EOC Essentials
Language that appeals to a reader’s sense
of sight, hearing, touch, smell, or taste.
The crisp autumn wind felt cold on his
wrist and almost tasted of ripe apples.
Language that requires examination to understand the
author’s true meaning, meaning that goes beyond the
literal or obvious.
What follows are literary devices that require
examination to understand their deeper meaning as
opposed to the literal, surface meaning of the words that
form them.
There are three types of irony: verbal,
situational, and dramatic.
Each type involves a discrepancy (a
distinct difference between two things).
In situational irony, a discrepancy exists between the
reader’s expectations of a situation and the actual
outcome of the situation.
The Most Dangerous Game: We expect a hunter to hunt an
animal; however, in this story, the hunter (Rainsford)
becomes the hunted.
The Lottery: We expect a lottery winner to win money;
however, in this story, the lottery winner wins death. She
gets stoned to death.
The assassination attempt on Pres. Ronald Reagan:
When John Hinckley attempted to assassinate President
Reagan, all of his shots initially missed the President;
however, a bullet ricocheted off the bullet-proof Presidential
limousine and struck Reagan in the chest. Thus, a vehicle
made to protect the President from gunfire was partially
responsible for his being shot
In dramatic irony, a discrepancy exists between what the
reader or audience knows to be true and what one of the
characters believes to be true. In other words, the
reader/audience knows something the character does not.
This knowledge often leads the reader/audience to assign a
very different meaning or significance to the character’s
words or actions than what the character intended.
In Lamb to the Slaughter, the reader knows that the
weapon is literally under the police detective’s nose.
The policeman is actually eating the weapon, the leg of
lamb, as he says, “It’s probably right under our noses.”
In verbal irony, a discrepancy (distinct difference)
exists between what the speaker says and what he
actually means. Verbal irony may take the form
of sarcasm, overstatement, or understatement.
Your perpetually late friend arrives thirty minutes late and causes the two of
you to miss the movie you were supposed to go see. You say to her, “Once
again, your punctuality saves the day!” You mean the opposite of what you
are saying. You’re being ironic by employing sarcasm.
You earn straight A’s on your report card and your dad says, “Not bad.” He
really means, “Awesome! Fantastic!” He is being ironic by employing
understatement.
Your computer freezes (again) while you are downloading a hilarious video
you really want to watch. You scream, “I am going to throw this computer out
the window!” You’re not really going to throw your $500 computer out the
window. You just mean that you’re really frustrated with it. You’re being
ironic by employing overstatement.
A bitter expression of disapproval
that tends to mean the opposite of
what the words actually say.
Also called HYPERBOLE, overstatement
is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical
device.
A form of speech which contains an
expression of less strength than what
would be expected.
The substitution of a polite or milder
phrase for a harsher or more offensive
expression.
Euphemisms:
Euphemism
What is really meant
If a woman is “in a family way,”
she is pregnant.
If a girl is “going to powder my
nose,”
she is going to use the toilet.
If you are going to the “restroom,”
you are going to the toilet.
If person “passed away,”
he died.
If a solider was killed by “friendly
fire,”
He was killed by a fellow soldier,
someone on his side.
In literature, a paradox is a contradictory,
illogical, or absurd statement that
contains some element of truth.
We are willing to fight for peace.
While this statement appears to contradict itself, sometimes one must fight to
ensure peace.
Nature’s first green is gold.
-- Robert Frost, “Nothing Gold Can Stay”
At first glance, you wonder how green can be gold. However, when you dig
deeper, you realize that gold is symbolizing perfection, so it does make sense.
“What a pity that youth must be wasted on the young.”
-- George Bernard Shaw
While your initial reaction is that this statement is absurd or illogical, Shaw’s
point/truth is that youth can only truly be appreciated by someone who has lost
it. It echoes the idea that a person only truly values something once he’s lost it.
It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it
was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of
incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the
spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had
nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct
the other way.
--Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities
The first line of A Tale of Two Cities, by Charles Dickens, is the most
famous line in literature. It is also the most famous paradox in
literature. It appears contradictory; however, upon examination, we
can find some truth in the words. In every era, our own time, the
time of Dickens, the time of the French Revolution (the setting of A
Tale of Two Cities), there are those who claim, “We’ve never had it
so good.” There are also those who suffer and struggle to make ends
meet. Some people think, “Things are going great in this country!”
Others worry that our civilization could collapse on its decaying moral
foundation. A person’s experiences and perspective will determine
the period to be the best of times or the worst of times. Some will
see it as a time of wisdom, light, and hope; others will see it as a
time of foolishness, darkness, and despair.
An oxymoron brings together two
contradictory words to create a
special effect. An oxymoron is a
compressed paradox.
