States Period. He was
the founder of the School of Diplomacy of the Hundred
Schools of Thought during that period. According to
popular belief, Guiguzi was a master of politics,
diplomacy, military strategy and fortune-telling.
Guiguzi was born in Gui Valley (归谷) in present-day
Dengfeng County, Henan province. As the pronunciation
of the Chinese character of "归" (meaning: return) is quite
similar to "鬼" (meaning: ghost; demon), Guiguzi's
birthplace was hence popularly referred to as "Guigu" (鬼
谷; Ghost Valley or Demon Valley).
Political Strategists
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
纵横家【zònghéngjiā】
Political Strategists (in the
Warring States Period, 475221 B.C.) .
纵横【zònghéng】 in length
and breadth; vertically and
horizontally;
经纬【jīngwěi】 warp and
woof; longitude and latitude;

The earliest records of
Guiguzi were found in
historian Sima Qian's
Records of the Grand
Scribes/Historian, in
which it was stated that
Guiguzi was the teacher
of famous diplomats,
statesmen and military
strategists, including Su
Qin, Zhang Yi, Sun Bin
and Pang Juan.
Sun Bin
(? - 316 BC)

was a military
strategist who lived
during the Warring
States Period. An
alleged descendant
of Sun Tzu, Sun Bin
was tutored in
military strategy by
the hermit Guiguzi.
The Art of War
孙子兵法
Required Reading of MBAs in US
http://www.chinapage.com/sunzi-e.html


The Art of War is a
Chinese military treatise
that was written by Sun
Tzu in the 6th century
BC, during the Spring
and Autumn period.
Composed of 13
chapters, each of which
is devoted to one aspect
of warfare.
See the text online
Lionel Giles
(1875 - 1958)
http://www.chinapage.com/sunzi-e.html

a Victorian scholar,
translator and the son of
British diplomat and
sinologist, Herbert Giles.
Lionel Giles served as
assistant curator at the
British Museum and Keeper
of the Department of
Oriental Manuscripts and
Printed Books. Lionel Giles
is most notable for his 1910
translation of The Art of War
by Sun Tzu and The
Analects of Confucius.
吴王阖庐 Duke He Lü of Wu
（?－496 BC）

in 515 BC the prince ascended the throne of Wu and became
King Helü. The king assigned Wu Zixu 伍子胥 to lead the
design and building of the "great city," which evolved into the
city of Suzhou today.

上有天堂,下有苏杭【shàngyǒutiāntáng,xiàyǒusūháng】
Just as there is paradise in heaven, there are Suzhou and
Hangzhou on earth.

In 506 BC Helü with the help of Wu Zixu and Sun-tzu, the
author of The Art of War, launched major offensives against the
state of Chu. They prevailed in five battles, one of which was
the Battle of Boju 柏舉之戰 506 BCE) , and conquered the
capital of Ying (Chinese: 郢).
Sun Wu
(c. 544 BC - c. 496 BC)

An anecdote goes as follows: The king of Wu tested Sun
Tzu's skills by commanding him to train a harem of 180
concubines into soldiers. Sun Tzu divided them into two
companies 连 , appointing the two concubines most
favored by the king as the company commanders 连长.
When Sun Tzu first ordered the concubines to face right,
they giggled. In response, Sun Tzu said that the general,
in this case himself, was responsible for ensuring that
soldiers understand the commands. Then, he reiterated
the order, and again the concubines giggled. Sun Tzu
then ordered the execution of the king's two favored
concubines, to the king's protests.
Sun Wu & Mao Zedong
Brenden Mclane, 2009

The Art of War’s most
governing principles were as
follows: first, know yourself,
your enemy, and the situation
in which you must fight;
second: fight only if you
absolutely must; third, speed,
decisive action, and discipline
are what win battles, not force.
These three general ideas form
the basic framework for the
way of war know as “guerilla
warfare 游击战【yóujīzhàn】
bushwhacking..”
Sun Bin vs. Pang Juan
Both Studied with Guiguzi




