Architectural Drafting and Design

Architectural Drafting and Design Sixth Edition Alan Jefferis Principal of Residential Designs Former architectural drafting instructor at Mt Hood Community College Faculty Emeritus at Clackamas Community College Former member of the American Institute of Building Designers. Former Autodesk Developer Network Member Coauthor of Residential Design Drafting and Detailing; Commercial Drafting and Detailing; and AutoCAD® for Architecture. David A. Madsen President, Madsen Designs Inc. Faculty Emeritus Former Department Chairperson Drafting Technology, Autodesk Premier Training Center Clackamas Community College, Oregon City, Oregon Former Instructor, Drafting Technology Centennial High School, Gresham, Oregon Autodesk Developer Network Member Director Emeritus, American Design Drafting Association Author of Engineering Drawing and Design, Print Reading for Engineering and Manufacturing Technology, and Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing. Coauthor of AutoCAD and its Applications, Architectural Drafting Using AutoCAD, Civil Drafting Technology, Print Reading for Architecture and Construction Technology. David P. Madsen Vice President, Madsen Designs Inc. Computer-Aided Design and Drafting Consultant and Educator Autodesk Developer Network Member SolidWorks Research Associate American Design Drafting Association Member Author of Inventor and its Applications. Coauthor of AutoCAD and its Applications, Architectural Drafting Using AutoCAD, Civil Drafting Technology, Engineering Drawing and Design, and Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing. Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. 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Brief Contents Preface, xiii Acknowledgments, xix Prologue, xxiii SECTION 5 Supplemental Floor Plan Drawings SECTION 1 Introduction to 20 Plumbing Plans, 461 Architectural Design and Drafting 1 Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities, 3 2 Introduction to Construction Procedures, 33 3 Architectural Drafting Equipment, 44 19 Electrical Plans, 431 21 Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning, 485 SECTION 6 Roof Plans 22 Roof Plan Components, 527 23 Roof Plan Layout, 547 4 Drafting Media and Reproduction Methods, 58 5 Sketching Applications, 66 SECTION 7 Elevations 6 Architectural Lines and Lettering, 87 24 Introduction to Elevations, 567 7 Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture, 104 25 Elevation Layout and Drawing Techniques, 589 SECTION 2 Residential Design 26 Millwork and Cabinet Technology, Cabinet Elevations, and Layout, 608 8 Construction Specifications, 141 9 Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design, 152 10 Room Relationships and Sizes, 177 11 Exterior Design Factors, 209 12 Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction, 232 SECTION 3 Site Planning 13 Site Orientation, 257 14 Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements, 268 15 Site Plan Layout, 285 SECTION 8 Framing Methods and Plans 27 Environmentally Friendly Framing Methods, 631 28 Structural Components of Framed Construction, 654 29 Design Criteria for Structural Loading, 685 30 Sizing Joists and Rafters Using Span Tables, 694 31 Determining Beam Sizes, 708 32 Drawing Framing Plans, 727 SECTION 4 The Floor Plan SECTION 9 Foundation Plans 16 Floor Plan Symbols, 311 33 Foundation Systems, 773 17 Floor Plan Dimensions and Notes, 360 34 Floor Systems and Foundation Support, 803 18 Floor Plan Layout, 379 35 Foundation Plan Layout, 828 iii iv Brief Contents SECTION 10 Wall Sections and Details SECTION 12 Commercial Drafting 36 Sectioning Basics, 853 42 Building Codes and Commercial Design, 953 37 Section Layout, 862 43 Common Commercial Construction Materials, 975 38 Alternative Layout Techniques, 876 44 Commercial Construction Projects, 1009 39 Stair Construction and Layout, 901 45 Structural Drafting, 1062 40 Fireplace Construction and Layout, 914 SECTION 11 Presentation Drawings and Renderings 41 Presentation Drawings, 935 Glossary, 1095 Index, 1113 Contents Preface, xiii Drafting Furniture, 44 Acknowledgments, xix Drafting Pencils and Leads, 44 Prologue, xxiii Technical Pens and Accessories, 45 Erasers and Accessories, 45 SECTION 1 Introduction to Architectural Design and Drafting 1 1 Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities, 3 Drafting Instruments, 47 Drafting Machines, 50 Drafting Machine Controls and Machine Head Operation, 51 Scales, 51 Introduction, 3 Protractors, 54 Drafter, 3 Additional Resources, 56 Designer, 6 Architectural Drafting Equipment Test, 56 Interior Decorator, 6 4 Drafting Media and Reproduction Methods, 58 Kitchen and Bath Designer, 6 Interior Designer, 7 Introduction, 58 Architect, 8 Papers and Films, 58 Engineer, 9 Manual Drawing Reproduction, 59 Related Fields, 10 Design Basics, 12 Sheet Sizes, Sheet Format, Title Blocks, and Borders, 60 Additional Resources, 31 How to Fold Prints, 61 Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities Test, 32 Diazo Reproduction, 62 2 Introduction to Construction Procedures, 33 Introduction, 33 Photocopy Reproduction, 62 Microfilm, 62 Additional Resources, 64 Drafting Media and Reproduction Methods Test, 64 Loan Applications, 33 Individual Appraisal Requirements, 34 5 Sketching Applications, 66 Master Appraisal Requirements, 34 Introduction, 66 Change Orders, 34 Sketching Tools and Materials, 66 Building Permits, 34 Sketching Straight Lines, 66 Contracts, 35 Sketching Circular Lines, 67 Completion Notices, 35 Measurement Lines and Proportions, 68 Construction Estimates, 36 Introduction to Multiview Sketches, 71 Construction Inspections, 37 Isometric Sketches, 73 Additional Resources, 40 Introduction to Construction Procedures Test, 40 3 Architectural Drafting Equipment 44 Orthographic Projection, 75 Multiview Projection, 75 Projection of Features from an Inclined Plane, 79 Introduction, 44 Additional Resources, 84 Drafting Supplies, 44 Sketching Applications Test, 84 v vi Contents National Building Codes, 155 6 Architectural Lines and Lettering, 87 Introduction, 87 Basic Design Criteria for Building Planning, 156 Types of Lines, 87 Climatic and Geographic Design Criteria, 163 Line Techniques, 91 International Energy Conservation Code, 169 Lettering, 94 Additional Resources, 174 Hints for Professional Lettering, 97 Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction Test, 175 Additional Resources, 100 Architectural Lines and Lettering Test, 101 10 Room Relationships and Sizes, 177 7 Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture, 104 Introduction, 177 The Floor Plan, 177 Introduction, 104 Living Area, 177 Architectural CADD Software Products, 104 Sleeping Area, 185 Productivity with CADD, 107 Service Areas, 190 The CADD Workstation, 107 Traffic Patterns, 203 Using CADD Templates, 107 Additional Resources, 207 Template Drawings on the Student CD, 108 Room Relationships and Sizes Test, 208 U.S. National CAD Standard, 108 Uniform Drawing System, 109 11 Exterior Design Factors, 209 Model and Sheet File-Naming Standards, 110 Introduction, 209 Sheet Identification, 113 Site Considerations, 209 File Management, 113 Elements of Design, 211 Sheet Organization, 113 Principles of Design, 212 Schedules, 116 Floor Plan Styles, 214 Drafting Conventions, 116 Exterior Styles, 216 CADD Graphics, 117 Additional Resources, 230 Drawing on CADD Layers, 120 Exterior Design Factors Test, 230 CADD Plotting Guidelines, 125 Additional Resources, 135 12 Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction, 232 Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture Test, 135 Introduction, 232 Energy-Efficient Design, 232 SECTION 2 Residential Design 8 Construction Specifications, 141 Introduction, 141 Residential Description of Materials, 141 139 The LEED Program, 233 National Association of Home Builders Model Green Home Building, 235 Energy Star, 236 General Construction Specifications, 141 The EnviroHome Initiative, Canadian Home Builders’ Association, 236 Specifications for Residential Design, 146 Energy-Efficient Construction Practices, 237 Specifications for Commercial Construction, 146 Solar Energy Design, 237 Construction Documents, 149 Passive Solar Systems, 239 Additional Resources, 150 Envelope Design, 242 Construction Specifications Test, 150 Active Solar Systems, 242 9 Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design 152 Geothermal Systems, 244 Wind Energy, 246 Introduction, 152 Hydroelectric Power, 246 Green Building Guidelines, 152 Biopower, 246 Contents vii Healthy Architectural Design and Construction, 246 SECTION 4 The Floor Plan 309 Additional Resources, 251 16 Floor Plan Symbols, 311 Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction Test, 251 Introduction, 311 Wall Symbols, 311 SECTION 3 Site Planning 13 Site Orientation, 257 Introduction, 257 Terrain Orientation, 257 View Orientation, 257 Solar Orientation, 259 Wind Orientation, 260 Sound Orientation, 264 Additional Resources, 266 Site Orientation Test, 267 255 Wall Shading and Material Indications, 316 Door Symbol Representations, 318 Window Symbol Representations, 321 Schedules, 324 Cabinets, Fixtures, and Appliances on Floor Plans, 332 Common Sizes of Architectural Features, 337 Floor Plan Materials, 339 Stair Planning and Floor Plan Representation, 341 Hallways on Floor Plans, 345 Fireplaces on Floor Plans, 346 Solid Fuel–Burning Appliances, 350 14 Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements, 268 Room Titles on Floor Plans, 351 Other Floor Plan Symbols, 351 Introduction, 268 Conclusion, 354 Metes and Bounds System, 268 Additional Resources, 357 Rectangular Survey System, 268 Floor Plan Symbols Test, 358 Lot and Block System, 271 Site Plan Requirements, 272 17 Floor Plan Dimensions and Notes, 360 Topography, 272 Introduction, 360 Drawing Site Plans, 274 Aligned Dimensions, 360 Grading Plan Features, 275 Floor Plan Dimensions, 360 Site Analysis Plan, 277 Placing Exterior Dimensions, 360 Subdivision Plans, 280 Placing Interior Dimensions, 364 Planned Unit Development, 281 Standard Feature Dimensions, 364 Metrics in Site Planning, 281 Omitting Dimensions Established by the Foundation, 365 Additional Resources, 284 Dimensioning Arc and Circular Floor Plan Features, 366 Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements Test, 284 Common Sizes of Architectural Features, 367 15 Site Plan Layout, 285 Introduction, 285 Site Design Considerations, 286 Rural Residential Fire Department Access and Site Planning, 287 Laying Out Property Lines, 288 Steps in Site Plan Layout, 289 Site Plan Drawing Checklist, 290 Masonry Veneer on the Floor Plan, 369 Concrete-Block and Structural Masonry Construction on the Floor Plan, 369 Solid Concrete Construction on the Floor Plan, 370 Floor Plan Notes and Specifications, 370 Designing Floor Plans Using Standard Construction Modules, 372 Using Metric Dimensions, 372 Additional Resources, 377 Floor Plan Dimensions and Notes Test, 377 Drawing Contour Lines, 291 Drawing Profiles, 293 18 Floor Plan Layout, 379 Drawing Grading Plans, 294 Introduction, 379 Additional Resources, 303 Steps for Laying Out a Floor Plan, 379 Site Plan Layout Test, 303 Second-Floor Plan Layout, 392 viii Contents Basement Plan Layout, 394 Plumbing Plan Drawing Checklist, 478 Floor Plan Drawing Checklist, 398 Additional Resources,, 483 Additional Resources, 403 Plumbing Plans Test, 483 Floor Plan Layout Test, 403 21 Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning, 485 Introduction, 485 SECTION 5 Supplemental Floor Plan Drawings 429 Central Forced-Air Systems, 485 Forced-Air Heating Plans, 486 19 Electrical Plans, 431 Hot Water Systems, 490 Introduction, 431 Heat Pump Systems, 490 Electrical Terms and Definitions, 431 Zone Control Systems, 491 Electrical Circuit Design, 432 Radiant Heat, 492 Basic Electrical Design Recommendations, 433 Thermostats, 492 Home Automation, 434 Heat Recovery and Ventilation, 493 Electrical Design Considerations, 435 Exhaust Systems: Code Requirements, 495 Smoke Detectors, 437 Central Vacuum Systems, 495 Carbon Monoxide Alarms, 437 HVAC Symbols, 495 Universal Electrical Installations, 437 Universal HVAC Design, 497 Electrical Symbols, 439 HVAC Code Requirements, 498 Light Fixture Design and Placement, 443 Thermal Calculations for Heating/Cooling, 499 Reflected Ceiling Plans, 446 Steps in Filling Out the Residential Heating Data Sheet, 500 Electrical Schedules, 446 Steps in Filling Out the Residential Cooling Data Sheet, 506 Electrical Wiring Specifications, 447 HVAC Drawings, 511 Metrics in Electrical Installations, 448 HVAC Plan Drawing Checklist, 516 Steps in Drawing the Electrical Plan, 448 Additional Resources, 520 Drawing the Upper-Floor Electrical Plan, 449 Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning Test, 520 Electrical Plan Drawing Checklist, 449 Additional Resources, 458 Electrical Plans Test, 459 SECTION 6 Roof Plans 22 Roof Plan Components, 527 20 Plumbing Plans, 461 Introduction, 527 Introduction, 461 Types of Roof Plans, 527 Plumbing Terms and Definitions, 462 Common Roof Terms, 527 Sizing of Plumbing Piping, 464 Roof Shapes, 533 Universal Plumbing Installations, 464 Roofing Materials, 539 Plumbing Schedules, 466 Roof Ventilation and Access, 543 Plumbing Drawings, 466 Additional Resources, 545 Water Systems, 466 Roof Plan Components Test, 545 Drainage and Vent Systems, 469 Isometric Plumbing Drawings, 470 23 Roof Plan Layout, 547 Automatic Fire Sprinkler Systems, 471 Introduction, 547 Sewage Disposal, 472 Representing Roof Plan Components, 547 Fire Sprinkler Systems, 474 Representing Structural Materials, 553 Metrics in Plumbing, 474 Representing Nonstructural Material, 554 Adding Plumbing Information to the Floor Plan, 475 Dimensions, 557 Commercial Plumbing Drawings, 475 Annotation, 557 525 Contents ix Drawing Gable Roof Plans, 558 28 Structural Components of Framed Construction, 654 Drawing Hip Roof Plans, 559 Drawing Dutch Hip Roof Plans, 560 Introduction, 654 Roof Plan Checklist, 563 Floor Construction, 654 Roof Plan Layout Test, 563 Framed Wall Construction, 664 Roof Construction, 672 SECTION 7 Elevations 565 Additional Resources, 683 Structural Components Test, 684 24 Introduction to Elevations, 567 29 Design Criteria for Structural Loading, 685 Introduction, 567 Major Considerations of Drawing Elevations, 567 Introduction, 685 Representing Materials in Elevation, 572 Types of Loads, 685 Additional Resources, 587 Load Design, 688 Introduction to Elevations Test, 588 Load Distribution, 690 Design Criteria for Structural Loading Test, 692 25 Elevation Layout and Drawing Techniques, 589 30 Sizing Joists and Rafters Using Span Tables, 694 Introduction, 589 Layout, 589 Introduction, 694 Drawing Finished-Quality Lines Manually, 593 Determining Wood Characteristics, 694 Annotation, 595 Determining Size and Span, 694 Drawing Roof Intersections, 596 Working with Engineered Lumber, 699 Drawing Irregular Shapes, 597 Additional Resources, 706 Projecting Grades, 600 Sizing Joists and Rafters Using Span Tables Test, 706 Elevation Checklist, 606 31 Determining Beam Sizes, 708 Elevation Layout and Drawing Techniques Test, 607 Introduction, 708 Structural Lumber, 708 26 Millwork and Cabinet Technology, Cabinet Elevations, and Layout, 608 Loading Reactions of Wood Members, 710 Introduction, 608 Methods of Beam Design, 712 Types of Millwork, 608 Sizing Wood Beams Using Standard Formulas, 714 Cabinets, 612 Wood Adjustment Factors, 718 Cabinet Elevations and Layout, 617 Review, 719 Bathroom Cabinet Layout, 623 Sizing Beams Using Span Tables, 720 Cabinet Elevations Checklist, 623 Sizing Laminated Beams, 720 Additional Resources, 627 Working with Engineered Beams, 720 Millwork and Cabinet Technology, Cabinet Elevations, and Layout Test, 627 Simple Beam with a Load Concentrated at the Center, 721 Simple Beam with a Load Concentrated at Any Point, 723 Cantilevered Beams with a Uniform Load, 723 SECTION 8 Framing Methods and Plans 629 27 Environmentally Friendly Framing Methods, 631 Introduction, 631 Additional Resources, 725 Determining Beam Sizes Test, 725 32 Drawing Framing Plans, 727 Wood Framing Methods, 631 Introduction, 727 Energy-Efficient Framing Methods, 638 Major Components Represented on a Framing Plan, 727 Green Construction Goals, 649 Additional Resources, 652 Resisting Lateral Loads Using the Prescriptive Path of the Code, 735 Framing Methods Test, 653 Completing a Framing Plan, 751 x Contents Roof Framing Plans, 753 Types of Sections, 853 Roof Framing Plan Checklist, 759 Drawing Scale, 856 Floor Framing Plans, 759 Representing and Locating Materials, 858 Roof Framing Plan Checklist, 762 Sectioning Basics Test, 861 Framing Plan Checklist, 764 37 Section Layout, 862 Additional Resources, 770 Introduction, 862 Drawing Framing Plans Test, 770 Stage 1: Evaluate Needs, 862 SECTION 9 Foundation Plans 771 33 Foundation Systems, 773 Stage 2: Lay Out the Section, 862 Stage 3: Finished-Quality Lines for Structural Members Only, 864 Stage 4: Drawing Finishing Materials, 867 Introduction, 773 Stage 5: Dimensioning, 869 Soil Considerations, 773 Stage 6: Lettering Notes, 870 Types of Foundations, 777 Stage 7: Evaluating Your Work, 871 Dimensioning Foundation Components, 798 Section—Trusses Checklist, 871 Additional Resources, 800 Section Layout Test, 874 Foundation Systems Test, 801 38 Alternative Layout Techniques, 876 34 Floor Systems and Foundation Support, 803 Introduction, 876 Introduction, 803 Floor Joist/Foundation, 876 On-Grade Foundations, 803 Post-and-Beam Foundations, 879 Crawl Space Floor Systems, 814 Basement with Concrete Slab, 881 Additional Resources, 826 Conventional (Stick) Roof Framing, 886 Floor Systems and Foundation Support Test, 827 Section—Rafters