A deafening silence
“Deafening” usually means very loud, so in this case, a very loud
silence is contradictory. A reader, however, would understand the
intended meaning: an intense or meaningful silence.
Bittersweet
Bitter and sweet come together to suggest something that is both
pleasant and regretful or painful. Running into an ex could be
bittersweet as it may bring mixed emotions.
Controlled chaos
Chaos is defined as an utter state of confusion or disorder
(uncontrolled). By pairing “chaos” with the contradictory word
“controlled,” you can suggest a situation that appears disorganized
but actually manages to work in an orderly fashion.
A comparison of two apparently unlike
things using like, as, than, or resembles.
"Life is like an onion: You peel it off one layer at a time, and sometimes
you weep."
(Carl Sandburg)
"[H]e looked about as inconspicuous as a tarantula on a slice of angel
food."
(Raymond Chandler, Farewell, My Lovely, 194
"I'm happier than a tornado in a trailer park." - Mater, Cars
The seven-layer sandwich resembled a skyscraper.
A figure of speech that makes a comparison
either by stating that one thing is something
else, or by implying, through substitution,
that one thing is something else.
Here are some rather boring metaphors that we
hear everyday:
Her words rang true.
By substituting “rang” for “sounded,” the speaker or writer has
created a metaphor that compares her true words to the clear sound
of a bell.
You’re the light of my life.
While you don’t literally provide light in her life, you are a crucial
part of her life.
"The rain came down in long knitting needles."
--Enid Bagnold, National Velvet
Through substitution, raindrops are being compared to long knitting
needles. The metaphor suggests that the raindrops are long and sharp
or stinging against the skin, so we can infer that it’s probably raining
hard. A strong wind has probably created a hard, driving rain.
"Between the lower east side tenements the sky is a
snotty handkerchief.“
--Marge Piercy, “The Butt of Winter”
In this very direct form of metaphor, the author is saying that one object (the
sky between low income, urban apartment buildings) is a snotty handkerchief.
By creating this metaphor, she has painted a very ugly image of the living
environment of the lower class.
"Memory is a crazy woman that hoards colored rags and
throws away food.“ --Austin O'Malley, Keystones of Thought
In this metaphor, by comparing memory to a crazy woman who hoards trash and
throws away food, the author is commenting on the fact that people seem to
remember the bad things (colored rags) that happen to them and forget the
good (nourishing like food) things.
“They carry bundles of garments from the factories to
the tenements, little beasts of burden, robbed of
school life that they may work for us.”
Through substitution, Kelley used the above metaphor in her speech to compare
children to worker animals. She was suggesting that we were working our
children much like we worked our farm animals. By calling the children beasts
of burden, the author was hoping to evoke images of horses pulling plows or
mules loaded down with packages.
An analogy, like a simile, compares two different things by identifying
points of similarity. The difference is that an analogy usually identifies
several points of similarity and is created for the purpose of conceptual
clarity.
Example:
Flash memory chips work like a chalkboard, in that, when information is
written on it, the information remains present even when the power is
turned off. Only when the information is deliberately erased will it
disappear. And like the chalkboard, flash memory can be written on and
erased many times.
Attaching human characteristics to something that is not
human.
“The wind wandering by night rocks the wheat.”
--Pat Mora in her poem Meciendo.
The wind does not actually wander, nor does it rock wheat like a
human would a baby.
“the muttering and growling of the sea breaking on a
rocky shore”
“the sea licked greedy lips in the shadows”
The sea does not actually growl and mutter, nor does it have lips.
Human characteristics have been assigned to the sea.
Both of these examples of personification come from The Most
Dangerous Game by Richard Connell
Symbolism is when the author uses an object or reference
to represent an idea in order to add deeper meaning to a
story. Symbolism in literature can be subtle or obvious,
used sparingly or heavy-handedly. An author may
repeatedly use the same object to convey deeper
meaning or may use variations of the same object to
create an overarching mood or feeling. Symbolism is often
used to support a literary theme in a subtle manner.
“A Man Saw A Ball of Gold”
In this poem, the ball of gold symbolizes man’s desire
or goal. He climbs for it, but when he achieves it, he
notices that it is only clay. However, when he climbs
back down and looks up again, it appears gold again.
The poet tells us that it was always gold. The poet’s
use of gold to represent something valuable and
worth having conveys the poem’s meaning that
people often do not appreciate what they have, only
what they don’t.
Repetition of initial sounds of words or stressed
syllables in close proximity to one another.
A Dr. Seuss example:
Big B little b what begins with B? Barber, baby, bubble, and a bumblebee.
Something a little less obvious:
"A moist young moon hung above the mist of a neighboring
meadow."