Sun Bin (?- 316 BC)
memorized The Art of
War;
Sworn Brothers;
Upon his departure,
Guiguzi gave Sun Bin a
slip of paper;
In State of Wei, Pang
Juan tricked Sun Bin and
had his kneecaps
removed/feet cut off and
had his face tattooed;
Escape to Qi




In jail, Sun Bin tried to write down The
Art of War for Pang Juan;
A servant revealed the true intention of
Pang Juan;
Sun Bin feigned madness as Hamlet did,
which was the strategy from his teacher
as the last resort;
Sun Bin escaped to the State of Qi
Horse Racing 田忌赛马
Deliberate Mismatch in Competition






Sun Bin’s friend Tian Ji, a general
in Qi, loved horse racing, but he
always lost the game.
Sun Bin’s advice:
Third class horse vs. Duke Qi’s
best horse;
First class horse vs. Duke Qi’s
second class horse;
Second class horse vs. Duke Qi’s
third class horse;

田忌经常与齐国诸公子赛马，设重
金赌注。孙膑发现他们的马脚力都
差不多，可分为上、中、下三等。
于是孙膑对田忌说：“您只管下大赌
注，我能让您取胜。”田 忌相信并答
应了他，与齐王和诸公子用千金来
赌注。比赛即将开始，孙膑说：“现
在用您的下等马对付他们的上等马
，拿您的上等马对付他们的中等马
，拿您的中等 马对付他们的下等马
。”三场比赛完后，田忌一场不胜而
两场胜，最终赢得齐王的千金赌注
。于是田忌把孙膑推荐给齐威王。
威王向他请教兵法后，就请他当作
老 师。

“田忌赛马”在后世亦成为“错位竞
争”的代名词 及典型案例，在商
战及体育竞赛中时有运用。
Tian Ji won 1000 pieces of gold;
Battle of Guiling
354 BC


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

围魏救赵
【wéiWèijiùZhào】 besiege Wei to rescue Zhao - relieve
the besieged by besieging the base of the besiegers.
Marshaled by Pang Juan, Wei attacked Zhao. Zhao’s
capital Han Dan was in great danger.
Instead of going directly to Han Dan, which will exhaust
Qi’s troops, Sun Bin suggested Qi attack Wei’s capital
Daliang (now Kaifeng, Henan Province);
On his way back to the capital, Pang Juan was ambushed
by Qi’s troops;
Pang Juan was caught alive!
Battle of Maling (342 BC)
Dazhangjia Town (大張家鎮), Xin
County (莘縣), Henan Province





In 342, Pang Juan attacked the
State of Han (403 BC–230 BC).
Sun Bin suggested Qi’s troops wait
till both sides got exhausted.
After 5 rounds of bloody fighting,
Qi sent its troops to Han’s capital
(now Yuzhou).
Qi’s troops pretended defeated and
escaped; en route, they reduced the
number of camp fires for cooking
for bivouac (French)
, a way to estimate how many
troops involved.
At Maling, a valley like a long
sack, Pang Juan was ambushed.

在桂陵之战后，庞涓不服输，而魏
王亦想扩张领土，因此在公元前 342
年，魏王派庞涓进攻邻近弱国、韩
国 。韩国向齐国求援，孙膑向齐威
王提议坐山观虎斗，待魏韩火拼一
番后才出兵救援，这样则“尊名”与“
重利”皆得。结果在韩国奋战五场皆
败后，齐王派 田忌及孙膑统兵去救
韩国。庞涓这次直接回兵与孙膑决
战，孙膑则选择避其锋芒，以减灶
之计成功引诱庞涓进入预定埋伏地
点，万箭齐发，大败庞涓，逼使庞
涓自 杀，报回当年被害之仇。从此
齐国称霸东方，魏国则每况越下，
无力争霸。
Battle of Maling
Intrigues of the Warring States
战国策【Zhànguócè】
One Origin for the Warring States
(403-221 B.C.)