Checklist, 892 Garage/Residence—Section, 892 35 Foundation Plan Layout, 828 Alternative Layout Techniques Test, 895 Introduction, 828 Concrete Slab Foundation Layout, 828 39 Stair Construction and Layout, 901 Slab Foundation Plan Checklist, 831 Introduction, 901 Foundation Plan with Joist Construction, 831 Stair Terminology, 901 Foundation Plan with Joists Checklist, 835 Determining Rise and Run, 902 Standard Foundation with Post-and-Beam Floor System, 835 Straight Stair Layout, 903 Foundation Plan with Post-and-Beam Checklist, 840 Open Stairway Layout, 906 Combination Slab and Crawl Space Plans for a Partial Basement, 840 U-Shaped Stairs, 909 Checklist for Foundation Plans with Partial Slab and Floor Joists, 844 Exterior Stairs, 910 Full Basement, 844 Additional Resources, 913 Foundation Plan Layout Test, 849 Stair Construction and Layout Test, 913 SECTION 10 Wall Sections and Details 36 Sectioning Basics, 853 L-Shaped Stairs, 910 Section—Stair Checklist, 911 851 40 Fireplace Construction and Layout, 914 Introduction, 914 Fireplace Alternatives, 914 Introduction, 853 Fireplace Terms, 915 Section Origination, 853 Drawing the Fireplace Section, 921 Section Alignment, 853 Section—Masonry Fireplace Checklist, 926 Contents xi Fireplace Elevations, 928 45 Structural Drafting, 1062 Additional Resources, 931 Introduction, 1062 Fireplace Construction and Layout Test, 931 Plan the Drawing, 1062 Procedure—From Calculations to Working Drawing, 1062 SECTION 11 Presentation Drawings and Renderings 933 Order of Precedence, 1065 Structural Drafting Project, 1066 41 Presentation Drawings, 935 Introduction, 935 BOXED FEATURES Types of Presentation Drawings, 935 Methods of Presentation, 936 Going Green Rendering Procedure for Drawings, 941 An Introduction to Green Design, 12 Presentation Drawings Test, 948 Sustainable Design Opportunity, 130 GreenFormat, 148 SECTION 12 Commercial Drafting 951 Green Codes, 173 Green Design Considerations, 207 42 Building Codes and Commercial Design, 953 Green Styles, 228 Introduction, 953 An Overview, 233 Exploring Building Codes, 953 The Ultimate Urban Green Home, 248 Determining Design Categories, 955 Environmentally Sound Landscaping Practices, 265 Using the Codes, 971 Designing an Ecosystem, 301 Additional Resources, 973 Windows and Energy Loss, 325 Building Codes and Commercial Design Test, 974 The International Energy Conservation Code, 396 Living Smart, 400 43 Common Commercial Construction Materials, 975 Introduction, 975 Wood, 975 Concrete Block, 979 Poured Concrete, 983 Steel Construction, 988 Common Connection Methods, 995 Additional Resources, 1005 Common Commercial Construction Materials Test, 1007 44 Commercial Construction Projects, 1009 Introduction, 1009 Office Practice, 1009 Drawing Organization, 1011 Site Drawings, 1013 Architectural Drawings, 1017 Going Green, 404 Energy Conservation, 434 Electricity Generation from Wind Power, 456 Energy Conservation, 465 Solar Hot Water, 473 Indoor Water Use, 481 Improving Indoor Air Quality, 509 Green Roofing, 544 Green Applications of Exterior Elevations, 587 Green Framing, 637 Environmentally Friendly Design and Construction, 682 Green Foundations, 800 Green Floor Systems, 826 Goals of an Energy-Efficient Fireplace, 922 Green Design Considerations, 1003 Structural Drawings, 1038 CADD Applications Electrical Drawings, 1050 CADD Applications, 56 Fixture Drawings, 1052 Drafting Archives, 60 Mechanical Drawings, 1054 Plumbing Drawings, 1055 Using CADD for Conceptual Design and Presentation Sketches, 80 Commercial Construction Projects Test, 1061 Drawing Lines, 92 xii Contents CADD Lettering, 97 CADD Applications, 392 The Future Is Here with CADD, 106 CADD Applications, 392 Architectural CADD Symbols, 119 CADD Applications, 394 This Is What the Future Looks Like: Web-Based Architectural Collaboration, 129 Using CADD to Draw Floor Plans, 399 Using Surveyor’s Units, 289 Drawing Electrical Symbols with CADD, 454 Using CADD to Draw Site Plans, 296 Drawing Plumbing Symbols with CADD, 479 CADD Applications, 311 CADD in the HVAC Industry, 517 CADD Applications, 316 Drawing Roof Plans with CADD, 561 Drawing Floor Plan Walls Using CADD, 317 CADD Elevations and Symbols, 586 U.S. National CAD Standard for Schedules, 330 CADD Applications, 589 Placing Material Symbols with CADD, 340 CADD Applications, 600 Designing and Drawing Stairs with CADD, 345 Options for Creating Cabinet Elevations, 621 CADD Floor Plan Symbols, 354 Drawing Millwork and Cabinet Elevations with CADD, 625 Placing Architectural Dimensions with CADD, 374 Drawing Framing Plans with CADD, 769 CADD Applications, 381 Using CADD to Draw Foundation Plans, 847 CADD Applications, 383 Drawing Sections and Details with CADD, 872 CADD Applications, 384 Drawing Stairs with CADD, 912 CADD Applications, 385 CADD Applications, 385 Drawing Fireplace Sections and Elevations with CADD, 930 CADD Applications, 386 Using CADD to Make Presentation Drawings, 948 CADD Applications, 387 The Code and Computers, 973 CADD Applications, 387 Commercial Drawings, 1058 CADD Applications, 431 CADD Applications, 388 CADD Applications, 389 CADD Applications, 390 Glossary, 1095 CADD Applications, 390 Index, 1113 Preface For nearly 25 years, students have relied on Architectural Drafting and Design for easy-to-read, comprehensive coverage of architectural drafting and design instruction that complies with and reinforces architectural, engineering, and construction industry standards and practices. This sixth edition of Architectural Drafting and Design is a practical, comprehensive textbook that is easy to use and understand. The content can be used as presented by following a logical sequence of learning activities for residential and light commercial architectural drafting and design, or the chapters can be rearranged to accommodate alternate formats for traditional or individualized instruction. AMERICAN DESIGN DRAFTING ASSOCIATION (ADDA) APPROVED PUBLICATION The content of this text is considered a fundamental component to the design-drafting profession by the American Design Drafting Association. This publication covers topics and related material, as stated in the ADDA Curriculum Certification Standards and the ADDA Certified Drafter Examination Review Guide. Although this publication is not conclusive, with respect to ADDA standards, it should be considered a key reference tool in pursuit of a professional design-drafting career. ABOUT THE INTERNATIONAL CODE COUNCIL The International Code Council (ICC) is a nonprofit membership association dedicated to protecting the health, safety, and welfare of people by creating better buildings and safer communities. The mission of ICC is to provide the highest quality codes, standards, products, and services for all concerned with the safety and performance of the building environment. ICC is the publisher of the family of the International Codes® (I-Codes®), a single set of comprehensive and coordinated model codes. This unified approach to building codes enhances safety, efficiency, and affordability in the construction of buildings. The Code Council is also dedicated to innovation, sustainability, and energy efficiency. Code Council subsidiary, ICC Evaluation Service, issues Evaluation Reports for innovative products and reports of Sustainable Attributes Verification and Evaluation (SAVE). Headquarters: 500 New Jersey Avenue, NW, 6th Floor, Washington, DC 20001-2070 District Offices: Birmingham, AL; Chicago. IL; Los Angeles, CA 1-888-422-7233 www.iccsafe.org APPROACH Architectural Drafting and Design provides a practical and realistic approach to solving problems that are encountered in the architectural design world. Practical Architectural Drafting and Design provides a practical approach to architectural drafting as it relates to current standard practices. The emphasis on standardization is an excellent and necessary foundation of drafting training as well as for implementing a common approach to drafting nationwide. After students become professional drafters, this text will serve as a valuable desk reference. Realistic Chapters contain professional examples, illustrations, step-by-step layout techniques, drafting problems, and related tests. The examples demonstrate recommended drafting presentation with actual architectural drawings used for reinforcement. The correlated text explains drafting practices and provides useful information for knowledge building and skill development. Step-by-step layout methods provide a logical approach to beginning and finishing complete sets of working drawings. xiii xiv Practical Approach to Problem Solving The professional architectural drafter’s responsibility is to convert architects’, engineers’, and designers’ sketches and ideas into formal drawings. This textbook explains how to prepare formal drawings from design sketches by providing the learner with basic guidelines for drafting layout and minimum design and code requirements in a knowledge-building format. One concept is learned before the next is introduced. The concepts and skills learned from one chapter to the next allow students to prepare complete sets of working drawings for residential and light commercial construction projects. Problem assignments are presented in order of difficulty and in a manner that provides students with a wide variety of architectural drafting experiences. Real-World Architectural Problems The problems are presented as preliminary designs or design sketches in a manner that is consistent with actual architectural office practices. It is not enough for students to duplicate drawings from given assignments; they must be able to think through the process of drawing development with a foundation based on how drawing and construction components are put into practice. The goals and objectives of each problem assignment are consistent with recommended evaluation criteria based on the progression of learning activities. The drafting problems and tests recommend that work be done using drafting skills on actual drafting materials with either professional manual or computer-aided drafting equipment. A problem solution or test answer should be accurate and demonstrate proper drafting practice. FEATURES OF THE TEXTBOOK Major features of this textbook that guide you through the world of architectural design and drafting include realistic application of the information presented throughout each chapter, professional illustrations of each concept to be explored, CADD applications of each type of working drawing, exploration of the 2009 building codes and standards produced by the International Code Council, the National Association of Home Builders (NAHB), and Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED). Applications Special emphasis has been placed on providing realistic drafting problems. Problems are presented as design sketches or preliminary drawings in a manner that is consistent with architectural practices. The problems have Preface been supplied by architects and architectural designers. Each problem solution is based on the step-by-step layout procedures provided in the chapter discussions. Problems are given in order of complexity to expose students to a variety of drafting experiences. Problems require students to go through the same thought and decision-making processes that a professional drafter faces daily, including scale and paper size selection, view layout, dimension placement, section placement, and many other activities. Problems can be solved using manual or computer-aided drafting, as determined by individual course guidelines. Chapter tests provide complete coverage of each chapter and can be used for student evaluation or as review. Illustrations Drawings and photos are used liberally throughout this textbook to strengthen the concepts presented. Fullcolor treatment enhances the clarity. Abundant stepby-step illustrations take students through the detailed stages of the drafting process for each application. The step-by-step illustrations are created using computeraided drafting for the highest accuracy and quality. Computer-Aided Design and Drafting (CADD) CADD is presented as a valuable tool that has revolutionized the architectural design and drafting industry. The complete discussion of CADD introduces the workstation environment, terminology, drafting techniques, and sample drawings. Although individual course guidelines may elect to solve architectural drafting problems using either computer-aided or manual drafting equipment, the concepts remain the same, with the only difference being the method of presentation. Construction Techniques and Building Codes Construction techniques differ throughout the country. This text clearly acknowledges the difference in construction methods and introduces the student to the format used to make a complete set of working drawings for each method of construction. Students may learn to prepare drawings from each construction method or, more commonly, for the specific construction techniques that are used in their locality. The problem assignments are designed to provide drawings that involve a variety of construction alternatives. To provide oversight of the wide range of construction methods and materials used throughout the country, Preface the 2009 model codes written by the International Code Council (ICC) are referenced throughout this textbook. The major ICC codes addressed in this textbook include the International Residential Code (IRC) in Chapter 1 through Chapter 41 and the International Building Code (IBC) in Chapter 42 through Chapter 45. Although many municipalities have adopted their own versions of these codes, the use of these model codes provides a firm background before exploring local variations. Additional Resources At the end of most chapters, an Additional Resources section provides students with information on additional resources related to chapter topics. This section lists Web sites for companies or organizations that offer materials, services, and standards related to the chapter content. The following is an example of how the Additional Resources are presented in the textbook: Chapter Tests Chapter tests are found at the end of each chapter. Select the Chapter Tests link on the Student CD to access chapter tests using Microsoft Word. The chapter tests allow you to review or test your knowledge of the related chapter content, depending on your course objectives. Open the related link and answer the questions electronically, unless otherwise directed by your instructor. xv NEW TO THE SIXTH EDITION Architectural Drafting and Design, Sixth Edition, provides the following improvements over the fifth edition. Codes and Standards Compliance Each chapter is based on information provided by the following major industry leaders: ● 2009 editions of the International Residential Code and the International Building Code published by the International Code Council. ● National CAD Standards Version 4. ● MasterFormat and UniFormat published by The Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) and Construction Specifications Canada (CSC). ● LEED rating system published by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC). ● Model Green Home Building Guidelines (MGHBG) developed by the National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) and the International Code Council (ICC), which publishes the International Residential Code (IRC). Going Green Protecting the environment is one of the most important worldwide issues today. A new flagship feature called Going Green is found throughout this textbook, providing current, practical, and experimental energy-efficient xvi architectural design and construction techniques that result in a significant reduction in energy consumption. As the building industry grows to meet the demands of our increasing population, we must take care of the environment and allow for current and future development. As a student, it is very important for you to learn what is available today and to find ways to improve energy efficiency in architectural design and construction into the future in an effort to protect the earth. National and local programs have been established to meet this need. A leading program is often referred to as green building. The U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) is a key organization developed to promote building design and construction that is environmentally responsible and healthy, while allowing construction to remain profitable. Modern advances in building construction are available to designers, builders, and owners who want to “build green” and make the most of environmental protection in the architectural and construction industries. The following is part of one of the Going Green features found in this edition: Preface by a CD icon in appropriate locations throughout this textbook. The supplemental reference material provides optional learning opportunities. The supplemental material ranges from commonly known topics available for students desiring a review, to advanced information that is beyond the scope of this textbook for students interested in further exploration. The supplemental chapter readings are identified within chapter content in this manner: CADD Applications CADD Applications is a special boxed feature that provides a variety of real-world examples, professional presentations, software applications, tips, standards, and procedures used with computer-aided design and drafting. CADD Applications were first introduced in the fourth edition but have been revised, improved, and expanded due to the rapidly changing CADD industry. CADD Applications in the sixth edition range from one-sentence statements