--Vladimir Nabokov, Conclusive Evidence, 1951
"[S]he had no room for gaiety and ease. She had spent the golden
time in grudging its going."
--Dorothy Parker, "The Lovely Leave"
Both tone and mood are developed through the
author’s diction or word choice. However, it is
important not to confuse these two literary
elements.
Tone is the author’s attitude toward his subject and/or
audience. Tone is different from mood because whereas
tone describes how the author feels about his subject or
audience, mood describes how the reader feels when
reading the story. Tone reflects the writer’s feelings
while mood reflects the reader’s.
EXAMPLES TONE WORDS
AMUSED
ACCUSATORY
HUMOROUS
AUTHORITATIVE
BITTER
INSOLENIT
CONFIDENT
CAUSTIC
IRONIC
REFLECTIVE
CONTEMPTUOUS
IRREVERENT
HOPEFUL
CRITICAL
MOCKING
LIGHTHEARTED
CYNICAL
PATRONIZING
PASSIONATE
DISINTERESTED
RIDICULING
PROUD
HAUGHTY
SARCASTIC
REVERENT
INDIGNANT
SARDONIC
SYMPATHETIC
INFLAMMATORY
SATIRIC
NOSTALGIC
OUTRAGED
SCORNFUL
CANDID
SOMBER
TEASING
WISTFUL
REGRETFUL
WHIMSICAL
The atmosphere the author creates through his word
choice. The mood of a story affects/reflects the reader’s
emotions about the story. Setting plays a large part in
determining the mood of the story.
A FEW MOOD WORDS
HOPEFUL
CONFINING
JOYOUS
FOREBODING
HARMONIOUS
GLOOMY
PLAYFUL
HOPELESS
OPTIMISTIC
HOSTILE
NOSTALGIC
SUSPENSEFUL
ROMANTIC
TENSE
TRANQUIL
SOMBER
FANCIFUL
MYSTERIOUS
FESTIVE
MELANCHOLY
SENTIMENTAL
UNEASY
REVERENT
CLINICAL
DETERMINED
DEPRESSING
The dictionary definition of a word.
An idea or feeling associated with the word, in
addition to its literal or primary meaning.
Have you ever wondered why we call a dictionary
a dictionary?
Well, wonder no more. It will all make sense
once you learn the below definition.
The choice and use of words and
phrases in speech or writing.
The arrangement of words and
phrases to create well-formed
sentences in a language.
A word or phrase that means exactly or
nearly the same as another word or
phrase in the same language
A word or phrase that has the opposite
meaning of another word or phrase in the
same language
The central character in a narrative
literary work, around whom the main
conflict revolves.
A person or force in society or nature that
opposes the protagonist.
A literary or dramatic character who
undergoes an important inner change, as a
change in personality or attitude.
Ex. Ebenezer Scrooge is a dynamic character
A literary or dramatic character who
undergoes little or no inner change; a
character who does not grow or develop.
The standpoint or perspective from which the story is
told. The point of view addresses the question of WHO
is the narrator (the person telling the story). The
trustworthiness of the narrator can come into
question, depending on the point of view.
1st person point of view occurs when the narrator is
a character in the story. The narrator refers to
himself as “I.”
The veracity (or truthfulness) of the narrator must
be viewed critically when you have a 1st person
point of view.
The 3rd person point of view has a narrator who is
outside the story looking in. The narrator tells the
story in terms of “he” and “she.”
The 3rd person point of view narrator can be
objective, limited, or omniscient.
The 3rd person omniscient narrator can see inside
the minds of all the characters. He knows what
everyone is thinking. Omniscient literally means
“all knowing.” Consequently, we get to hear the
thoughts of the characters.
The 3rd person limited narrator can only see
into the mind of one or two characters in the
story. He has limited knowledge of the what
the characters are thinking. He is limited to
the thoughts of only one or two characters.
The 3rd person objective narrator has no inside
information whatsoever. This narrator only relates what
it sees and hears. This narrator cannot read the thoughts
of any of the characters. This is an excellent point of
view for stories with surprise endings that require the
reader to be out of the loop.
The Lottery by Shirley Jackson used 3rd person objective
point of view. Anything else would have given away the
ending or made the narration unbelievable. The
characters would have naturally been thinking about the
outcome of the lottery.
FORESHADOWING
is the use of hints or clues to suggest what will happen later in
literature.
FLASHBACK
in literature and dramatic media, an interjected scene that takes the
narrative back in time from the current point
ALLUSION
a brief reference, explicit or indirect, to a person, place or event, or
to another literary work or passage". In Robert Frost’s “Nothing Gold
Can Stay,” he alludes to the story of Adam and Eve when he writes,
“so Eden fell to grief.”