The Zhanguo ce is a collection of 497 items
pertaining to the Warring States Period. Most
are short fables, speeches put in the mouths of
historical figures, and anecdotes.
The present version is based on an edition
prepared by Liu Xiang 劉向 (ca.79-ca. BC),
who selected from six different collections of
Warring States stories and speeches that
allegedly were derived from the actual words of
youshui 游说 (traveling persuaders).
Liu Xiang 劉向 (ca.79-ca. BC)

born Liu Gengsheng (劉更
生), courtesy name Zizheng
(子政), was a famous
Confucian scholar of the
Han Dynasty. He was born
in Xuzhou 徐州 (known as
Pengcheng 彭城 in ancient
times) and related to Liu
Bang 刘邦, the founder of
the Han dynasty. His son,
Liu Xin, developed the
"Triple Concordance" 《三統
曆譜》 astronomical system.
Su Qin, an advocate of zong 纵, or
Confederation against the Qin State

Su Qin (380-284 BCE), was an
influential political strategist
during the Warring States Period.
He was born in Chengxuan
Village, Luoyang in present day
Henan Province. According to
some legend, Su Qin was a disciple
of Gui Guzi (鬼谷子), the founder
of the School of Diplomacy or
strategists 縱横家. One theory of
this school, Vertical Alliance or
confederation
,
promoted an alliance of the other
states against the state of Qin. The
opposing theory, Horizontal
Alliance 合横 supported an
alliance with the State of Qin.
悬梁刺股【xuánliángcìgǔ】 tie one's hair to a
beam to keep from dozing off, or prod/prick
in the thigh with an awl—study assiduously




“悬梁”的故事见于《太平
御览》卷三六三引《汉书
》。
In Western Han,
someone called Sun
Jing…
“刺股”的故事见于《
战国策·卷三秦一》。
This refers to Su Qin…
They both got humiliated
previously.
苏秦任六国相
Chancellor for six states!



How persuasive he
is? Check this out:
Su Qin’s speech to
King Huiwen of Qin
(Zhanguo ce, Sbby,
3.2a-3a)
Read “Double
Persuasion” online.
enumeration of historical analogies
Su Qin’s Speech to King Huiwen of Qin
秦惠王 356～ 310 BCE



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








In the past Shennong attacked the Bushui补遂 ,
The Yellow Lord attacked Zhuolu 涿鹿 and captured Chiyou
蚩尤 ,
Yao attacked Huandou 驩兜 ,
Shun attached the Three Miao三苗 ,
Yu (Shun) 虞舜 attacked Gonggong 共工 ,
Tang 商汤 attacked the Xia ,
Wen 周文王 attacked Chong 崇侯虎 ,
King Wu 周武王 attacked Zhou 商纣 ,
Duke Huan of Qi 齐恒公 employed warfare to become hegemon of the
empire.
Looking at it from this point of view,
One might ask, who has not gone to war?
Note The king did not hire Su Qin after all.
Political Persuasion



Most early Chinese rhetoric is concerned with political
persuasion and usually involves an official who attempts
to persuade his ruler of the merits of a particular proposal
or action. The best collection is the Zhanguo ce. (James
Crump’s book-- Legend of the Warring States:
Persuasion, Romances, and Stories from the Chan-kuo
ts’e. Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, The
University of Michigan, 1998)
See the table of contents, consult the English version by
Bramwell Seaton Bonsall at
http://lib.hku.hk/bonsall/zhanguoce/index1.html
Double Persuasion


The Three States attacked Qin and entered Hangu
Pass 函谷关. The king of Qin—( the King Zhao of
Qin, r. 325-251 BCE)
said to Lou Huan樓緩 , “The troops of the Three
States have deeply penetrated our territory. I wish to
cede Hedong and negotiate with them.” Lou Huan
replied, “To cede Hedong would be a great waste.
To escape disaster to our state would be a great
benefit. This is the responsibility of the elders. Why
does not Your Majesty summon Gongzi Chi公子池
and ask him about it?”
Hangu Pass



