TWENTIETH-CENTURY AMERICA
A Social and Political History
SECOND EDITION
CHAPTER
1
The American Journey
in 1900
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Intro to the Course
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About Me
Syllabus
Expectations
Presentations
Mondays –
 Review Previous Week/ Questions
 Student Presentation
 Lecture
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Thursdays
 Finish Lecture
 Discussion/ Partner work
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Photographer Lewis Hine’s portrait of a young
Jewish woman arriving from Russia at Ellis Island,
1905. Like hundreds of thousands of other
immigrants who passed through the portals of New
York harbor, this young woman’s expression carries
the hope, fear, and remembrance that touched her
fellow wanderers as they embarked on their new
life in America. Courtesy: George Eastman House.
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Introduction
Russian Jewish teenager Mary Antin reached
Boston with her family in the mid-1890s. By
1900, the United States had been
transformed by large-scale immigration and
rapid industrialization. Great cities were
home to 40 percent of the nation’s
population. Mary’s memoirs capture the mix
of anxieties and exhilaration felt by many
immigrants, though she was luckier than
many with her professional success.
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CHRONOLOGY
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American Federation of Labor
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The A.F. of L. was a loose grouping of smaller craft unions,
such as the masons' union, the hatmakers' union or
Gompers's own cigarmakers' union. Every member of the
A.F. of L. was therefore a skilled worker.
Unions were growing in size and status. There were over
20,000 strikes in America in the last two decades of the
19th century. Workers lost about half, but in many cases
their demands were completely or partially met. The A.F.
of L. served as the preeminent national labor organization
until the Great Depression when unskilled workers finally
came together. Smart leadership, patience, and realistic
goals made life better for the hundreds of thousands of
working Americans it served.
https://www.ushistory.org/us/37d.asp
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Dawes Act
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The Dawes Act (sometimes called the Dawes Severalty Act
or General Allotment Act), passed in 1887 under President
Grover Cleveland, allowed the federal government to break
up tribal lands. The federal government aimed to
assimilate Native Americans into mainstream US society
by encouraging them towards farming and agriculture,
which meant dividing tribal lands into individual plots. Only
the Native Americans who accepted the division of tribal
lands were allowed to become US citizens. This ended in
the government stripping over 90 million acres of tribal
land from Native Americans, then selling that land to
https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/dawes-act.htm
How do you think this impacted Native Americans?
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Interstate Commerce Act
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On February 4, 1887, both the Senate and House passed the Interstate Commerce
Act, which applied the Constitution’s “Commerce Clause”—granting Congress the
power “to Regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several
States”—to regulating railroad rates. Small businesses and farmers were protesting
that the railroads charged them higher rates than larger corporations, and that the
railroads were also setting higher rates for short hauls than for long-distance hauls.
Although the railroads claimed economic justification for policies that favored big
businesses, small shippers insisted that the railroads were gouging them.
It took years for Congress to respond to these protests, due to members’ reluctance
to have the government interfere in any way with corporate policies. In 1874
legislation was introduced calling for a federal railroad commission. The bill passed
the House, but not the Senate. When Congress failed to act, some states adopted
their own railroad regulations. Those laws were struck down in 1886, when the
Supreme Court ruled in Wabash v. Illinois that the state of Illinois could not restrict
the rates that the Wabash Railroad was charging because its freight traffic moved
between the states, and only the federal government could regulate interstate
commerce. Continued public anger over unfair railroad rates prompted Illinois
senator Shelby M. Cullom to hold the hearings that led to the enactment of the
Interstate Commerce Act.
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Interstate Commerce Act
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That law limited railroads to rates that were “reasonable and just,” forbade rebates
to high-volume users, and made it illegal to charge higher rates for shorter hauls. To
hear evidence and render decisions on individual cases, the act created the
Interstate Commerce Commission. This was the first federal independent regulatory
commission, and it served as a model for others that would follow, from the Federal
Trade Commission to the Securities and Exchange Commission and the Consumer
Product Safety Commission.
Evolving technology eventually made the purpose of the ICC obsolete, and in 1995
Congress abolished the commission, transferring its remaining functions to the
Surface Transportation Board. But while the ICC has come and gone, its creation
marked a significant turning point in federal policy. Before 1887, Congress had
applied the Commerce Clause only on a limited basis, usually to remove barriers
that the states tried to impose on interstate trade. The Interstate Commerce Act
showed that Congress could apply the Commerce Clause more expansively to
national issues if they involved commerce across state lines. After 1887, the national
economy grew much more integrated, making almost all commerce interstate and
international. The nation rather than the Constitution had changed. That
development turned the Commerce Clause into a powerful legislative tool for
addressing national problems.
https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/Interstate_Commerce_Act_Is_P
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assed.htm
Sherman Antitrust Act
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The Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 was the first measure passed by the U.S. Congress to prohibit
trusts.