to multipage content. The following is an example of part of one of the CADD Applications found in the sixth edition: Note Supplemental Chapter Readings Students are directed to supplemental chapter readings that are found on the Student CD and are identified The Note feature is provided throughout this textbook to provide brief information related to the specific content where the note is found. The following is an example of a sixth edition note: Preface NOTE: Although both groups have produced “guidelines,” many municipalities are starting to move beyond the recommendation stage and are incorporating portions of these guidelines into their design and building requirements. It is expected that with the 2012 edition of the ICC codes, the NGBS-ICC 700 will move from guidelines to law. Verify with the municipality that will govern each specific building project to determine if specific aspects of a green guideline are required. The ICC is also planning to develop a green building code for buildings that are not covered by the NGBS-ICC 700. This code will most likely be the International Green Construction Code (IGCC). THE STUDENT CD Although not new to the sixth edition, the Student CD has new and improved content. A student CD icon found throughout this textbook guides students to features found on the CD. Refer to the Prologue for a complete description of each component and how to use the Student CD. The following features are found on the Student CD: ● Supplemental Chapter Readings ● Step-by-Step Layout Drawings ● Chapter Tests ● Drawing Checklists ● Drawing Problems ● Drawing Templates ● Architectural Blocks and Symbols ● Related Web Links ● Workbook ● Video Clips of Major Concepts ● Review Questions ORGANIZING YOUR COURSE Architectural drafting is the primary emphasis of many technical drafting curricula; however, many other programs offer only an exploratory course in this field. This textbook is appropriate for either application, as its content reflects the common elements in any architectural drafting curriculum. Prerequisites An interest in architectural drafting, plus basic arithmetic, written communication, and reading skills are xvii the only prerequisites required. Basic drafting skills and layout techniques are presented as appropriate. Students with an interest in architectural drafting who begin using this text will end with the knowledge and skills required to prepare complete sets of working drawings for residential and light commercial architectural construction projects. Fundamental through Advanced Coverage This textbook can be used in an architectural drafting curriculum that covers the basics of residential architecture in a one-, two-, or three-semester sequence. In this application, students use the chapters directly associated with the preparation of a complete set of working drawings for a residence, where the emphasis is on the use of fundamental skills and techniques. The rest of the textbook can remain as a reference for future study or as a valuable desk reference. This textbook can also be used in the comprehensive architectural drafting program where a four- to six-semester sequence of residential and light commercial architectural drafting and design is required. In this application, students can expand on the primary objective of preparing a complete set of working drawings for the design of residential and light commercial projects with the coverage of any one or all of the following areas: energy-efficient construction techniques, solar and site orientation design applications, heating and cooling thermal performance calculations, structural load calculations, and presentation drawings. Section Length Chapters are presented in individual learning segments that begin with elementary concepts and build until each chapter provides complete coverage of every topic. Instructors can choose to present lectures in short, 15-minute discussions or divide each chapter into 40- to 50-minute lectures. Drafting Equipment and Materials Identification and use of manual and computer-aided drafting equipment is outlined. Students need an inventory of equipment available for use as listed in the chapters. Professional drafting materials are explained, and it is recommended that students prepare problem solutions using actual drafting materials. xviii SUPPLEMENTS Instructor Resources Spend Less Time Planning and More Time Teaching With Delmar, Cengage Learning’s Instructor Resources to accompany Architectural Drafting and Design, 6th Edition, preparing for class and evaluating students has never been easier! This invaluable instructor CD-ROM, titled e.resource, allows you anywhere, anytime access to all of your resources. (ISBN: 1–4354–8163–1) Features contained in e.resource include: ● ● ● Syllabus: Lesson plans created by chapter. You have the option of using these lesson plans with your own course information. (http://www.worldclasslearning .com) Chapter Hints: Objectives and teaching hints that provide the basis for a lecture outline that helps you to present concepts and material. Key points and concepts can be graphically highlighted for student retention. PowerPoint Presentation: Slides for each chapter of the text provide the basis for a lecture outline that helps you to present concepts and material. Key points and concepts can be graphically highlighted for student retention. Preface ● Exam View Computerized Test Bank: More than 800 questions of varying levels of difficulty are provided in true/false and multiple-choice formats so you can assess student comprehension. ● Video and Animation Resources: These AVI files graphically depict the execution of key concepts and commands in drafting, design, and AutoCAD and let you bring multimedia presentations into the classroom. Solutions Manual A solutions manual is available with answers to endof-chapter review questions and solutions to end-ofchapter problems. Solutions are also provided for the Workbook problems. (ISBN: 1–4354–8165–8) Videos Two video sets, containing four 20-minute tapes each, are available. The videos correspond to the topics addressed in the text: ● Set #1: ISBN 0–7668–3094–2 ● Set #2: ISBN 0–7668–3095–0 Video sets are also available on interactive video CD-ROM. ● Set #1: ISBN 0–7668–3116–7 ● Set #2: ISBN 0–7668–3117–5 Acknowledgments Preface The authors would like to thank and acknowledge the many professionals who reviewed the sixth edition of Architectural Drafting and Design. A special acknowledgment is due the instructors who reviewed the chapters in detail. Sharon Bagby Texas State Technical College, Sweetwater, Texas 2009 International Residential Code and the International Building Code. Portions of this publication reproduce text from the 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright 2009, with the permission of the publisher, the International Conference of Building Officials, under license from the International Code Council Inc., Falls Church, Virginia. The 2009 International Residential Code is a copyrighted work of the International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. Amanda Boyle Texas State Technical College, Marshall, Texas Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc. (www.mascord.com) Rebecca R. Brining Virginia College, Mobile, Alabama For more than 20 years, a deep-rooted commitment to architectural excellence has made Alan Mascord a trusted name among builders, consumers, and competitors. To date, well over 50,000 Mascord homes have been built across the United States, Canada, and in most developed countries around the world. Alan Mascord Design Associates provides more than 600 stock home plans in a wide range of architectural styles, from single-family homes to multifamily dwellings, including detached garage plans. An active custom design business serves clients with specific and unique requirements, and Efficient Living Services provides builders with tools and resources for building green. Mascord Efficient Living (ISBN-10 0–9788–1131–3) is a guide to the philosophies and practicalities of green building for builders and consumers. Presenting more than 50 home plans detailed to meet nationally recognized green building standards, this book explains the elements to consider before, during, and after construction. Special thanks are given to Jon Epley and Gary Higginbotham for their professional support for this edition in providing content, photographs, and illustrations for several Going Green features found throughout this textbook. Mascord Design Associates also provided several sets of working drawings used for problems in Chapter 18. Reviewers Clark Cory Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana Tom Felton Western Technical College, La Crosse, Wisconsin Andy Jacobs West-Oak High School, Westminster, South Carolina David K. Landry Louisiana Technical College, Lafayette, Louisiana Edward J. Rother Cerritos College, Norwalk, California Contributing Companies The quality of this textbook is also improved by the support and contributions from architects, designers, engineers, and vendors. The list of contributors is extensive and acknowledgment is given at each illustration. The following individuals and companies gave an extraordinary amount of support with technical information and art for this edition. International Code Council (ICC) Special thanks goes to Hamid Naderi, Vice President of Product Development of the International Code Council (ICC), for reviewing the content of this text related to the ICC codes and for allowing us to use text from the 3D.DZYN Special thanks to Ron Palma, 3D.DZYN, for providing loyal feedback related to professional architectural xix xx Acknowledgments CADD applications. Palma has more than 20 years of experience in the architectural industry as a drafter, designer, lead project designer, and, most recently, as a CAD manager implementing Architectural Desktop for a residential design firm. He is an Autodesk Certified Instructor, trainer, and support technician for an Autodesk reseller. Palma has professional experience as an educator at two community colleges and is a U.S. Army certified instructor. In addition, He taught the Instructor Trainer’s Course for the U.S. Army and has taught courses at Autodesk University. Palma is the coauthor of architectural drafting and AutoCAD books. Res Communis (www.rescommunis.org) A design collective started by Garrett and Dustin Moon, Res Communis is dedicated to the creation and dissemination of “good” design for all, not just for those who can afford it. Their goal is to contribute to the solving of problems, not the concentration and collection of intellectual property. To that end, every idea and design created is released to the public to use and refine for the good of all. Garrett and Dustin Moon provided the content and illustrations for the Going Green content in Chapter 12. The Going Green feature titled The Ultimate Urban Green Home is the flagship of the Going Green features found in this textbook, demonstrating perfect, sustainable, and selfsufficient design using super-energy-efficient, environmentally safe materials, and clean energy technologies. Construction Specifications Institute (www.csinet.org) Information used in this text is from MasterFormat and UniFormat and is published by The Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) and Construction Specifications Canada (CSC), and is used with permission from CSI, 2008. The Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) 99 Canal Center Plaza, Suite 300 Alexandria, VA 22314 800-689-2900; 703-684-0300 Bryan Higgins Architect Bryan Higgins, AIA, LEED AP, from Portland, Oregon, provided a set of working drawings and photographs of his design of one of the winning homes in the Living Smart program, in Portland, Oregon. The Living Smart program design competition created a catalog of affordable home plans designed for narrow lots, called small-footprint houses. His Living Smart small-footprint design is used in Problem 18–1. Higgins also provided the content for the Going Green feature in Chapter 18 of this textbook. Leann Collins and Laura Numbers Leann Collins and Laura Numbers contributed a complete set of working drawings and related photographs for a small-footprint residential architectural design. This small footprint is one of the winning homes in the Living Smart program, in Portland, Oregon, and the design is used in Problem 18–3. TKP Architects, PC, Golden, Colorado (www.keating-partnership.com) Thanks to Erin Elston with TKP Architects for the contribution of residential architectural plans and impressive photographs. DeSantis Landscapes Dean DeSantis, CLP, President of DeSantis Landscapes, provided the content and photographs used in a Going Green feature found in Chapter 12. Southwest Windpower (www.windenergy.com) Michael French, Graphics Coordinator for Southwest Windpower, provided the content, photographs, and illustrations for the Going Green feature in Chapter 19. Autodesk, Inc. (www.autodesk.com) Catherine Palmer, Marketing Manager, AEC Initiatives provided the Going Green feature content in Chapter 7. As a world leader in design innovation technologies, Autodesk helps to empower architecture, engineering, and construction professionals with cost-effective designs and delivers high-performing, resource-efficient buildings and infrastructure. Solatube International, Inc. (www.solatube.com) Bridget Palitz, Vice President of The McRae Agency, Public Relations for Solatube International, Inc., provided the content, photographs, and illustrations for a Going Green feature in Chapter 16. National Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC) (www.nfrc.org) The NFRC provided content and illustrations for a Going Green feature in Chapter 16. Engineering Drawing and Design Approximately 180 illustrations are reproduced from Engineering Drawing and Design, by David A. Madsen, David P. Madsen, and J. Lee Turpin from Delmar Publishers. Acknowledgments Step-by-Step Model Home Plan Drawings The authors greatly appreciate the efforts of David P. Madsen, Tereasa Jefferis, and Connie Wilmon for their work with the step-by-step drawings found in layout chapters. In addition, we would like to thank: Janice Jefferis for her photo contributions Ken Smith, Kenneth D. Smith Architects and Associates, Inc. Richard Wallace, Southern Forest Products Association APA—The Engineered Wood Association Richard Branham, National Concrete Masonry Association Pamela Allsebrook, California Redwood Association Eric Brown, Eric S. Brown Design Group, Inc. Kathleen M. Arnelt, Louisiana-Pacific Corporation Richard R. Chapman and Robert C. Guzikowski, Simpson Strong-Tie Company, Inc. Stephen Fuller, Incorporated Steven Merrill, Mechanical Designer Havlin Kemp, VLMK Consulting Engineers Western Wood Products Association Rajni Pisharody and the staff at Glyph Internaional for their excellent work on the production of this text. Julie Searls for her excellent mastery of the English language and skill as a copy editor. To the Student Architectural Drafting and Design is designed for you, the student. The development and format of the presentation have been tested in conventional and individualized classroom instruction. The information presented is based on the National CAD Standards, drafting room practice, and trends in the architectural design industry. This textbook is the only architectural drafting reference that you need. Use the textbook as a learning tool while in school, and take it along as a desk reference when you enter the profession. The amount of written text is complete but kept to a minimum. Examples and illustrations are used extensively. Drafting is a graphic language, and most drafting students learn best by observation of examples. Here are a few helpful hints for using this textbook: 1. Read the text. The text content is intentionally designed for easy reading. Content is given in as few, easy-to-understand words as possible. You should xxi do the reading because the content can help you to understand the drawings clearly. 2. Look carefully at the examples. The figure examples are presented in a manner that is consistent with architectural drafting standards and the U.S. National CAD Standard. Look at the examples carefully in an attempt to understand specific applications. If you are able to understand why something is done a certain way, it will be easier for you to apply the concepts to the drawing problems in this textbook and to the similar issues when working as an architectural drafter. Drafting is a precise technology based on standards and guidelines. The goal of a drafter is to prepare drawings that are easy to read and understand. There are times when rules need to be altered to handle a unique situation. Rely on judgment based on your knowledge of accepted standards in these situations. Drafting is often like a puzzle—there is often more than one way to solve a problem. 3. Use the text as a reference. Few drafters know everything about drafting standards, techniques, and concepts. Always be ready to use this textbook as the reference if you need to verify how a specific application is handled. Become familiar with the definitions and use of technical terms. It is difficult to memorize everything in this text, but architectural drafting applications should become second nature as you gain experience. 4. Learn each concept and skill before you continue to the next. The text is presented in a logical learning sequence. Each chapter is designed for learning development, and chapters are sequenced so drafting knowledge grows from one chapter to the next. Problem assignments are presented in the same learning sequence as the chapter content and also reflect progressive levels of difficulty. 