Hangu Pass 函谷關 was a strategic pass in ancient China
just south of the great eastern bend of the Yellow River in
today's Lingbao County, Henan Province. The State of
Qin built the pass in 361 BC as its eastern gate.
Because of its strategic location between the ancient lands
of the State of Qin and the central plains of China, many
famous ancient battles were fought at Hangu Pass. During
the Warring States Period, Hangu Pass was heavily
defended by the State of Qin, as the pass was the only
reasonable route to invade the State of Qin from the
central plains of China. Hangu Pass was also a vital route
in invading the ancient capital of Luoyang from the west.
According to legend, Lao Zi supposedly wrote the Dao De
Jing at Hangu Pass.
Strategic Location

一夫当关【yīfūdāngguān】 one strong
man stand
in the way full of valor and vigor.，
万夫莫开【wànfūmòkāi】 even 10,000
men
can not break through; unbreakable.
秦人开关而迎敌，
九国之师逡巡而不敢进
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

The Qin army
opened the pass to
meet the enemy, yet
the troops of the nine
states, hesitant to
move forward, dared
not enter…
Jia Yi’s
“The Faults of Qin”
Double Persuasion



The king summoned Gongzi Chi and asked him about it.
He replied, “If you negotiate with them, you will regret it.
If you don’t negotiate with them, you will regret it.”
“What do you mean?”
Gongzi Chi replied, “When Your Majesty has ceded
Hedong and negotiated, even though the Three States
have departed, you will certainly say, ‘Too bad! The
Three States were about to depart, and I simply
accommodated them with three cities.’ This is what you
would regret about negotiating.”
Double Persuasion



If you do negotiate, and the three States enter Hangu
Pass, Xiangyang will certainly be in danger. Your
Majesty will say, “Too bad! I begrudged three cities and
did not negotiate.’ This is what you would regret about not
negotiating.
The king said, “The regret is equal in both cases. I would
rather lose three cities and regret it than endanger
Xiangyang and regret that. I have decided to negotiate.”
In the end, the king sent Gongzi Chi to use the three
cities to negotiate with the Three States. They withdrew
their troops. Zhanguo ce 6.1 b-2a.
It is Up to You to Decide…

The argument in which the persuader juxtaposes both pro
and con alternatives is similar to a mode of persuasion
used in later Chinese literature in which the writer gives
the appearance of ambivalence on which course of action
he actually favors, and leaves it to the reader or listener
to choose between the alternatives. This ambiguity of
purpose often seems to be deliberate, and perhaps is an
attempt to give the impression that all possibilities have
been explored and that there is a choice between
alternatives. The person thus is led to the desired
conclusion not by direct admonition, but through indirect
suggestion, and this technique becomes a principal form
of suasion. See a sample here.
Annotations on Double Persuasion
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

Three states that attacked the State of Qin
refer to Qi, Han and Wei. This happened
around 297 BCE;
The king of Qin refers to the King Zhao of Qin
(r. 325-251 BCE)
Gongzi Chi, son of the King Hui of Qin, was the
highest military leader, equivalent to the
president of the military committee;
Stylistic features of the Zhanguo ce
Intrigues of the Warring States

The enumeration of historical analogies is the most
common device of Chinese suasive discourse. Toward
the end of the speech, the persuader uses the repetition
scheme known as expolitio, which involves the repetition
of synonyms in adjacent lines. See the ending of Su
Qin’s speech in “Double Persuasion.”

expolitio
ex-po-li'-ti-o Latin, "adorning, embellishing" refining


One of the most common rhetorical techniques of the
Zhanguo ce persuasion is what James I. Crump has
called the double persuasion.

http://www.sinoplatonic.org/complete/spp041_zhanguoce_intrigues.pdf
Double Persuasion

Double persuasion is the Chinese
equivalent to the general topic of
classical Western rhetoric and assumes
several different forms. Its basic feature
is the presentation of alternative or
contraries that appear equally
persuasive, either in a negative or
positive way.
Befriend a distant state
while attacking a neighbour 远交近攻
(No. 23 out of the Thirty-Six Stratagems)



In the latter half of the
Warring States, King
Zhaoxiang of Qin 秦昭襄王
or 秦昭王) (324 BC – 250
BC) or King Zhao of Qin
adopted a strategy by Fan
Zhui 范雎, his chancellor.
The strategy destroyed the
alliance among the six
states.
In 260 BC, King Zhao won
the vital Battle of Changping
against the State of Zhao.
The Battle of Changping
April, 262 BC – July, 260 BC