A trust was an arrangement by which stockholders in several companies transferred their shares to a
single set of trustees. In exchange, the stockholders received a certificate entitling them to a specified
share of the consolidated earnings of the jointly managed companies.
The trusts came to dominate a number of major industries, destroying competition. For example, on
January 2, 1882, the Standard Oil Trust was formed. Attorney Samuel Dodd of Standard Oil first had
the idea of a trust. A board of trustees was set up, and all the Standard properties were placed in its
hands. Every stockholder received 20 trust certificates for each share of Standard Oil stock. All the
profits of the component companies were sent to the nine trustees, who determined the dividends. The
nine trustees elected the directors and officers of all the component companies. This allowed the
Standard Oil to function as a monopoly since the nine trustees ran all the component companies.
The Sherman Act authorized the Federal Government to institute proceedings against trusts in
order to dissolve them. Any combination “in the form of trust or otherwise that was in restraint
of trade or commerce among the several states, or with foreign nations” was declared illegal.
The Sherman Act was designed to restore competition but was loosely worded and failed to define such
critical terms as “trust,” “combination,” “conspiracy,” and “monopoly.”
Five years later, the Supreme Court dismantled the Sherman Act in United States v. E. C. Knight
Company (1895). The Court ruled that the American Sugar Refining Company, one of the other
defendants in the case, had not violated the law even though the company controlled about 98 percent
of all sugar refining in the United States. The Court opinion reasoned that the company’s control of
manufacture did not constitute a control of trade.
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Antitrust Laws
• Play Video https://www.investopedia.com/terms/a
/antitrust.asp
• Can you think of any modern examples
of the government regulating
companies in this way or companies
violating antitrust laws?
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New Industry
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New Industry
The United States of 1870 was an
agricultural nation of farmers, merchants,
and artisans. By 1900, it was an
industrial nation, producing more than
one-third of the world’s manufactured
goods.
How has the U.S. Changed in terms of
industry?
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New Industry
• Discuss:
 Patents
 Immigration
 U.S. as innovator
 Examples:
- Pepsi
- Microsoft (recent years & Canada)
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New Industry (cont’d)
• Inventing Technology: the Electric Age
 by 1900 electric power transformed:
- manufacturing
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factory location
- labor
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machines replaced workers
- city life
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electric lights, appliances, electric trolleys,
movies
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Thomas Edison, The Success of the Electric
Light (1880)
Electricity conquered space and the night. the
yellow glow of incandescent bulbs, the whiz of
trolleys, and the rumble of elevated railways
energize the Bowery, an emerging entertainment
district in lower Manhattan at the end of the
nineteenth century.
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New Industry (cont’d)
• Inventing Technology: the Electric Age
 technological innovation: not just
borrowing
- research and development laboratories
• Innovations in Corporate Management
 entrepreneurs consolidated for efficiency
- Rockefeller, Carnegie
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Corporation and Its Impact
• Rockefeller & Carnegie – “consolidating
operations and gobbling up smaller
competitors” – p. 5
 Modern example – Facebook and Google
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New Industry (cont’d)
• Changing Nature of Work
 corporate control of work conditions
- deskilling
 unions: AFL, ARU
• Rural Americans Interdependent with
Cities
 migration
 Populism
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New Industry (cont’d)
• Government Responds
 regulation
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Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC)
more on state than federal level; regional
differences
ideal of opportunity [“opportunity” = economic
prosperity]
• Do you think there are any areas the
government should regulate more now?
 Discuss Elon Musk and Charging Stations
recent comment 12/2021
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New Immigrants
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New Immigrants
Between 1880 and World War I, most
immigrants were young men who planned to
earn money and return to the Old World;
about half of them did. Jews generally
moved permanently, as families. Large
urban factories attracted many workers.
Female migration and chain migration
increased by 1900. Mexicans and Japanese
migrants often worked in agriculture.
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Map 1–1 Patterns of Immigration, 1820–1914
The migration to the United States was part of a
worldwide transfer of population that accelerated
with the Industrial Revolution and the
accompanying improvement in transportation.