5. Practice. Development of good manual and computer-aided drafting skills depend to a large extent on practice. Some individuals have an inherent talent for manual drafting, and some people are readily compatible with computers. If you fit into either group, great! If you have difficulty, then practice is all you may need. Practice manual drafting skills to help improve the quality of your drafting presentation, and practice computer skills to improve your skills and efficiency with communication and drafting. 6. Use sketches or preliminary drawings. When you are drawing manually or with a computer, the proper use of a sketch or preliminary drawing can save a lot of time in the long run. Prepare a layout sketch or preliminary layout for each problem. This preliminary xxii step gives you a chance to organize thoughts about drawing scale, view selection, dimension and note placement, and sheet size. After you become an experienced drafter, you may be able to design a sheet layout in your head, but until then, you should use sketches. 7. Use professional equipment and materials. For the best possible learning results and skill development, use the professional drafting equipment, supplies, and materials that are recommended. ABOUT THE AUTHORS Alan Jefferis Alan Jefferis is Faculty Emeritus of Drafting Technology at the Autodesk Premier Training Center at Clackamas Community College in Oregon City, Oregon. He was an architectural drafting and CAD instructor at Clackamas Community College for over 30 years. He also taught at Mt. Hood Community College in Gresham, Oregon, for four years. In addition to community college experience, Jefferis had eight years of experience drawing for architects, engineers, and residential designers prior to working for 26 years as a professional building designer as the principal of Residential Designs, a design firm specializing in custom, energy-efficient homes. He is also a former member of the American Institute of Building Designers. In addition to his design work, he is a coauthor of several standard reference works from Cengage Delmar Learning including Residential Design Drafting and Detailing; Print Reading for Architectural Construction Technology; Commercial Drafting and Detailing; and AutoCAD® for Architecture. David A. Madsen David A. Madsen is the President of Madsen Designs Inc. (www.madsendesigns.com). Madsen is Faculty Emeritus of Drafting Technology and the Autodesk Premier Acknowledgments Training Center at Clackamas Community College in Oregon City, Oregon. He was an instructor and department chairperson at Clackamas Community College for nearly 30 years. In addition to community college experience, Madsen was a drafting technology instructor at Centennial High School in Gresham, Oregon. He is a former member of the American Design and Drafting Association (ADDA) Board of Directors, and was honored by the ADDA with Director Emeritus status at the annual conference in 2005. He has extensive experience in mechanical drafting, architectural design and drafting, and building construction. Madsen holds a Master of Education degree in Vocational Administration and a Bachelor of Science degree in Industrial Education. He is the author of Engineering Drawing and Design; Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing; Print Reading for Engineering and Manufacturing Technology; and coauthor of Architectural Drafting and Design, and Print Reading for Architecture and Construction Technology, as well as many other drafting and CAD titles. David P. Madsen David P. Madsen is the Vice President of Madsen Designs Inc. (www.madsendesigns.com), and operates the Madsen Designs Inc. consulting service. He has been a professional design drafter since 1996, and has extensive experience in a variety of drafting, design, and engineering disciplines. Madsen has provided drafting and computer-aided design and drafting instruction to secondary and postsecondary learners since 1999, and has considerable curriculum, and program coordination and development experience. He holds a Master of Science degree in Educational Policy, Foundations, and Administrative Studies with a specialization in Postsecondary, Adult, and Continuing Education; a Bachelor of Science degree in Technology Education; and an Associate of Science degree in General Studies and Drafting Technology. Madsen is also the coauthor of Engineer Drawing and Design and has authored and coauthored other drafting and CAD titles. Prologue Preface HOW TO USE THE STUDENT CD Chapter Tests Pick one of the following links to open. The content of each link is described below. Chapter tests are found at the end of each chapter. Pick the Chapter Tests link to access chapter tests using Microsoft Word. The chapter tests allow you to review or test your knowledge of the related chapter content, depending on your course objectives. Open the related link and answer the questions electronically, unless otherwise directed by your instructor. ● Supplemental Chapter Readings ● Step-by-Step Layout Drawings ● Chapter Tests ● Drawing Checklists ● Drawing Problems ● Drawing Templates ● Architectural Blocks and Symbols ● Related Web Links ● Workbook ● Video Clips of Major Concepts ● Review Questions Supplemental Chapter Readings Throughout this textbook, a Student CD icon guides you to chapter-related content provided for additional reading and research. The Supplemental Chapter Reading features found on the Student CD include chapter-related content, basic information, advanced content that is beyond the scope of the main textbook, and commonly used abbreviations. Step-by-Step Layout Drawings Several chapters throughout this textbook use the same model home to describe step-by-step techniques for laying out drawings required in a set of residential working drawings. Click the Step-by-Step Drawings link to view Acrobat Portable Document Format (PDF) files of many of the textbook figures related to the step-by-step layout process. Use the files to display the figures on your computer screen, and to look more closely at the layout steps and details. Drawing Checklists Drawing checklists are provided for the model home layout chapters throughout this textbook. The checklists allow you to check your work to be sure everything is included in the drawing that you are completing. Drawing Problems The Chapter 18 drawing problems are found on the Student CD. These problems are identified in the textbook with a Student CD icon. The Chapter 18 drawing problems can be used for creating the floor plans of the selected or assigned house that continue throughout this textbook to create a set of working drawings. Drawing Templates Select the Drawing Templates link to access a page containing a link to architectural and civil AutoCAD drawing template (.dwt) files. Use the Drawing Templates link and the available drawing template files to create new drawings, as a resource for drawing content, or for inspiration when developing your own templates. The architectural drafting templates are set up to allow you to prepare architectural drawings, whereas the civil drafting templates include preset civil drawing content for site plans and other civil drafting projects. Use the (U.S.) templates to draw using U.S. customary, or feet and inch, units. Use the (metric) templates to draw using metric units. Each template includes a variety xxiii xxiv of appropriate drawing settings and content, such as layers, layouts, and object styles. You can also use a utility such as DesignCenter, to add content from the drawing templates to your own drawings and templates. Consult with your instructor to determine which template drawing and drawing content to use. Architectural Blocks and Symbols The Architectural Symbols link provides access to an AutoCAD drawing (.dwg) file that contains several common architectural drafting symbols. These symbols are stored in folders named for the drawings in which they are most typically used. Many of the symbols are in AutoCAD block form and are drawn on the 0 layer; others are common symbols that should be made into blocks before inserting into the drawing. Use a utility such as DesignCenter, or copy and paste, to add the blocks to your own drawings. Use the blocks as desired or as directed by your instructor. Additional symbols are available through a variety of resources. Some software programs, such as AutoCAD, include and allow you to access many architectural symbols. Many other symbols are available through the Internet for free download or purchase. The U.S. National CAD Standard (NCS) include separate .dwg files of the symbols presented in the standard. Related Web Links Internet research is an excellent way to gain additional knowledge about architectural drafting and the professional organizations related to architectural drafting and design. The Related Web Links section contains a variety of related Web site links for you to explore as preferred or as directed by your instructor. The Web site links are provided in alphabetical order covering the entire textbook content, and chapterby-chapter. Click a link to go automatically to the designated Web site. Workbook Additional problems have been provided to reinforce the knowledge and skills introduced throughout the Prologue textbook. These problems are divided into these Sections and Chapters: Section I: Basic Residential Projects Chapter 1 Basic Architectural Drafting Practices Chapter 2 Site Plans Chapter 3 Floor Plan Fundamentals Chapter 4 Basic Floor Plan Problems Chapter 5 Floor Plan Dimensions Chapter 6 Electrical Plans Chapter 7 Plumbing and HVAC Plans Chapter 8 Roof Plans Chapter 9 Elevations Chapter 10 Cabinet Elevations Chapter 11 Foundation Plans Chapter 12 Details Chapter 13 Sections Chapter 14 Stair Sections Chapter 15 Fireplace Sections Chapter 16 Design Criteria for Structural Loading Chapter 17 Construction Specifications, Permits, and Contracts Chapter 18 Presentation Drawings Section II: Advanced Residential Projects Section III: Additional Advanced Residential Projects Section IV: Advanced Research Projects Video Clips of Major Concepts This feature provides a variety of video clips covering major concepts presented throughout the textbook. These video clips provide you with an alternate learning and study option covering a variety of topics. Review Questions This feature provides you with review questions that are in addition to the chapter-by-chapter test questions provided throughout the textbook. Use the review questions for additional opportunities to test your knowledge and review textbook content. www.kevinmillerphoto.com SECTION 1 Introduction to Architectural Design and Drafting This page intentionally left blank CHAPTER 1 Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities I N T R O D U C T I O N As you begin working with this text, you are opening the door to many exciting careers. Each career in turn has many different opportunities within it. Whether your interest lies in theoretical problem solving, artistic creations, or working with your hands creating something practical; a course in architectural drafting and design will help you satisfy that interest. An architectural drafting class can lead to a career as a drafter, CAD technician, designer, interior decorator, interior designer, architect, or engineer. Mastering the information and skills presented in this text will prepare you for jobs as a drafter or CAD technician and serve as a solid foundation for each of the other listed professions as well as many others. DRAFTER A drafter is the person who creates the drawings and details for another person’s creations. It is the drafter’s responsibility to use the proper line and lettering quality and to properly lay out the required drawings necessary to complete a project. Such a task requires great attention to detail as the drafter draws the supervisor’s sketches. Although the terms are used interchangeably, professionals often use the term drafter to refer to a person who draws manually using pencils or pens. The term CAD technician is used to describe a person who creates the same type of drawings using a computer. Throughout this book, the term drafter will be used to describe both those who draw manually and those who create drawings using a computer. The Beginning Drafter Your job as a beginning or junior drafter will generally consist of making corrections to drawings created by others. There may not be a lot of mental stimulation to making changes, but it is a very necessary job. It is also a good introduction to the procedures and quality standards within an office. As your line and lettering quality improve, your responsibilities will be expanded. If you’re working at a firm that uses computers, in addition to mastering basic CAD commands, you’ll need to become familiar with the U.S. National CAD Standards (NCS). These are guidelines assembled by the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) that incorporate the Uniform Drawing System (UDS) published by the Construction Specifications Institute (CSI), CAD Layer Guidelines published by the American Institute of Architects, and the U.S. Coast Guard. These guidelines are aimed at bringing uniformity between consulting firms to ensure quality plans. Future chapters in this text will introduce key concepts from the NCS. You’ll also need to become proficient using the firm’s computer standards and any special menus and list-processing language (LISP) routines needed to work efficiently. No matter what tools are used to create the drawings, typically your supervisor will give you a sketch and expect you to draw the required drawing. Figure 1-1 shows a project manager’s sketch. Figure 1-2 shows the drawing created by a drafter. As you gain an 3 X 6 PT SILL SOLID BLOCK W/ A-35 ANGLE W16 X 67 5/16 12 X 12 X 3/4" STEEL TOP PL. 3/8 4 5/16 1/4 T.S. 6 X 6 X 1/4" 6 X 6 X 3/8" SIDE PLATE 3/4" o TIE RODS & 3/4" TURNBUCKLES FIGURE 11 A sketch created by the project manager is usually given to a junior drafter to follow for a first drawing. The drafter can find information for completing the drawing by examining similar jobs in the office. 3 4 Architectural Drafting and Design SOLID BLOCK W/ A-35 ANGLE @ EA. JOIST AND EVERY OTHER BLOCK TO PL. W16 X 67 3 X 6 PT SILL W/ 1/2" o M.B. 24" O.C. STAGGER The Experienced Drafter 5/16 12 X 12 X 3/4" STEEL TOP PL. 3/8 4 5/16 1/4 T.S. 6 X 6 X 1/4" STEEL COLUMN TYPICAL office chores. Don’t get the idea that a drafter does only the menial chores around an office. But you do need to be prepared, as you go to your first drafting job, to do things other than drafting. 6 X 6 X 3/8" SIDE PLATE 3/4" o TIE RODS & 3/4" TURNBUCKLES 1 FLOOR / GIRDER / PILING R6010309 500 3/4" = 1'–0" FIGURE 12 A detail drawn by a drafter using the sketch shown in Figure 1-1. understanding of the drawings that you are making and gain confidence in your ability, the sketches that you are given generally will become more simplified. Eventually your supervisor may just refer you to a similar drawing and expect you to be able to make the necessary adjustments to fit it to the new application. The decisions involved in making drawings without sketches require the drafter to have a good understanding of what is being drawn. This understanding does not come from a textbook alone. To advance as a drafter and become a leader on the drawing team will require you to become an effective manager of your time. This will include the ability to determine what drawings need to be created, selected from a stock library, and edited; and to estimate the time needed to complete these assignments and meet deadlines established by the team captain, the client, the lending institution, or the building department. An even better way to gain an understanding of what you are drafting is to spend time at a construction site watching projects that you’ve worked on become reality. Gaining an understanding of what a craftsperson must do as a result of what you have drawn will greatly aid you as you assume more responsibility on projects. Depending on the size of the office where you work, you may also spend a lot of your time as a beginning drafter editing stock details, running prints, making deliveries, obtaining permits, and doing other such Although your supervisor may prepare the basic design for a project, experienced drafters are expected to make decisions about construction design. These decisions might include determining structural sizes and connection methods for intersecting beams, drawing renderings, visiting job sites, and supervising beginning drafters. As you gain experience, you will be assigned drawings that are more complex. Instead of revising existing details or drawing site plans, cabinet elevations, or roof plans; an experienced drafter and team leader may be working on the floor and foundation plans, elevations, and sections. Your supervisor probably will still make the initial design drawings, but will pass these drawings on to you as soon as a client approves the preliminary drawings. In addition to drafting, you may work with the many city and state building departments that govern your work. This will require you to research the codes that govern the building industry. You will also need to become familiar with vendors’ catalogs. The most common is the Sweets Catalog. Sweets, as it is known, is a series of books that contain product information on a wide variety of building products. Sweets is also available on the Internet or on CDs that are updated quarterly. Information in these catalogs is listed by manufacturer, trade name, and type of product. Educational Requirements In order to get your first drafting job, you will need a solid education, good computer-aided drafting (CAD) skills, a good understanding of basic computer skills, and the ability to sell yourself to an employer. CAD skills must include a thorough understanding of drawing and editing commands, as well as the ability to quickly decide which option is best for the given situation. This ability will also come with practice. If you work full-time editing details, you’ll quickly become proficient at determining the best commands to use. The education required for a drafter can range from one or more years in a high school drafting program to a diploma from a one-year accredited technical school to a degree from a two-year college program, and all the way to a master’s degree in architecture. Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities Helpful areas of study for an entry-level drafter include math, writing, and drawing. The math required ranges from simple addition to calculus. Although the drafter may spend most of the day adding dimensions expressed in feet and inches, knowledge of advanced math will be helpful for solving many building problems. You’ll often be required to use basic math skills to determine quantities, areas, and volume. Many firms provide their clients with a list of materials required to construct the project. Areas will need to be calculated to determine the size of each room, required areas to meet basic building code requirements, the loads on a structural member, or the size of the structure. Writing skills will also be very helpful. As a drafter, you are often required to complete the paperwork that accompanies any set of plans, such as permits, requests for variances, written specifications, or environmental impact reports. In addition to standard drafting classes, classes in photography, art, surveying, and construction can be helpful to the drafter. Personal Requirements In addition to a solid education, professionals working in the design field need to function well in group settings. Because the drafter will generally be working for several architects or engineers within an office, the drafter must be able to get along well with others. An additional skill required for a new technician is to be reliable. Reliability within an office is measured by the maintenance of good attendance patterns and the production of drawings as scheduled. To advance and become a good team leader you will also need to develop skills that promote a sense of success among your teammates. Although it is against the law to discriminate on the basis of race, color, religion, gender, sexual orientation, age, marital status, or disability, moving beyond the law and creating a friendly and productive work environment is a critical skill for a team leader. Workplace Ethics A key quality required in any of the design professions that you might enter is to be ethical. Ethics are rules and principles that define right and wrong conduct. Although ethics guidelines can be as simple as treating others as you would like to be treated, many businesses have a formal code of ethics that employees are required to sign in order to obtain a job. A code of ethics is a formal document that states an organization’s values and the rules and principles that employees are expected 5 to follow. In general, codes of ethics contain these main elements: be dependable, obey the laws, and be good to customers. An example of an architectural firm’s standard for ethical business conduct can be seen below: 1. Honesty: to be truthful in all our endeavors, to be honest and forthright with one another, with our customers, and with our communities. 2. Integrity: to say what we mean, to deliver what we promise, and to stand for what is right. 3. Respect: to treat one another with dignity and fairness, appreciating the diversity of our workforce and the uniqueness of each employee. 4. Trust: to build confidence through teamwork and open, candid communication. 5. Responsibility: to speak up, without fear of retribution, and report concerns in the workplace, including violations of published or unpublished works that are copyrighted. Copyright Protection Clients often come to an architectural firm hoping to use the plan of a competitor as the basis for the design for their project. It’s important to understand that architectural drawings are protected by copyright. The copyright immediately becomes the property of the person who created the work. Copyright is secured automatically when the work is created, and the work is created when it is fixed in a copy for the first time. Copies are material objects from which the work can be read or visually perceived either directly or with the aid of a machine or device. In the world of architecture, you’ll be most affected by copyright laws as clients present you with plans from magazines, and ask you to recreate the design. There is nothing illegal when a client gives you several stock plans, and expects you to combine features from these plans into a new plan. However, it is very illegal to take one stock plan, make minor changes, and pass it off as your design. That’s copyright infringement. NOTE: Professional designers and architects have donated the plans in this book knowing that they will be copied and redrawn. It is perfectly legal for you to reproduce these plans for school projects. It is important to realize though, it is not OK to reproduce these drawings for resale. Laws vary for each state, but as a general rule, unless you’ve changed more than 50% of the plan, or significantly altered the appearance of the design, you may be found guilty of copyright infringement. Never take the plan from another professional, make minor changes, and then call it your design. It’s lazy, unethical, and illegal. 6 Architectural Drafting and Design Employment Opportunities Drafters can find employment in firms of all sizes. Designers, architects, and engineers all require entrylevel and advanced drafters to help produce their drawings. Drafters are also employed by suppliers of architectural equipment. This work might include drawing construction details for a steel fabricator, making layout drawings for a cabinet shop, or designing ductwork for a heating and air-conditioning installer. Many manufacturing companies hire drafters with an architectural background to help draw and sometimes sell a product or draw installation diagrams for instruction booklets or sales catalogs. Drafters are also employed by many government agencies. These jobs include working in planning, utility, or building departments; survey crews; or other related municipal jobs. DESIGNER The meaning of the term designer varies from state to state. Many states restrict its use by requiring those calling themselves designers to those who have had formal training and have passed a competency test. A designer’s responsibilities are very similar to those of an experienced drafter and are usually based on both education and experience. A designer is usually the coordinator of a team of drafters. The designer may work under the direct supervision of an architect, an engineer, or both and supervise the work schedule of the drafting team. In addition to working in a traditional architectural office setting, designers often have their own office practice in which they design residential, multifamily, and some types of light commercial buildings. State laws vary regarding the types and sizes of buildings a designer may work on without an architect or engineer’s stamp. For more information about design careers, contact: American Institute of Building Design 991 Post Road East Westport, CT 06880 800-366-2423 Web site: www.aibd.org INTERIOR DECORATOR An interior decorator decorates the interiors of buildings, with the aim of making rooms more attractive, comfortable, and functional. Most interior decorators are hired to decorate homes, but they may also be hired to decorate interiors of businesses such as boutiques, restaurants, and offices. They may work on the entire interior of a building or a single room. An interior decorator’s work may involve a variety of elements, including space planning, determination of color schemes, furniture placement, and the coordination of interior finishes such as paint and wallpaper, window coverings, and flooring. It may also include the arrangement of lighting fixtures, art objects, furnishing accessories, and interior plants. Specific job requirements may include: ● Meeting with clients to determine the scope of a project. ● Reviewing and measuring the space to be decorated. ● Preparing proposed room layouts and obtaining cost estimates. ● Providing samples and colors of materials to be used. ● Arranging and overseeing painting, wallpapering, and flooring. ● Selecting and purchasing furnishings and other items. There are no formal educational requirements to enter this career. You can start calling yourself an interior decorator as soon as you start doing interior decorating. KITCHEN AND BATH DESIGNER Some drafters and designers choose to specialize in the area of residential kitchen and bath design. This might include design work for a client, working with a residential contractor, or working with manufacturers of kitchen and bath equipment. In order to meet the demand for qualified professionals in this area of design, the National Kitchen & Bath Association (NKBA) has created its own training program that offers the foundation for professional career growth through its course offerings, technical manuals, and multilevel certification programs. The three professional levels in which the NKBA certifies its members, and the requirements of each level are: ● Associate Kitchen & Bath Designer (AKBD)—One year of experience related to the kitchen and bath industry and one year in a related field, 30 hours of NKBA professional development training, and successful completion of the AKBD exam. ● Certified Kitchen Designer (CKD) or Certified Bathroom Designer (CBD)—Three years of experience related to the kitchen and bath industry and Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities four years in a related field, 60 hours of NKBA professional development training, and successful completion of the AKBD exam. ● Certified Master Kitchen & Bathroom Designer (CMKBD)—Ten years of experience related to the kitchen and bath industry, 100 hours of NKBA professional development training, and both CKD and CBD certification. For further information about careers in the field of kitchen and bath design, contact: National Kitchen & Bath Association 687 Willow Grove Street Hackettstown, NJ 07840 800-843-6522 Web site: www.nkba.org INTERIOR DESIGNER An interior designer works with the structural designer to optimize and harmonize the interior design of structures. In addition to health and safety concerns, interior designers help plan how the space will be accessed, how a space will be used, the amount of light that will be required, acoustics, seating, storage, and work areas. An interior designer must consider how the visual, tactile, and auditory senses of the occupants will be impacted. Visual considerations include the study and application of color, lighting, and form to improve how the occupants function in the space. Consideration must be given to the design of surfaces, the shape of individual rooms within a structure, and the texture of finished surfaces and how furnishing will affect the usage of areas within a structure. The design of a structure must also be considered in relation to how noise and echo will be created and how they can be controlled. An interior designer must have an aesthetic, practical, and technical appreciation for how people use and respond to these elements and to how the elements interact with one another. Interior designers must also be knowledgeable about the many types and characteristics of furnishings, accessories, and ornaments used in creating interiors. Furniture, lighting, carpeting and other floor coverings, paint and wall coverings, glass, wrought metal, fixtures, art, and artifacts are some of the many items and materials designers select. In addition, they must be familiar with the various styles of design, art, and architecture and their history. Interior designers provide a variety of services that include: 7 ● Consulting to help determine project goals and objectives. ● Generating ideas for aesthetic possibilities of the space, and arranging space to suit its intended function. ● Creating illustrations and renderings of proposals. ● Developing documents and specifications related to interior spaces in compliance with applicable building codes. ● Specifying colors and purchasing fixtures, furnishings, products, and other interior materials. ● Designing and managing fabrication of custom furnishings and interior details. ● Monitoring and managing construction and installation of the design. Although a college degree is currently not a requirement, the trend among employers and in states that have licensing requirements is to require a degree from an accredited institution. This can range from training in a two-year program to earn an associate’s degree or certificate, to a four- or five-year program leading to a bachelor’s (BA, BS, BFA) or master’s (MA, MS, MFA) degree. The option chosen may depend on the licensing requirements in your state and whether you have completed a degree in another field. In the United States, where interior designers are registered by title, designers may not use the title “interior designer” or “registered interior designer” unless they have met the requirements for education, experience, and examination as set forth in the statutes established by the National Council for Interior Design Qualification (NCIDQ). Candidates who apply to take the NCIDQ examination must demonstrate an acceptable level of professional work experience and completion of related course work. The minimum examination requirements include two years of formal interior design experience and four years of full-time work experience in the practice of interior design. Passing the examination is required in twenty jurisdictions in the United States and eight provinces in Canada that regulate the profession of interior design. For further information about careers in the field of interior design, contact: American Society of Interior Designers (ASID) 202-546-3480 Web site: www.asid.org International Interior Design Association (IIDA) Web site: www.iida.org 8 Students can also contact the American Design and Drafting Association, the U.S. Department of Labor, or the U.S. Office of Education. ARCHITECT An architect is a licensed professional who designs commercial and residential structures. Architects perform the tasks of many professionals, including designer, artist, project manager, and construction supervisor. Few architects work full-time in residential design. Although many architects design some homes, most devote their time to commercial construction projects such as schools, offices, and hospitals. An architect is responsible for the design of a structure and for the way the building relates to the environment. The architect often serves as a coordinator on a project to ensure that all aspects of the structure blend together to form a pleasing relationship. This coordination includes working with the client, the contractors, and a multitude of engineering firms that may be involved with the project. Figure 1-3 shows a home designed by an architect to blend the needs and wishes of the client with the site, materials, and financial realities. Education High school and two-year college students can prepare for a degree program by taking classes in fine arts, math, science, and social science. Many two-year drafting programs offer drafting classes that can be used FIGURE 13 Architects use their training to blend the needs and wishes of the client with the site, materials, and financial realities. Courtesy California Redwood Assoc., Robert Corna architect, photo by Balthazar Korab. Architectural Drafting and Design for credit in four- or five-year architectural programs. A student planning to transfer to a four-year program should verify with the new college which classes can be transferred. Depending on the desired field of practice, students will eventually need to complete the requirements for a bachelor of architecture, master’s of architecture, or a doctorate of architecture degree. Fine arts classes such as drawing, sketching, design, and art along with architectural history will help the future architect develop an understanding of the cultural significance of structures and help transform ideas into reality. Classes that will aid problem-solving abilities, as well as math and science classes, including algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and physics, will provide a stable base for the advanced structural classes that will be required. Sociology, psychology, cultural anthropology, and classes dealing with human environments will help develop an understanding of the people who will use the structure. Because architectural students will need to read, write, and think clearly about abstract concepts, preparation should also include literature and philosophy courses. In addition to formal study, students should discuss with local architects the opportunities and possible disadvantages that may await them in pursuing the study and practice of architecture. Positions in Architectural Firms Use of the term architect is legally restricted to individuals who have been licensed by the state where they practice. Once the required degree has been completed, obtaining a license will require practical experience