Northwest of Gaoping, Shanxi
The Battle of Changping (長 平之戰) in 260
BC was a military campaign that resulted in the
decisive victory of the state of Qin of China
over Zhao during the Warring States Period.
Even by today's standards it is one of the most
lethal military operations in history. A great
majority of the Zhao soldiers (400,000) were
executed or buried alive after the battle.
King Zhao Wuling’s Military Reform
趙武靈王胡服騎射 302 BC/Textbook 31



The State of Zhao (403 BC–222 BC) at the moment
was a superpower.
During the reign of King Wuling, the kingdom
adopted a military reform. The soldiers of Zhao were
ordered to dress like their Xiongnu (the Huns,
including Mongols and Turks) neighbors and replace
war chariots with cavalry archers.
This proved to be a brilliant reform, along with
advanced technology of the Chinese states and
nomadic tactics, the Cavalry of Zhao became a
significant force to reckon with in the warring states.
adopted a non-Han military dress code
Source: Intrigues of the Warring States
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Traditionally, foot soldiers or
infantry functioned as the
main force;
The new structure is a
combination of cavalry
(crossbow) archers.
The Reform attracted many
criticisms since it called into
question of Zhao’s identity.
King Wuling persuaded his
people by taking the lead…
Xiongnu


匈奴【xiōngnú】
Xiongnu (Hun), an
ancient nationality in
China.
胡【hú】 non-Han
nationalities living in the
north and west in ancient
times; introduced from
the northern and western
nationalities or from
abroad;
Battle of Changping
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

Qin attacked Han;
County of Shangdang 上
党 (now city of Zhangzhi,
Shanxi Province) refuse to
surrender. Duke Huanhui
of Han then offered the
place to the State of Zhao
as leverage against the
Qin State;
Zhao took over the
responsibility;
Zhao’s best general Lian
Po 廉颇 was on the
defense, which in the long
run will exhaust Qin
army.
Trick of Sowing Discord
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
Qin spread the rumor that Lian Po is a coward
and that he will surrender before long; it is
Zhao Kuo 趙括 that Qin truly worries, etc.;
Duke of Zhao was displeased with Lian Po’s
performance;
At a critical moment, Zhao Kuo replaced Lian
Po, a big mistake.
The Battle of Changping marks a turning point;
Ever since then, nobody could match the Qin
army;
蔺相如 Lin Xiangru
an Outstanding Diplomat


完璧归赵 (283 – 279) Zhao received a piece
of rare jade from Chu
【wánbìguīZhào】
(via marriage).
return the jade intact
to the State of Zhao - Qin offered a trade of
15 cities.
return sth. to its
owner in perfect
Lin Xiangru went to Qin
condition.
with the treasure
Qin did not mention
anything about cities;
Keep Your Promise


Lin Xiangru says
there is a defect in
the jade that is
hardly visible;
He then demands
Qin keep its promise
otherwise he will
smash himself
together with the
treasure;
Treat me with Decency


Lin Xiangru demanded
that Qin offer a decent
reception in five days
since his king went on
a diet for five days and
sent him off with a
solemn ceremony.
The same evening, Lin
Xiangru had his
assistant return to
Zhao with the
treasure;
The most formal
ceremony in
ancient—9 MCs and
high ranking officials
to meet a
distinguished guest;
Meeting of Mianchi
渑池【Miǎnchí】 Place name - Area code:
0398, Postcode: 472400 (河南省)