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Growth and Cities
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R
Rhjqqe750A
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New Immigrants (cont’d)
• Cultural Connections in a New World
 neighborhood clustering vs. assimilation
 maintaining cultural traditions
- religious, communal institutions
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Jewish landsmanshaften
- ethnic newspapers, theaters, schools
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New Immigrants (cont’d)
• The Job
 work availability for immigrants
determined by:
- skills
- local economy
- local discrimination
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ethnic stereotyping of low-skilled, low-wage
labor
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New Immigrants (cont’d)
• The Job
 Los Angeles Japanese: market garden
crops
 costs/benefits of stereotypes for various
groups
- Jews in needle trades
 few married women worked outside of the
home
 common goal: business ownership
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New Immigrants (cont’d)
• Nativism
 historic antiforeign sentiment
- prevalent 1830s–1860
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especially against Irish Catholic immigrants
- echoes today
 “scientific” racism
- belief that ethnic groups represented
inferior races
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New Immigrants (cont’d)
• Nativism
 assimilation [or, adjustment]
- dynamic
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created new cultural forms, modifications of
traditions
 black-white, red-white: biggest racial
divides
- immigrants assert “whiteness”
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Nativists label immigrants “black”
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Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)
Thomas Nast’s 1870 attack on nativism. White
workers, many of them immigrants themselves,
objected to labor competition from Chinese
immigrants and eventually helped to persuade
Congress to pass the Chinese Exclusion Act in
1882.
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Chinese Exclusion Act
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The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was the first significant law restricting
immigration into the United States. Many Americans on the West Coast
attributed declining wages and economic ills to Chinese workers. Although
the Chinese composed only .002 percent of the nation's population,
Congress passed the exclusion act to placate worker demands and
assuage prevalent concerns about maintaining white "racial purity."
The Opium Wars (1839-42, 1856-60) of the mid-nineteenth century
between Great Britain and China left China in debt. Floods and drought
contributed to an exodus of peasants from their farms, and many left the
country to find work. When gold was discovered in the Sacramento Valley
of California in 1848, a large uptick in Chinese immigrants entered the
United States to join the California Gold Rush.
Following an 1852 crop failure in China, over 20,000 Chinese immigrants
came through San Francisco’s customs house (up from 2,716 the previous
year) looking for work. Violence soon broke out between white miners and
the new arrivals, much of it racially charged. In May 1852, California
imposed a Foreign Miners Tax of $3 month meant to target Chinese
miners, and crime and violence escalated.
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Modern Immigration Acts
•
Discuss Trump Era Policies
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Settling the Race Issue
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Settling the Race Issue
African Americans faced deteriorating
conditions, particularly in the South. In
1900, 90% of the black population of the
United States lived in the South.
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Settling the Race Issue (cont’d)
• Black Aspirations and White Backlash
 young post-slavery blacks vs. “Lost Cause”
whites
 worsening rural economy in South, 1890s
 urban black-white contact, competition
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Settling the Race Issue (cont’d)
• Lynch Law
 massive scale of lynchings, especially
1890s
 white rage, “orgy of violence”
 Ida B. Wells-Barnett
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Lynch Law in Georgia
Lynching became a public spectacle; a ritual
designed to reinforce white supremacy. Note the
matter-of-fact satisfaction of the spectators to this
gruesome murder of a black man.
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Settling the Race Issue (cont’d)
• Segregation by Law
 racial segregation diminished in North after
1865
 legal separation increased in South, 1890s
 railroads
- symbolize modernity, mobility
- social rules unclear
- Plessy v. Ferguson, 1896
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segregation not unconstitutional
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Settling the Race Issue (cont’d)
• Segregation by Law
 Jim Crow laws
 black men excluded from trade unions
- deskilling
• Disenfranchisement
 political isolation of the South
 blacks disenfranchised, despite 15th
Amendment
- poll tax, secret ballot, literacy tests,
grandfather clauses
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Overview
The March of Disfranchisement Across the South,
1889–1908
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Settling the Race Issue (cont’d)
• A National Consensus on Race
 widespread dehumanizing black
stereotypes
 Northern white opinion supported Southern
white policy
• Response of the Black Community
 black organizations had little success in
1890s
 moving as most realistic option
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Settling the Race Issue (cont’d)
• Roots of the Great Migration
 sharecropping: new rural labor system
- (white) landlords provide house, land,
supplies
- (black) farmers provide part of crop, pay
debts
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debt often exceeds income
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Settling the Race Issue (cont’d)
• Roots of the Great Migration
 Northern job opportunities
- blacks compete with immigrants (often
lose)
- limited opportunities for women
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domestic service
 segregated housing
- community institutions
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The Great Migration
An african-american religious meeting, New York
City, early 1900s. Black migrants from the South
found vibrant communities in Northern cities
typically centered around black churches and their
activities. Like immigrants from asia and europe,
who sought to transplant the culture of their
homelands within the urban United States, black
migrants reestablished Southern religious and
communal traditions in their new homes.