working under the supervision of a licensed architect. A typical path to becoming an architect requires three years to complete a master’s program, three years as an intern, and two years to complete the registration exam process. Some states allow a designer to take the licensing test through practical work experience. Although standards vary for each state, five to seven years of experience under the direct supervision of a licensed architect or engineer is usually required. Positions in an architectural firm include: Technical staff—Consulting engineers such as mechanical, electrical, and structural engineers; landscape architects; interior designers; CAD operators; and drafters. Intern—Unlicensed architectural graduates with less than three years of experience. An intern’s responsibilities typically include developing design and Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities technical solutions under the supervision of an architect. Architect I—Licensed architect with three to five years of experience. An Architect I’s job description typically includes responsibility for a specific portion of a project within the parameters set by a supervisor. Architect II—Licensed architect with six to eight years of experience. An Architect II’s job description typically includes responsibility for the daily design and technical development of a project. Architect III—Licensed architect with eight to ten years of experience. An Architect III’s job description typically includes responsibility for the management of major projects. Manager—Licensed architect with more than 10 years of experience. A Manager’s responsibilities typically include management of several projects, project teams, and client contacts, as well as project scheduling and budgeting. Associate—Senior management architect, but not an owner in the firm. This person is responsible for major departments and their functions. Principal—Owner/partner in an architectural firm. Areas of Study The study of architecture is not limited to the design of buildings. Although the architectural curriculum typically is highly structured for the first two years of study, students begin to specialize in an area of interest during the third year of the program. Students in a bachelor’s program may choose courses leading to a degree in several different areas of architecture such as urban planning, landscape architecture, and interior architecture. Urban design is the study of the relationship among the components within a city. Interior architects work specifically with the interior of a structure to ensure that all aspects of the building will be functional. Landscape architects specialize in relating the exterior of a structure to the environment. For further information on training or other related topics, students can contact: American Institute of Architects (AIA) 1735 New York Avenue NW Washington, DC 20006 800-242-3837 Web site: www.aia.org 9 American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA) 636 Eye Street NW Washington, DC 20001 202-898-2444 Web site: www.asla.org ENGINEER The term engineer covers a wide variety of professions. In general, an engineer is a licensed professional who applies mathematical and scientific principles to the design and construction of structures. In the construction fields, structural engineers are the most common, although many jobs exist for electrical, mechanical, and civil engineers. Structural engineers typically specialize in the design of structures built of steel or concrete (see Figure 1-4). Many directly supervise drafters and designers in the design of multifamily and light commercial structures. Electrical engineers work with architects and structural engineers and are responsible for the design of lighting and communication systems. They supervise the design and installation of specific lighting fixtures, telephone services, and requirements for computer networking. Mechanical engineers are also an instrumental part of the design team. They are responsible for the sizing and layout of heating, ventilation, and airconditioning systems (HVAC) and plan how treated air will be routed throughout the project. They work with the project architect to determine the number of FIGURE 14 The architectural team determines the shape and style of the structure. The structural engineering team is responsible for determining the size of materials to resist the loads and stress that a building will face. Courtesy David Jefferis. 10 Architectural Drafting and Design occupants of the completed building and the heating and cooling load that will be generated. Civil engineers are responsible for the design and supervision of a wide variety of construction projects, such as highways, bridges, sanitation facilities, and water treatment plants. They are often directly employed by construction companies to oversee the construction of large projects and to verify that the specifications of the design architects and engineers have been carried out. As with the requirements for becoming an architect, a license is required to function as an engineer. Potential engineers can apply for the license after several years of practical experience, or after obtaining a bachelor’s degree and three years of practical experience. Success in any of the engineering fields requires high proficiency in math and science, and involves completing courses in physics, mechanics, print reading, architecture, mathematics, and material science. As with the requirements for becoming an architect, an engineer must have five years of education at an accredited college or university, followed by successful completion of a state-administered examination. Certification can also be accomplished by training under a licensed engineer and then successfully completing the examination. Additional information can be obtained about engineering by writing to: New York, NY 10005 212-248-5000 Web site: www.iesna.org RELATED FIELDS So far, only opportunities that are similar because they involve drawing, design, and creativity have been covered. In addition to these careers, there are many related careers that require an understanding of drafting principles. These include model maker, illustrator, specification writer, plan examiner, inspector, and construction-related trades. Model Maker In addition to presentation drawings, many architectural offices use models of a building or project to help convey design concepts. Models such as the one shown in Figure 1-5 are often used as a public display to help gain support for large projects. Model makers need basic drafting skills to help interpret the plans required to build the actual project. Model makers may be employed within a large architectural firm or may work for a company that only makes models for architects. For more information, contact the Association of Model Makers at www.modelmakers.org. American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 1801 Alexander Bell Drive Reston, VA 20191-4400 800-548-2723 Web site: www.asce.org American Consulting Engineers Council (ACEC) 1015 15th Street, NW, Suite 802 Washington, DC 20005 202-347-7474 Web site: acec.org American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (ASHRAE) 1791 Tullie Circle NE Atlanta, GA 30329-2305 800-527-4723 Web site: www.ashrae.org Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) 120 Wall Street, 17th Floor FIGURE 15 Models such as this one of the KOIN Center in Portland, Oregon, are often used in public displays to convey design ideas. Courtesy KOIN Center, Olympia & York Properties (Oregon) Inc. Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities 11 the architectural world to assign reference numbers to architectural materials and products. The numbers consist of 17 groups, 5 major subgroups, and 50 divisions. These listings can be used for production, distribution, filing, and retrieval of construction documents. Each major division of the MasterFormat system is related to a major grouping of the construction process and will be introduced in Chapter 8. Plan Examiner FIGURE 16 Drawings created by an architectural illustrator are often used for advertising and presentation purposes. Courtesy Bob Greenspan, Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc. Illustrator Many drafters, designers, and architects have the basic skills to draw architectural renderings. Very few, though, have the expertise to make this type of drawing rapidly. Most illustrators have a background in art. By combining artistic talent with a basic understanding of architectural principles, the illustrator can produce drawings that show a proposed structure realistically. Figure 1-6 shows a drawing that was prepared by an architectural illustrator. Section 11 provides an introduction to presentation drawings. For more information, contact the American Society of Architectural Illustrators (ASAI) at www.asai.org. Specification Writer Specifications are written instructions for methods, materials, and quality of construction. A written specification for a product may range from a sentence or two describing a price range of a product, to a lengthy document that specifies how a product is to be purchased, delivered, stored, installed, maintained, and recycled at the end of its use. Generally, a writer will have had classes in technical writing at the twoyear-college level. A specification writer must have a thorough understanding of the construction process and the use of the CSI 2004 MasterFormat numbering system, and have a good ability to read plans. The MasterFormat system is published by the Construction Specification Institute (CSI) in the United States, and by Construction Specifications Canada (CSC) in Canada. The numbering system is used by all areas of Building departments require that plans be checked carefully to ensure that the required codes for public safety have been met. A plan examiner must be licensed by the state, to certify minimum understanding of the construction process. In most states, there are different levels of examiners. An experienced drafter or designer may be able to qualify as a low-level or residentialplan inspector. Generally, a degree in engineering or architecture is required to advance to an upper-level position. Additional information on how to become a plan examiner can be obtained from the International Code Council at www.iccsafe.org. Inspector The construction that results from the plans must also be inspected. Depending on the size of the building department, the plan examiner may also serve as the building inspector. In large building departments, one group examines plans and another inspects construction. Being be a construction inspector requires an exceptionally good understanding of code limitations, print reading, and construction methods. Each of these skills has its roots in a beginning drafting class. Additional information regarding becoming a building inspector can be obtained from the International Code Council at www.iccsafe.org. Jobs in Construction Many drafters are employed directly by construction companies. The benefits of this type of position have already been discussed. These drafters typically not only do drafting but also work part-time in the field. Some drafters give up their jobs for one of the high-paying positions in the construction industry. The ease of interpreting plans as a result of a background in drafting is of great benefit to any construction worker. 12 GOING GREEN An Introduction to Green Design Reduce, reuse, recycle! No matter what area of the design or construction field you enter, an important aspect of your career will be a building mind-set that revolves around these three words. Whether it is called earth-friendly, green, ecological, or sustainable construction, the concept is to build in a manner that will produce a structure that uses energy efficiently, that uses materials that have low impact on the environment, and that contributes to a healthier workplace. One of the leaders in the development of sustainable construction is the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Green Building Rating System, referred to as LEED. LEED is a rating system used to evaluate key areas of building projects, such as: • • • • • • Sustainable sites. Water efficiency. Indoor environmental quality. Energy and atmosphere. Material and resources. Innovation and the design process. Other key organizations that are leaders in green construction include the developed by the National Association of Home Builders (NAHB), American National Standards Institute (ANSI), and the International Code Council (ICC) that publishes the International Residential Code (IRC). The IRC will be introduced in Chapter 9. These three industry leaders have combined their resources to develop the National Green Building Standards (ICC 7002008). The NGBS are currently a group of guiding principles that can be used throughout the construction process to ensure an environmentally friendly project. It is expected that these current guidelines will become mandatory as part of the ICC code family as the 2012 codes are released. Major principles addressed by the 2008 guidelines include: • Site design and development. • Site design, preparation, and development. DESIGN BASICS As you enter the world of design, it’s important to understand what you can expect to encounter in an architectural office. Designing a home for a client can be an exciting but difficult process. Very rarely can an architect sit down and create a design that meets the needs of the client perfectly. The time required to design a home can range from a few days to several months. It is important for you to understand the design process and the role that the drafter plays in it. This requires an understanding of basic design, • • • • • Resource efficiency. Energy efficiency. Water efficiency. Indoor environmental quality. Operation, maintenance, and building owner education. The LEED and NGBS principles will be introduced throughout the text. As a new employee in a firm, you may not be making the decisions on how to increase the sustainability of a residence, but in order to advance in an office, you must understand key green issues presented in each of these guidelines. Section 2 of this text will examine common methods of designing a residence that is environmentally friendly. Section 8 will examine common framing methods found in residential construction. Environmentally friendly framing is not just a matter of selecting green materials; once selected, these green products must be transported and used in a manner that will reduce the environmental impact of the structure. Creating an environmentally friendly structure requires the matching of materials to a specific design and site that minimizes the effect on that site. Five questions should be considered that will affect the selection of materials to make a sustainable structure: 1. Can products be selected that are made from environmentally friendly materials? 2. Can products be selected because of what they do not contain? 3. Will the products to be used reduce the environmental impact during construction? 4. Will the products to be used reduce the environmental impact of operating the building? 