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

About 280, Qin and Zhao tied
in battles;
In 279, a meeting was arranged
to negotiate for a peace treaty
since Qin wanted to focus on
State of Chu at the moment;
瑟【sè】 <music> a twentyfive-stringed plucked
instrument, somewhat similar
to the zither.
缶【fǒu】 <formal> an
amphora-like jar;
<archaeology> a clay musical
instrument.
缶 [fǒu] Drum
Lin Xiangru Maintained his
King’s Dignity and Honor
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Some Qin officials proposed,
Give us 15 cities to bless our King;
Lin Xiangru counterbid, how about giving
us Xianyang to bless our king?
Xianyang was the capital of Qin State;
After this meeting, Lin Xiangru got a big
promotion;
负荆请罪【fùjīngqǐngzuì】
proffer a birch and ask for a flogging
- offer a humble apology
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Chinese “Birch Rod”
For the best effect, it
should be soaked in brine;
General Lian Po was
displeased. He wanted to
embarrass Xiangru one of
these days;
Xiangru still treated Lian
Po with respect;
Once Lian Po heard about
all this, he felt ashamed;
He came to apologize
with a Chinese birch rod
on his back…The two
became the best friends
ever since.
Four Famous Generals
The Warring States Period


Bai Qi 白起), (?—257 BC), State of Qin, wiped out
600,000 of Zhao’s troops; 300,000 of Han and Wei’s
troops, including the Battle of Changping
Wang Jian 王翦, State of Qin, who led the Qin army in
seizing Handan, the capital city of the State of Zhao;
Defeated Yan (state), Zhao (state) and Chu (state).


Li Mu 李牧, (?—229 BC） State of Zhao, guarded
the frontier town, Wild Goose Gate
Lian Po 廉頗, State of Zhao, whose service was
around 298—266 BC、King Xiaocheng of Zhao 赵孝
成王(266—245BC)、King Daoxiang of Zhao 赵悼襄
王 ( 245—236 BC)。
The State of Chu
~1030 BC–223 BC~


Chu (楚) was a kingdom in what is now central and
southern China during the Spring and Autumn period
(722-402 BC) and Warring States Period (403-221
BC). Its ruling house had the surname Mi (芈), and
clan name Xiong (熊), and originally was of the noble
rank of zi, roughly comparable to a ‘viscount.
It was originally known as Jing (荆) and then as
Jingchu (荆楚). At the height of its power, the Chu
kingdom occupied vast areas of land, including the
present-day provinces of Hunan, Hubei, Chongqing,
Henan, Anhui and parts of Jiangsu and Jiangxi. The
Chu capital was at Ying (郢), around modern-day
Jingzhou 荆州 , which is located in what is today
Hubei province.
Zhang Yi


Zhang Yi (???-309 BC)
was born in the State of
Wei during the Warring
States Period of China. He
was an important strategist
in helping Qin to break the
confederation formed by
Su Qin, and hence pave the
way for Qin to unify China.
Both Zhang Yi and Su Qin
were Guiguzi’s students.
Zhang Yi

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
Zhang Yi was the first chancellor of the Qin
State;
He persuaded King Hui of Wei to offer 15
counties to Qin;
In 325, Zhang Yi took over County of Shan in
Henan which serves a natural barrier by the
Yellow River;
In 316, Zhang Yi took over Sichuan, a strategic
area with huge amount of resources;
Zhang Yi Tricked King Huai of Chu




In 311 BCE, Qin intended to attach Qi; but Chu
stood in the way—Qi and Chu had a close tie;
Zhang Yi met King Huai of Chu, promising 600
li (300 kilometers) of land to Chu; Chu broke its
tie with Qi;
When asking for the promised land, Zhang Yi
sneered, 600? Do you mean 6 li?
Outraged, Chu attacked Qin; but without Qi’s
support, Chu was no equal to Qin.
King Huai of Chu

King Huai of Chu (楚懷
王) (Xiong Huai 熊槐)
ruled 328-299: son of
King Wei. He lost to the
Qin armies at the Battle
of Danyang after Qin's
invasion of Sichuan.
Later, he was tricked
and held hostage until
his death by Qin.
King Huai of Chu vs. Qu Yuan




Qu Yuan used to be a darling; some
speculated on the gay issue;
During Zhang Yi’s stay, Zhang Yi bribed the
key figures such as Zi Lan, Jin Shang and the
King’s concubine Zheng Xiu.
While Qu Yuan warned the king to watch out
for the Qin, this little clique slandered Qu Yuan;
By and by, the King lost his judgment…
Qu Yuan (ca. 340 BCE - 278 BCE)
‘Topos of the World Upside Down
Nine Declarations/Nine Pieces •
Embracing the Sand 九章•怀沙