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New Cities
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New Cities
Novelist Theodore Dreiser called the
American city a “giant magnet.” The rapid
urbanization of the late nineteenth century
(by 1900, 19% of the U.S. population lived
in cities of more than 100,000) was spread
across many cities. Within each city,
residents grouped by ethnicity and social
class.
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New Cities (cont’d)
• Centers and Suburbs
 tall buildings downtown
 residential rings/suburbs
- Russell family in Short Hills, NJ
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home design
family recreation
 growing fragmentation: social and class
divisions
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New Cities (cont’d)
• The New Middle Class
 increasing numbers of “white-collar” office
workers
 residential subdivisions within cities, or
suburbs
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New Cities (cont’d)
• A Consumer Society
 goods, not land, as symbol of prestige
 homes feature new technologies,
appliances
 time-keeping and value of time change
 advertising creates demand, brand loyalty
 newspapers and tabloids
- tabloids unify urban society with universal
appeal
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New Cities (cont’d)
• A Consumer Society
 department stores
- anchor urban downtowns after 1900
- democratizing
- female-friendly
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New Cities (cont’d)
• The Growth of Leisure Activities
 some recreation reinforces social
differentiation
- private clubs for those who can afford fees
- saloons for working men
 some recreation undermines social
differentiation
- baseball for much of middle- and workingclass
- amusement parks for all
•
Coney Island
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New Cities (cont’d)
• The Ideal City
 urban energy and opportunity
 the “White City”
- 1893 World’s Fair exemplifies possibility of
“ideal city”
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Attacking the American Indian
Problem
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Attacking the American Indian
Problem
Loss of Indian lands, especially due to
the Dawes Act, reinforced white
reformers’ efforts to suppress Native
American culture.
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Attacking the American Indian
Problem
• Dawes Act, 1887
 land ownership by individual Indians, not
tribes
- more than half of Indian lands lost, 1887–
1900
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Accounts of the Wounded Knee Massacre
(1890s)
As white people pushed into the West to exploit its
resources, Indians were steadily forced to cede
their lands. By 1900 they held only scattered
parcels, often in areas considered worthless by
white people. restricted to these reservations,
tribes endured official efforts to suppress Indian
customs and values.
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Attacking the American Indian
Problem (cont’d)
• Reformers
 banned traditional religious practices
- 1890 suppression of Ghost Dance among
Sioux
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Wounded Knee Massacre
 missionaries attempt conversion to
Christianity
 off-reservation boarding schools
 instruction in white farming practices
- disruption of gender roles
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Attacking the American Indian
Problem (cont’d)
• Failure of Assimilation
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An Emerging World Power
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An Emerging World Power
The United States emerged as a world
power by 1900. Foreign affairs were
influenced by prejudices and a “crusading
spirit.” Urban life was fragmented and
flawed, but also energetic and open. Overall,
ideals and institutions developed that
allowed immigrants and minorities to
participate – under increasingly fair
conditions – in the American journey.
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Class Discussion Questions
In what ways did labor conditions change for the
working class in the 50 years after the Civil War?
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• Industrialism was growing largely
unchecked in the United States after the
Civil War, creating new jobs and new
problems simultaneously. Immigration was
continuing in unprecedented numbers,
especially from eastern and southern Europe,
forever altering the makeup of the
workforce.
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How did nativist groups attempt to halt the mixture of
culture that came to the United States in the period
1880–1910?
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By the 1880s, nativists began to target immigrants from Asia, particularly
in the western United States. The Page Act of 1875 barred Chinese women
from entering the country, and in 1882, the Chinese Exclusion Act made all
immigration from China illegal.
Millions of Italians, Jews, Poles, and Slavs migrated to the United
States during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century,
generating intense fear and hatred of immigrants among many
Americans. Responding to nativists who demanded limits on the
number and national origins of immigrants, in 1924 Congress
passed the Johnson-Reed Act, which implemented a rigid quota
system.
The immigration laws of the 1920s remained in place until 1965,
when the Immigration and Nationality Act redistributed the quota
system to allow for a greater diversity of immigrants.
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In what ways did the Dawes Act aid and/or harm
Indians?
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What social developments reveal the emergence of a
predominant middle-class culture in the United States?
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• Address the following statement: “Despite the
great wealth produced by the industrial boom,
class divisions in America were sharply divisive
in the period of 1880–1910.”
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