They have changed
white into black,
Overturned up into
down.
The Phoenix lies in a
cage,
While chickens and
ducks soar aloft.
They mix together jade
and stones,
And weigh them on the
same balance.
Chu Ci, the Songs of the South


Qu Yuan (ca. 340-278 B. C.)
represented the party opposed to any
compromise with Qin.
To Qu Yuan was attributed a body of
verse unlike anything else in ancient
China. These works, along with later
works in the same tradition, are known
as the Lyrics of Chu (Chu-Ci).
The Dragon Boat Festival

Although Chu Ci is an anthology of poems by many
poets, Qu Yuan was doubtless its central figure. A
minister in the court of King Huai of Chu, Qu Yuan
advocated forming an alliance with the other states
against the dominance of Qin. However, his advice
was not taken and he was ostracized by other
officials in court. Seeing the corruption of his
colleagues and the inability of his king, Qu Yuan
then exiled himself and finally committed suicide in
the Miluo River when Qin defeated Chu in 278 BC. It
is in remembrance of the circumstances of his death
that the annual Dragon boat races are held.
Dragon Boat Festival
“On Encountering Trouble”
http://uwch4.humanities.washington.edu/~WG/~188/188%20Cours
e%20Reader_2011/CR4_%20Intro%20to%20Chuci.pdf


During his days of exile, Qu Yuan is thought to have
written Li Sao, his magnum opus and the
centerpiece of Chu Ci. The authorship, as in many a
case of ancient literature, can be neither confirmed
nor denied. Written in 373 verses containing 2490
characters, Li Sao is the earliest Chinese long poem
and is acclaimed as the literary representative of Qu
Yuan's high moral conduct and patriotism.
Jiu Ge ("Nine Songs"), also attributed to Qu Yuan, is
the first example of what could be called shamanic
literature in China. (See Arthur Waley, The Nine
Songs: A Study of Shamanism in Ancient China.)
List of Chu Ci Pieces 楚辭; also known
as Songs of the South or Songs of Chu

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01 離騷 LiSao On Encountering Sorrow/Trouble
02 九歌 JiuGe Nine Songs
03 天問 TianWen Heavenly Questions
04 九章 JiuZhang Nine Declarations or Nine Pieces
05 遠遊 YuanYou Distant Journey/Far-off Journey
06 卜居 BuJu Divining a Home/Divination
07 漁父 YuFu The Fisherman
08 九辯 JiuBian Nine Arguments/Nine Changes
09 招魂 ZhaoHun Summoning the Soul
10 大招 DaZhao The Great Summons
11 惜誓 XiShi Sorrow for Troth Betrayed
12 招隱 ZhaoYin Summoning the Hermit
13 七諫 QiJian Seven Admonitions/Seven Remonstrance
14 哀時AiShi Ming Lamenting Time’s Faet/Alas That My
Lot Was Not Cast
15 九懷 JiuHuai Nine Regrets
16 九歎 JiuTan Nine Sighs/Nine Laments
17 九思 JiuSi Nine Longings
漁父 Yu Fu The Fisherman
http://uwch4.humanities.washington.edu/~WG/~188/188%20Cours
e%20Reader_2011/CR6_The%20Fisherman.pdf



A poem attributed to Qu Yuan and
published in the Chu Ci (楚辭 Songs of
Chu, sometimes Songs of the South).
Read Yu Fu online
Juxtapose Yu Fu with Canon of Shun
End of Zhou (256 BCE)

With the royal line broken, the power of the Zhōu
court gradually diminished, and the fragmentation of
the kingdom accelerated. From King Píng's reign
onwards, the Zhōu kings ruled in name only, with
true power lying in the hands of regional nobles.
Towards the end of the Zhōu Dynasty, the nobles did
not even bother to symbolically acknowledge loyalty
the Jī family, declaring themselves to be
independent kings. The dynasty ended in 256 BCE
when the last king of Zhōu died and none of his sons
proclaimed the nominal title of King of China.