5. Will the products to be used contribute to a safe, healthy indoor environment? financial considerations, and common procedures of design. In the balance of this chapter, the terms architect and designer can be thought of as synonymous. Typically the designing and much of the drafting will already be done before a project is given to the junior drafter. As experience and confidence are gained, the drafter enters the design process at earlier stages. Financial Considerations Both designers and drafters need to be concerned with costs. Finances influence the drafter’s decisions about Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities framing methods and other structural considerations. Often the advanced drafter must decide between methods that require more materials with less labor and those that require fewer materials but more labor. The owner may never be aware of these decisions, but the choices made can make the difference in whether or not the house is affordable. The designer makes the major financial decisions that affect the cost and size of the project. The designer needs to determine the client’s budget at the beginning of the design process and work to keep the project within these limits. Through past experience and contact with builders, the designer should be able to make an accurate estimate of the cost of a finished house. This estimate is often made on a square footage basis in the initial stages of design. For instance, in some areas a modest residence can be built for approximately $75 per square foot. In other areas this same house may cost approximately $150 per square foot. A client wishing to build a 2500 sq ft house could expect to pay between $187,500 and $375,000, depending on where it will be built. Keep in mind that these are estimates. A square footage price tells very little about the home. In the design stage, square footage estimates help set parameters for the design. The estimate is based on typical cost for previous clients. The price of materials such as lumber, concrete, and roofing will vary throughout the year depending on supply and demand. Basic materials will typically account for approximately 50% of the project cost. Finished materials are the part of the estimate that will cause wide variation in the cost. If you have ever been in a home supply store, you know that a toilet can be purchased for between $30 and $300. Every item in the house will have a range of possible prices. The final cost of the project is determined once the house is completely drawn and a list of materials is prepared. With a list of materials, contractors are able to make accurate decisions about cost. The source of finances can also affect the design process. Certain lending institutions may require some drawings that the local building department may not. Federal Housing Administration (FHA) and Veterans Administration (VA) loans often require extra forms, drawings, and specifications that need to be taken into account in the initial design stages. The Client Most houses are not designed for one specific family. In order to help keep costs down, houses are often built in subdivisions and designed to appeal to a wide variety of people. One basic plan may be built with several 13 FIGURE 17 Stock plans are designed to appeal to a wide variety of buyers. Courtesy Design Basics, Inc. Home Plan Design Service. different options, thus saving the contractor the cost of paying for several different complete plans. Sections 4, 6, and 7 will explore alternative designs to the home presented throughout this text. Some families may make minor changes to an existing plan. These modified stock plans allow the prospective home buyer a chance to have a personalized design at a cost far below that of custom-drawn plans (see Figure 1-7). If finances allow, or if a stock plan cannot be found to meet their needs, a family can have a plan custom designed. The Design Process The design of a residence can be divided into several stages. These generally include initial contact, preliminary design studies, room planning, initial working drawings, final design considerations, completion of working drawings, permit procedures, and job supervision. Initial Contact Clients often approach designers to obtain background information. Design fees, schedules, and the compatibility of personalities are but a few of the basic questions 14 to be answered. This initial contact may take place by telephone or a personal visit. The questions asked are important to both the designer and the client. The client needs to pick a designer who can work within budget and time limitations. Drawing fees are another important consideration in choosing a designer. Design fees vary based on the type of project and the range of services to be provided. Fees are generally based on hourly rates, price per square feet of construction, on a percentage of construction cost, or a combination of these methods. Square footage prices vary based on the size of the project and the area of the country, but must be set to cover design and drafting time, overhead, and profit margin. New drafters are often shocked to learn that their office bills clients at a rate that is often three to four times their hourly rate of pay for drafting time. It is important to remember that this billing price must include supervision time, overhead, state and federal taxes, and hopefully a profit for the office. Design fees for architectural services of a custom house range from 5% to 15% of the total construction cost. The amount varies based on the services provided, the workload of the office, and the local economy. The designer needs to screen clients to determine if the client’s needs fit within the office schedule. Once an agreement has been reached, the preliminary design work can begin. This selection process usually begins with the signing of a contract to set guidelines that identify which services are to be provided and when payment is expected. This is also the time when the initial criteria for the project will be determined. Generally, clients have a basic size and a list of specifics in mind, a sketch of proposed floor plans, and a file full of pictures of items that they would like in their house. During this initial phase of design it is important to become familiar with the lifestyle of the client as well as the site where the house will be built. Preliminary Design Studies Once a thorough understanding of the client’s lifestyle, design criteria, and financial limits has been developed, the preliminary studies can begin. These include research with the building and zoning departments that govern the site, investigation of the site, and discussions with any board of review that may be required. Once this initial research has been done, preliminary design studies can be started. The preliminary drawings usually take two stages: bubble drawings and scaled sketches. Bubble drawings are freehand sketches used to help determine room locations and relationships. Several sketches similar to Figure 1-8 are usually created. It is during this stage of the preliminary design that consideration is given to the site and energy efficiency of Architectural Drafting and Design FIGURE 18 Bubble designs are the first drawings in the design process. These drawings are used to explore room relationships. the home by planning room orientation to the site, the surroundings, the movement of the sun, and available sunlight at the property at various times of the day. Once a satisfactory layout has been sketched, these shapes are transformed into scaled sketches. Figure 1-9 shows a preliminary floor plan. Usually several sets of sketches are developed to explore different design possibilities. Consideration is given to building code regulations and room relationships and sizes. After the design options are explored, the designer selects a plan to prepare for the client. This could be the point when a drafter first becomes involved in the design process. Depending on the schedule of the designer, a senior drafter might prepare the refined preliminary drawings, which can be seen in Figure 1-10. These will include floor plans and an elevation. These drawings are then presented to the client. Changes and revisions are made at this time. Once the plans are approved by the client, the preliminary drawings are ready to be converted to design drawings. Room Planning Room usage must be considered throughout the design process. Many professionals verify standard sizes by using vendor catalogs and books such as Architectural Graphic Standards. Chapter 10 will introduce major design concepts to be considered. Typically the designer will have talked with the owners about how each room will be used and what types of furniture will be included. Occasionally, placement of a family heirloom will dictate the entire layout. When this is the case, the owner should specify the size requirements for that particular piece of furniture. 15 S&P Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities 14 FIGURE 19 Bubble drawings are converted to scale drawings so that basic sizes can be determined. The preliminary floor plan contains enough text to convey ideas to the owner, but will require additional annotation to be added for the construction process. 48" X 48" SKYLIGHT 5 300# COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT 12 BRICK VENEER 2 X 6 FASCIA 6" HORIZ. CEDAR FRONT ELEVATION 1/4" 1 X 3 CORN. TRIM 1'–0" FIGURE 110 Based on preliminary floor plans, the front elevation is drawn to explore design options. 16 Architectural Drafting and Design When placing furniture outlines to determine the amount of space in a room, the drafter can use transfer shapes known as rub-ons, templates, freehand sketching methods, or blocks if working with a CAD program. Rub-ons provide a fast method of representing furniture when manual methods are used, but they can also be expensive. Furniture can be drawn with a template or sketched. Figure 1-11 shows a preliminary floor plan drawn with a CADD program with the furniture added by the use of blocks. In the final stages of the preliminary process, the designer will often work with the clients, or bring in the assistance of interior designers to start planning interior finishes. With the interior space designed, attention can now be focused on interior details. This might include the use of interior elevations, interior perspectives, and presentation boards. Presentation boards are used to present samples of cloth or other materials that can be used for wall finishes and furniture. Each element will be addressed in future chapters. This is also the time the design team will start to help the clients make selections about key pieces of furniture, lighting fixtures, and equipment. Initial Working Drawings With the preliminary drawings approved, a drafter can begin to lay out the working drawings. The procedure will vary with each office, but generally each of the 14 FIGURE 111 The preliminary floor plan shows the owner’s changes, with furniture added. Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities drawings required for the project will be started. These will include the foundation, site, roof, electrical, cabinet, and framing plans. At this stage the drafter must rely on past experience for drawing the size of beams and other structural members. Beams and other structural material will be located, but exact sizes are not determined until the entire project has been laid out. to get a building permit. On a complicated plan, a wall-framing plan, a roof-framing plan, a grading plan, and construction details may be required. Some lending institutions may require interior elevations, cabinet drawings, and finish specifications. The skills of the drafter will determine his or her participation in preparing the working drawings. As an entry-level drafter, you will often be given the job of making corrections on existing drawings or drawing, for example, site plans or cabinets. As you gain skill you will be given more drawing responsibility. With increased ability, you will start to share in the design responsibilities. Final Design Considerations Once the drawings have been laid out, the designer will generally meet with the client several times again to get information on flooring, electrical needs, cabinets, and other finish materials. This conference will result in a set of marked drawings that the drafter will use to complete the working drawings. Working Drawings. The drawings that will be provided vary for each residence and within each office. Figure 1-12 through Figure 1-17 show what are typically considered the architectural drawings. These are drawings that show finishing materials. Figure 1-18 through Figure 1-20 show the electrical drawings. Figure 1-21 through Figure 1-24 show what are Completion of Working Drawings The complexity of the residence will determine which drawings are required. Most building departments require a site plan, a floor plan, a foundation plan, elevations, and one cross section as the minimum drawing 1200 GAL SEPTIC TANK 10' MIN FROM FND. 4" CONC FLATWORK W/ BROOM FINISH PROPOSED S.F.R. 730.00' EAM 6- 120' DRAIN LINES @10'O.C. 180'-0"+/WELL- 100' MIN. FROM SEPTIC TANK 36'-0" DIA. MIN. TURNAROUND 60" MIN. RADIUS TYPICAL W N 30˚ 00; BRICK PAVERS LAID IN HERRINGBONE PATTERN 24' WIDE X 22' DEEP MIN. PARKING 12'-0" MIN GRAVEL DRIVE 250'-0"+/- N 30˚ 00' W 730.00' STR /'-0"+ 175 MIN. ) 0' ( 10 CL OF 17 580.00' CL GRIGGS RD. LEGAL: TAX LOT 2800, LOT 5 GORDON GLEN HOMES 3E SECTION 24, T2E EAGLE CREEK, MO FIGURE 112 A site plan is used to show how the structure relates to the site. When the site is relatively flat, grading information is placed on this drawing. 18 Architectural Drafting and Design SANITARY MANHOLE A PROPOSED RESIDENCE FOR: MICHAEL & TEREASA JACOBS 11130 S.E. DAVID ALAN COURT CLACKAMAS, OR 97015 7" E 5 '5 1˚1 ACK S4 ETB DS R A E Y SID 10' ' 19'- .16 220 0" 20' FRONT YARD SETBACK 15' PUBLIC SANITARY SEWER EASEMENT S 5' 97.3 LINE OF DECK ABOVE 8'-0" RETAINING WALL 25'-0" 32'-0" R=3 24" MAX. DEC. RETAINING WALL FACE OF CURB DAVI ' 22 52 N D ALA 7. .0 0 ' 18 4" CONC. DRIVEWAY OVER GRAVEL FILL "W 49 L= 3' COUR ˚3 T 43 24" MAX. DEC. RETAINING WALL 48" HIGH MAX. RETAINING WALL 10' SIDE YARD SETBACK 264.62' S21˚16' 25" E NO RTH 24" AND 48" HIGH RETAINING WALLS TO BE INTERLOCKING DEC. BLOCK LEGAL: LOT 18 OF HIGHPOINTE IN THE N.E. 1/4 OF SEC. 34, T1S, R2E W.M. HAPPY VALLEY, CLACKAMAS COUNTY OREGON FIGURE 113 If grading is extensive, the site plan is separated from the grading plan. By careful use of layers, this site plan was used as a base for the grading plan in Figure 1-14. A PROPOSED RESIDENCE FOR: SANITARY MANHOLE 165 MICHAEL & TEREASA JACOBS 170 175 E " 7 5' 5 1˚1 ACK S4 180 ETB DS R A E Y SID 10' 11130 S.E. DAVID ALAN COURT CLACKAMAS, OR 97015 15' PUBLIC SANITARY SEWER EASEMENT 19'- 185 ' 190 20.16 2 195 0" 43 ' 7.35 32'-0" 165 10' SIDE YARD SETBACK 264.62' 205 200 195 TH GRADING PLAN 1" 190 10'-0" NOR COUR L=9 2.00' ' R = 32 ENTRY DECK F.F. 194.85' 24" MAX. DEC. GARAGE RETAINING WALL FIN. FL. 195.00 48" HIGH MAX. RETAINING WALL 52 DAV 7. RB FACE OF CU 18 N ID ALA LINE OF DECK ABOVE "W 25'-0" 49 4" CONC. DRIVEWAY OVER GRAVEL FILL 3' 24" MAX. DEC. RETAINING WALL ENTRY FIN. FL 195.00' 8'-0" RETAINING WALL LOWER FIN. FL 184.00' ˚3 T S 200 S21˚16' 25" E 185 180 175 170 LEGAL: LOT 18 OF HIGHPOINTE IN THE N.E. 1/4 OF SEC. 34, T1S, R2E W.M. HAPPY VALLEY, CLACKAMAS COUNTY OREGON 24" AND 48" HIGH RETAINING WALLS TO BE INTERLOCKING DEC. BLOCK FIGURE 114 A grading plan is used to define new and existing grades, and the cut and fill banks that will be recreated as the soil is relocated. On this drawing, existing soil contours are shown with dashed lines and new grade contours are represented with solid lines. Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities 19 300# COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT LINE OF ROOF BEYOND 2x6 FASCIA 1x3 R.S. CORN. TRIM HORIZ. CONC. SIDING W/ 6" EXPOSURE OVER 1/2" CDX PLYWOOD & TYVEK 4" CONC. FLATWORK 6x6 POST 4" CONC. FLATWORK 5 REAR ELEVATION 10'-0" NOTE: EXTEND CHIMNEY FLUE A MIN. OF 2'-0" ABOVE ANY POINT ON ROOF WITHIN 10'-0" HORIZ. 14 48"x48" SKYLIGHT 24" MIN. 12 LINE OF ROOF BEYOND 2x6 FASCIA BRICK VENEER OVER 1" AIR SPACE & TYVEK W/METAL TIES @ 24" O.C. EA. STUD 4x3x3/16" METAL LINTEL OVER GARAGE DOOR. SEE OWNER FOR BRICK DESIGN FIN. FLOOR 1x3 R.S. CORN. TRIM LEFT ELEVATION LINE OF COLUMN BEYOND LINE OF PLANTER BEYOND 14 48"x48" SKYLIGHT 300# COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT 5 12 8'-0" FIN. FLR.-FIN. CEIL. 12'-0" FIN. FLR. - FIN. CEIL. 9'-0" FIN. FLR./FIN. CEIL. 2x6 FASCIA 3'-0" BRICK VENEER OVER 1" AIR 6" HORIZ. CEDAR SPACE & TYVEK W/METAL TIES @ 24" O.C. EA. STUD 4x3x3/16" METAL LINTEL OVER GARAGE DOOR. SEE OWNER FOR BRICK DESIGN FRONT ELEVATION 14 5 12 10'-0" 24" MIN. 1x3 CORN. TRIM NOTE: EXTEND CHIMNEY FLUE A MIN. OF 2'-0" ABOVE ANY POINT ON ROOF WITHIN 10'-0" HORIZ. HORIZ. CONC. SIDING W/ 6" EXPOSURE OVER 1/2" CDX PLYWOOD & TYVEK RIGHT ELEVATION 14 FIGURE 115 Once the owners have approved the preliminary designs, the exterior elevations can be completed. The elevations will provide a view of each side of the structure and show and specify all exterior materials to be used. typically called the structural drawings. Many architectural firms number each page based on the type of drawing on that page. Pages are represented by: A—Architectural S—Structural M—Mechanical E—Electrical P—Plumbing Figure 1-12 shows the site plan that was required for the residence in Figure 1-8. Typically the site plan is completed by a junior drafter from a sketch provided by the senior drafter or designer. A grading plan is not required for every residence. Because this home is to be built on a fairly level site, the elevations are indicated at each corner of the structure. Figure 1-13 shows a site plan for a hillside home. Because of the large amount of soil to be excavated for the lower floor, the grading 20 TYPICAL DOWNSPOUT A 2x8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C. A A B 12' PLATE 1. ALL HIPS, RIDGES & VALLEYS TO BE 2x10 UNLESS NOTED. 2. ALL RAFTERS TO BE 2x8 DFL #2 @ 24" O.C. UNLESS NOTED. 48"x48" SKYLIGHT 12" - 16'-2" 16" - 14'-0" 24" - 11'-5" 2x10 @ 12" - 19'-8" 16" - 17-0" 24" - 13'-11" 8' PLATE HIP SCHEDULE A B 8' PLATE 2x8 @ B 1. USE 1/2" 'CCX' PLY @ ALL EXPOSED EAVES. 2. ROOF VENTS MUST HAVE AN AREA EQUAL TO 1/150 OF THE ATTIC AREA. 3. SKYLIGHTS TO BE DOUBLE DOMED PLASTIC BY VELEX OR EQUAL. 2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C. 2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C. A 4. ALL ROOF PITCHES ARE 5/12 UNLESS NOTED. 5. 300# COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT. FIGURE 116 The roof plan shows the shape of the roof structure as well as vents and drains. B A 2x12 B 2-2x12 C 5 1/8" x 10 1/2" GLULAM D 2-2x10 E 3 1/8" x 12" GLULAM F 5 1/8 x 13 1/2 GLULAM G 3 1/2" x 11 7/8" MICROLLAM Architectural Drafting and Design 12" - 12'-9" 16" - 11'-1" 24" - 9'-1" TYP. 2'-6" 8' PLATE 2'-6" TYP. 12' PLATE MAX. RAFT. SPAN 2x6 @ E PURLIN SEE FRAMING PLAN D B B 2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C. 2x10 RAFT. @ 16" O.C. 12' PLATE ROOF FRAMING NOTES: CRICKET D 2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C. 2x8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C. B PURLIN SEE FRAMING PLAN N CRICKET 2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C. D 48"x48" SKYLIGHT 2x8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C. B 2x8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C. 8' PLATE SEE SECTION 2x8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C. PURLIN SEE FRAMING PLAN 12" ~SCREENED RIDGE VENTS B A B 2x8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C. E 2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C. CHIMNEY W/ 26 ga FLASH/ COUNTER FLASH 2x8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C. 2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C. 2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C. A CRICKET PURLIN SEE FRAMING PLAN PURLIN SEE FRAMING PLAN CRICKET E 2x8 PURLIN SEE FRAMING PLAN 48"x48" SKYLITE 8' PLATE 2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C. D 2x10 RAFT. @ 12" O.C. 2x8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C. 9' PLATE 2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C. 12' PLATE 8' PLATE 12' PLATE 8' PLATE PLATE HEIGHT REMAINING LEVEL. FLOOR HEIGHT CHANGES. SEE SECTION Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities 21 BUILT-INS 8 13'-6" CEILING B L 6 3'-6" X 6'-0" C.T. SUNKEN TUB 9 S&P MASONRY FIREPLACE W/ 18" FLUSH HEARTH G D C 36" HIGH PLANTER 8" MAX. STEP UP 2 RISERS D SCREENED CLOSABLE VENT WITHIN 24" BUILT-INS S&P 4'-0"X4'-0" SKYLIGHT 36" HIGH PLANTER 8" MAX. ARCH 4'-0" X 4'-0" SKYLIGHT 2'-6" CASE OPENING 22" X 30" CRAWL SPACE ACCESS 4'-0"X4'-0" SKYLIGHT ARCH K 36" F.G. SHW. SHOWER FULL WALL ARCH N N N F P CLS J N N F 3'-6" X 7'-0" SHOWER N S&P P 60" F.G. TUB & S. 2'-6" CASE OPENING F FOLDING COUNTER W/ SHELVES BELOW SELF VENT M N 10 11 E ARCH S&P A 22"X30" CRAWL SPACE ACCESS 5/8" TYPE 'X' GYP. BD. FLOOR AND CEILING 6 3 4 5 BUILT-INS 1 R INSULATE W.H. TO R-11 & PLACE ON 18" HIGH PLATFORM 2 S 14 DESIGN BASED ON 1996 OREGON ENERGY CODE - PATH I. 13 FIGURE 117A The preliminary floor plan is used to form the base of the finished floor plan. Text to describe all interior materials must be provided. DOOR SCHEDULE SYM. WINDOW SCHEDULE A 3'-6" X 8'-0" B 12'-0" X 8'-0" C 8'-0" X 6'-8" D 6'-0" X 6'-8" TYPE S.C.,R.P., W/ 24" SIDELIGHT W/ SQ. TRANSOM ABOVE SL. GLASS W/ 12'-0" X 3'-0" SQ. TRANSOM ABOVE SL. FRENCH DRS. W/ 12" SQ. TRANSOM ABOVE SL. GLASS DRS. W/6'-0" x 3'-0" SQ. TRANSOM ABOVE E 3'-0" X 6'-8" SELF CLOSING, M.I. 1 F PR 2'-6" X 6'-8" HOLLOW CORE 2 G 6'-0" X 6'-8" SL. MIRROR 1 H 6'-0" X 6'-8" BIFOLD 1 J 4'-0" X 6'-8" BIFOLD 1 K PR 2'-0" X 6'-8" HOLLOW CORE 1 L 2'-8" X 6'-8" S.C., M.I. 1 M 2'-8" X 6'-8" HOLLOW CORE 1 N 2'-6" X 6'-8" HOLLOW CORE 7 P 2'-4" X 6'-8" HOLLOW CORE 3 Q 16'-0" X 8'-0" OVERHEAD, GARAGE 1 9'-0" X 8'-0" OVERHEAD, GARAGE 1 R SIZE QUAN. DOOR NOTES: 1. FRONT DOOR TO BE RATED AT 0.54 OR LESS; VERIFY DOOR STYLE WITH OWNER. 2. EXTERIOR DOORS IN HEATED WALLS TO BE U 0.20 OR LESS. OR LESS. 4. ALL GLASS WITHIN 18" OF DOORS TO BE TEMPERED. 1 SYM. SIZE GENERAL NOTES: TYPE QUAN. 1. STRUCTURAL DESIGNS ARE BASED ON 2003 I.R.C AND 1996 OREGON ENERGY CODE PATH 1. 2. ALL PENETRATIONS IN TOP OR BOTTOM PLATES FOR PLUMBING OR ELECTRICAL RUNS TO BE SEALED. SEE ELECTRICAL PLANS FOR ADDITIONAL SPECIFICATIONS. 1 5'-6" X 7-'6" ARCHED TOP 1 1 2 5'-6" X 1-0" AWNING 1 1 3 2'-6" X 5'-0" PICTURE 2 1 4 2'-6" X 1'-0" AWNING 2 3. PROVIDE 1/2" WATERPROOF GYP. BD. AROUND ALL TUBS, SHOWERS, AND SPAS. 5 2'-6" X 2'-6" ARCHED TOP 6 1'-8" X 4'-6" ARCHED TOP 2 1 4. VENT DRYER AND ALL FANS TO OUTSIDE AIR THRU DAMPERED VENTS. 7 6'-0" X 4'-6" HOR. SLIDING 1 8 5'-0" X 4'-0" HOR. SLIDING 1 9 6'-0" X 4'-0" HOR. SLIDING 1 10 1'-8" X 4'-6" CASEMENT 11 3'-6" X 4'-6" PICTURE 2 1 12 4'-0" X 3'-0" PICTURE 1 ARCHED TOP 1 13 3'-6" X 4'-6" WINDOW NOTES: 1. ALL WINDOWS TO BE VINYL FRAME, MILGARD OR BETTER. 2. ALL WINDOWS TO BE U 0.40 MIN. 3. ALL BEDROOM WINDOWS TO BE WITHIN 44" OF FIN. FLOOR. 4. GLASS WITHIN 18" OF DOORS TO BE TEMPERED. 5. ALL WINDOW HDRS. FOR 8' & 9' CEIL. HEIGHTS TO BE SET AT 6'-8", ALL HDRS FOR 12' CEIL. TO BE SET AT 10'-8", UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED. 6. VERIFY HEIGHT OF WINDOW #7 WITH TUB HEIGHT. FIGURE 117B Notes and schedules are typically displayed near the floor plan. 5. INSULATE WATER HEATER TO R-11. PROVIDE 18" HIGH PLATFORM FOR GAS APPLIANCES. 6. PROVIDE 1/4" COLD WATER LINE TO REFRIGERATOR. 7. BRICK VENEER TO BE PLACED OVER 1" AIR SPACE, AND TYVEK W/ METAL TIES @ 24" O.C. EA. STUD. 22 SS 4 4 FLUORESCENT LIGHTS UP IN SOFFIT. 4 WP (2) FLOOR OUTLETS VERIFY LOCATION W/ OWNER 4 4 TV SS S 33 P P TO LIGHTING IN SOFFITS GFI SS S.D. S S 3 3 SS J S SSSS GFI GFI GD S3 S3 SS TR J SD 3 S S L S 3 WP F S S TV GFI F S S.D. SS TR 3 SSS WP P P 120" WP P S SS S 3 33 TR FLUORESCENT LIGHTS IN SOFFIT. WP 72" SUPPLY 220 CIRCUIT TO A.C. S S3 SSSS3 P S3S3 CH. S3 S S GFI 42" S3S3S3 SS S.D. F S S S.D. S 3 S3S3S3 F L H SD SD SSS P GFI GFI SD S3 TR. S S TV WP WP 120" 4 S3 WP 4 SS TV AIR COND. S ALL OUTLETS IN KITCHEN, LAUNDRY, WP BATHROOM & OUTDOOR TO BE GFI. CIR SWITCH TURNS ON ALL W.P. OUTLETS MOUNTED UNDER EAVES D 50 AMP. ELECTRICAL PLAN 14 D W.P. W.P 72" FIGURE 118A The electrical plan shows the locations for lights, plugs, switches, and other electrical fixtures and specifications. Using the floor plan as the base drawing, the electrical drawing can be completed by adding the electrical information on new layers. Architectural Drafting and Design LIGHTS ON GATE Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities 23 ELECTRICAL LEGEND ELECTRICAL NOTES: 1. ALL GARAGE AND EXTERIOR PLUGS & LIGHT FIXTURES TO BE ON GFCI CIRCUIT. 2. ALL KITCHEN PLUGS AND LIGHT FIXTURES TO BE ON GFCI CIRCUIT. 3. PROVIDE A SEPARATE CIRCUIT FOR MICROWAVE OVEN. 4. PROVIDE A SEPARATE CIRCUIT FOR PERSONAL COMPUTER. VERIFY LOCATION WITH OWNER. 5. VERIFY ALL ELECTRICAL LOCATIONS W/ OWNER. 6. EXTERIOR SPOTLIGHTS TO BE ON PHOTOELECTRIC CELL W/ TIMER. 7. ALL RECESSED LIGHTS IN EXT. CEIL. TO BE INSULATION COVER RATED. 8. ELECTRICAL OUTLET PLATE GASKETS SHALL BE INSTALLED ON RECEPTACLE, SWITCH, AND ANY OTHER BOXES IN EXTERIOR WALL. 9. PROVIDE THERMOSTATICALLY CONTROLLED FAN IN ATTIC W/ MANUAL OVERRIDE (VERIFY LOCATION W/ OWNER). CEILING-MOUNTED LIGHT FIXTURE CAN CEILING LIGHT FIXTURE 110 CONVENIENCE OUTLET L GFI 110 C.O. GROUND FAULT INTERRUPTER WP 110 WATERPROOF WALL-MOUNTED LIGHT 110 HALF HOT J JUNCTION BOX RECESSED LIGHT FIXTURE P.C 220 OUTLET 10. ALL FANS TO VENT TO OUTSIDE AIR. ALL FAN DUCTS TO HAVE AUTOMATIC DAMPERS. 11. HOT WATER TANKS TO BE INSULATED TO R-11 MINIMUM. 12. INSULATE ALL HOT WATER LINES TO R-4 MINIMUM. PROVIDE AN ALTERNATE BID TO INSULATE ALL PIPES FOR NOISE CONTROL. S SINGLE POLE SWITCH S3 THREE-WAY SWITCH L H F LIGHT, HEATER, & FAN S.D. SMOKE DETECTOR 13. PROVIDE 6 SQ. FT. OF VENT FOR COMBUSTION AIR TO OUTSIDE AIR FOR FIREPLACE CONNECTED DIRECTLY TO FIREBOX. PROVIDE FULLY CLOSEABLE AIR INLET. 14. HEATING TO BE ELECTRIC HEAT PUMP. PROVIDE BID FOR SINGLE UNIT NEAR GARAGE OR FOR A UNIT EACH FLOOR (IN ATTIC). V VACUUM LIGHT ON PULL CHORD SPOTLIGHTS 48" SURFACE-MOUNTED FLUORESCENT LIGHT FIXTURE S STEREO SPEAKER P PHONE OUTLET TV CABLE TV OUTLET 15. INSULATE ALL HEATING DUCTS IN UNHEATED AREAS TO R-11. ALL HVAC DUCTS TO BE SEALED AT JOINTS AND CORNERS. FIGURE 118B Notes and legends are placed with the electrical plan to explain fixtures. plan was provided (see Figure 1-14). The junior drafter may draw the base drawing showing the structure and site plan and the designer or senior drafter will usually complete the grading information. Typically the owner is responsible for hiring a surveyor, who will provide the topography and site map, although the designer may coordinate the work between the two offices. Section 3 will provide insight into how these two drawings are developed. Using the preliminary drawing that was presented in Figure 1-10, the working elevations can be completed. Depending on the complexity of the structure, they may be completed by either the junior or the senior drafter. Figure 1-15 shows the working elevations for this structure. Section 7 will provide information needed to complete working elevations, and Section 11 will introduce presentation elevations. Figure 1-16 and Figure 1-17 show the completed plan views of this structure. Figure 1-16 shows the view from flying over the structure. The roof plan is often completed by the junior drafter using sketches provided by the senior drafter. Section 6 will provide information on roof plans. The floor plan, represented in Figure 1-17A, is usually completed by the senior drafter. These drawings provide information related to the room arrangements and interior finishes. Junior drafters also work on the plan views by making corrections or adding notes, which are typically placed on a marked-up set of plans provided by the designer or senior drafter. Section 4 will provide information for completing floor plans. Figure 1-18 shows the electrical plan. Depending on the complexity of the residence, electrical information may be placed directly on the floor plan. A junior drafter typically completes the electrical drawings by working from marked-up prints provided by the designer. Chapter 19 will provide information for completing the electrical plans. Figure 1-19 through Figure 1-21 represent the framing plans and notes associated with these drawings. The notes shown with Figure 1-19 are standard notes that specify the nailing for all framing connections. Depending on the complexity of the structure, framing information may be placed on the floor plan. Because of the information to be shown regarding seismic and wind problems, separate framing plans have been provided. Typically these drawings would be completed by the designer and the senior drafters. Notice in Figure 1-21B that notes have been provided to specify the minimum code standards used to design the residence. Section 6 and Section 8 will provide information needed to complete the framing plans. Figure 1-22 and Figure 1-23 contain the section views required to show the vertical relationships of materials specified on the framing plans. Office practice varies greatly on what drawings will be provided, the scale to be used, and the detail that will be shown in the sections. Section 10 will provide information for drawing sections. Sections are typically drawn by the designer and the senior drafter and completed by the junior drafters. Section 10 will provide information for creating building sections and details. 24 Architectural Drafting and Design FASTENER SCHEDULE CAULKING NOTES: CAULKING REQUIREMENTS BASED ON 1992 OREGON RESIDENTIAL ENERGY CODE 1. SEAL THE EXTERIOR SHEATHING @ CORNERS, JOINTS, DOOR AND WINDOW, AND FOUNDATION SILLS W/ SILICONE CAULKING. 2. CAULK THE FOLLOWING OPENINGS W/ EXPANDED FOAM OR BACKER RODS. POLYURETHANE, ELASTOMERIC COPOLYMER, SILCONIZED ACRYLIC LAYTEX CAULKS MAY ALSO BE USED WHERE APPROPRIATE. ANY SPACE BETWEEN WINDOW AND DOOR FRAMES BETWEEN ALL EXTERIOR WALL SOLE PLATES AND PLY SHEATHING ON TOP OF RIM JOIST PRIOR TO PLYWOOD FLOOR APPLICATION WALL SHEATHING TO TOP PLATE JOINTS BETWEEN WALL AND FOUNDATION JOINTS BETWEEN WALL AND ROOF JOINTS BETWEEN WALL PANELS AROUND OPENINGS FOR DUCTS, PLUMBING, ELECTRICAL, TELEPHONE AND GAS LINES IN CEILINGS, WALLS AND FLOORS. ALL VOIDS AROUND PIPING RUNNING THROUGH FRAMING OR SHEATHING TO BE PACKED ALTERNATE ATTACHMENTS TABLE NO R 402.3A (1) NOMINAL THICKNESS 5/16" 3/8" 15/32" & 1/2" 19/32" & 5/8" 23/32" & 3/4" 1" DESCRIPTION (1,2) OF FASTENERS & LENGTH .097-.009 NAIL 1 1/2" STAPLE 15 GA. 1 3/8" STAPLE 15 GA. 1 3/8" .097-.099 NAIL 1 1/2" STAPLE 15 GA. 1 1/2" .097-.099 NAIL 1 5/8 .113 NAIL 1 7/8" STAPLE T 15 & 16 GA. 1 5/8" .097-.099 NAIL 1 3/4" STAPLE 14 GA. 1 3/4" STAPLE 15 GA. 1 3/4" .097-.099 NAIL 1 7/8" STAPLE 14 GA. 2" .113 NAIL 2 1/4" STAPLE 15 GA. 2" .097-.099 NAIL 2 1/8" SPACING OF FASTENERS INTERMEDIATE EDGES SUPPORTS 6" 6 4 6 3 12" 12 10 12" 6" 6 3" 6 5 3 6 4" 12" 6" 12 10 6 10" 8" 3" 6" FLOOR UNDERLAYMENT: PLYWOOD, HARDBOARD, PARTICLEBOARD |" & 5/16" 3/8" 1/2" .097-.099 NAIL 1 1/2" STAPLE 15 & 16 GA. 1 1/4" .080 NAIL 1 1/4" STAPLE 18 GA. 3/16 CROWN 7/8" STAPLE 15 & 16 GA 1 3/8" .097-.099 NAIL 1 1/2" .080 NAIL 1 3/8" .113 NAIL 1 7/8" STAPLE 15 & 16 GA. 1 1/2" .097-.099 NAIL 1 3/4" 6" 12" 5" 10" DESCRIPTION OF BUILDING MATERIAL NUMBER & TYPE OF FASTENERS (1,2,3,5,) 1. JOIST TO SILL OR GIRDER, TOE NAIL 2. BRIDGING TO JOIST, TOENAIL EA. END 3. 1 x 6 (25 X 150) SUBFLOOR OR LESS TO EACH JOIST, FACE NAIL 5" 10" 6" 12" 5" 6" 1. NAIL IS A GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND MAY BE T-HEAD, MODIFIED ROUND HEAD, OR ROUND HEAD. 2. STAPLES SHALL HAVE A MINIMUM CROWN WIDTH OF 7/16" O.D. EXCEPT AS NOTED. 3. NAILS OR STAPLES SHALL BE SPACED AT NOT MORE THAN 6" O.C. AT ALL SUPPORTS WHERE SPANS ARE 48" OR GREATER. NAILS OR STAPLES SHALL BE SPACED AT NOT MORE THAN 10" O.C. AT INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS FOR FLOORS. 6d 6 5/8" (16 mm) 8d 6 7 1/2" (13 mm) No. 16 ga.9 2-8d 25/32" (20 mm) 4. WIDER THAN 1 x 6 (25 x 150) SUBFLOOR TO EACH JOIST, FACE 3-8d NAIL 5. 2" (50) SUBFLOOR TO JOIST OR GIRDER BLIND AND FACE NAIL 6. SOLE PLATE TO JOIST OR BLOCKING FACE NAIL SOLE PLATE TO JOIST OR BLOCKING AT BRACED WALL PANELS 7. TOP OR SOLE PLATE TO STUD, END NAIL No. 11 ga.8 6d 4 No. 16 ga.9 2-16d 16d @ 16" (406mm) O.C. No. 11 ga. 6d 4 2-8d 29. INTERIOR PANELING 3- 16d PER 16" (406mm) O.C. 1/4" (6.4 mm) 4d 10 2-16d 3/8" (9.5 mm) 4d 11 8. STUD TO SOLE PLATE, TOE NAIL 4-8d, TOENAIL OR 2-16d END NAIL 9. DOUBLE STUDS, FACE NAIL 16d @ 24" (610mm) O.C. 10. DOUBLE TOP PLATE, FACE NAIL 16d @ 16" (406mm) O.C. DOUBLE TOP PLATE, LAP SPLICE 8-16d 11. BLOCKING BTWN. JOIST OR RAFTERS TO TOP PLATE, TOENAIL 3- 8d 12. RIM JOIST TO TOP PLATE, TOENAIL 8d @ 6" (152mm) O.C. 13. TOP PLATES, TAPS & INTERSEC2-16d TIONS, FACE NAIL 14. CONTINUED HEADER, TWO PIECES 16d @ 16" (406mm) O.C. ALONG EACH EDGE 1. - COMMON OR BOX NAILS MAY BE USED EXCEPT WHERE OTHERWISE STATED. 2. - NAILS SPACED @ 6" (152 mm) ON CENTER @ EDGES, 12" INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS EXCEPT 6" (152 mm) AT ALL SUPPORTS WHERE SPANS ARE 48" 1220 mm OR MORE. FOR NAILING OF WOOD STRUCTURAL PANEL AND PARTICLEBOARD DIAPHRAGMS AND SHEAR WALLS, REFER TO SECTION 2314.3. NAIL FOR WALL SHEATHING MAY BE COMMON, BOX OR CASING. 3. - COMMON OR DEFORMED SHANK. 15. CEILING JOIST TO PLATE, TOE NAIL 3-8d 4. - COMMON. 16. CONTINUOUS HEADER TO STUD, TOE NAIL 17. CEILING JOIST, LAPS OVER PARTITIONS, FACE NAIL 18. CEILING JOIST TO PARALLEL RAFTERS, FACE NAIL 19. RAFTERS TO PLATE, TOE NAIL 20. 1" (25mm) BRACE TO EA. STUD & PLATE FACE NAIL 21. 1 x 8 (25 x 203mm) SHEATHING OR LESS TO EACH BEARING, FACE NAIL 22. WIDER THAN 1 x 8 (25 X 203mm) SHEATHING TO EACH BEARING, FACE NAIL 23. BUILT-UP CORNER STUDS 24. BUILT-UP GIRDER AND BEAMS 4-8d 5. - DEFORMED SHANK. 3-16d 6. - CORROSION-RESISTANT SIDING OR CASING NAILS. 3-16d 3-8d 2-8d 2-8D 3-8d 8. - CORROSION-RESISTANT ROOFING NAILS W/ 7/16" ~ (11 mm) HEAD & 1 1/2" (38 mm) LENGTH FOR 1/2" (13 mm) SHEATHING AND 1 3/4" (44 mm) LENGTH (FOR 25/32" (20 mm) SHEATHING CONFORMING TO THE REQUIREMENTS OF SECTION 2325.1. 9. - CORROSION-RESISTANT STAPLES WITH NOMINAL 7/16" (11 mm) CROWN AND 1 1/8" (29 mm) LENGTH FOR 20d @ 32" (813 mm) O.C. 1/2" (13 mm) SHEATHING AND 1 1/2" (38 mm) LENGTH FOR 25/32" ( 20 mm) SHEATHING CONFORMING TO THE @ TOP/BOTTOM & REQUIREMENTS OF SECTION 2325.1. STAGGER 2-20d @ ENDS & @ EACH SPLICE. 2-16d AT EACH BEARING 26. WOOD STRUCTURAL PANELS AND 2 PARTICLEBOARD: SUBFLOOR, ROOF AND WALL SHEATHING ( TO FRAMING) 1" = 25.4mm) 1/2" OR LESS 6d 3 19/32 - 3/4" 8d OR 6d 5 7/8 - 1" 8d 3 1 1/8 - 1 1/4" 10d 4 OR 8d 5 COMBINATION SUBFLOOR—UNDERLAYMENT (TO FRAMING) 1" = 25.4 mm) 3/4" AND LESS 7. - FASTENERS SPACED 3" (76 mm) O.C. AT EXTERIOR EDGES AND 6" (152 mm) O.C. AT INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS. 16d @ 24" (610 mm) O.C. 25. 2" PLANKS 12" 1/2" (13 mm) 28. FIBERBOARD SHEATHING: 3-8d 6"3 "" 6" 27. PANEL SIDING (TO FRAMING): 10. - PANEL SUPPORTS @ 16" (406 mm) O.C. 20" (508 mm) IF STRENGTH AXIS IN LONG DIRECTION OF THE PANEL, UNLESS OTHERWISE MARKED CASING OR FINISH NAILS SPACED 6" (152 mm) ON PANEL EDGES, 12" (305 mm) AT INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS. 11. - PANEL SUPPORTS @ 24" (610 mm). CASING OR FINISH NAILS SPACED 6" (152 mm) ON PANEL EDGES, 12" (305 mm) AT INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS. INSULATION NOTES: INSULATION BASED ON PATH # 1 OF 1992 OREGON RESIDENTIAL ENERGY CODE. 8d 5 7/8" - 1" 8d 5 1 1/8 - 1 1/4" 10d 4 OR 8d 5 FIGURE 119 Many offices use one or more sheets to include all standard framing notes and building specifications. 6x12 HDR. 6x10 HDR. 4x8 HDR. 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. 4x6 4x6 HDR. NOTES: 1. ALL HEADERS TO BE SUPPORTED BY 2x6 TRIMMERS AND KING STUD UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED. 2. STRUTS SHALL NOT BE SMALLER THAN 2x4 MEMBERS. THE UNBRACED LENGTH OF STRUTS SHALL NOT EXCEED 8' AND THE MINIMUM SLOPE OF THE STRUTS SHALL NOT BE LESS THAN 45˚ FROM THE HORIZONTAL. 3. HIP, VALLEY AND RIDGE TO BE 2x10 UNLESS NOTED. 4. SEE SHEET 8A FOR SYMBOL DEFINITION. 5. EXTEND INTERIOR BEARING WALLS THROUGH TO RAFT. USE 2x4 @ 24" O.C. MAX. @ 45˚ MAX. 4x12 STRONGBACK W/ 2-H5 EA. END. 2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C. HDR. 4x4 2-2x4 MST 27 2x4 BRACE 45˚ MAX. TYP. 2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C. BEARING WALL 2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C. 4x8 HDR. 6x12 HDR. SEE NOTE #7 4x4 THIS SYMBOL REPRESENTS THE LOCATIONS OF ALL THE 2x4 ROOF SUPPORTS. BRACES TO BE WITHIN 45˚ OF VERT. 4x4 HDR. 4x4 HDR. 4x4 HDR. 4x8 HDR. MST 27 W/ SOLID BLOCK @ WALL 4x4 U-26 HGR. TYP. 4x6 HDR. 4x4 W/ PC 44 4x4 HDR. 2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C. 2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C. 2x6 C.J. @ 24" O.C. 4x10 HDR. 4x4 HDR. BEARING WALL 5 1/8" x 13.5" GLU-LAM 5 1/8" x 13.5" GLU-LAM 4x6 HDR. 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. W/HUC410TF 4x10 HDR. 3-2x6 2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C. 4x4 HDR. 5.125"x10.5" GLU-LAM 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. 4x10 HDR. FLUSH 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. MST 27 2x10 VALLEY 6x10 STRONGBACK 4x12 HDR. 4x4 HDR. 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. 4x6 HDR. FLUSH 4x8 HDR. BEARING WALL ABOVE 4x8 HDR. 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. 4x4 HDR. 4x6 HDR. 2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C. 4x4 PC44 4x6 HDR. BEARING WALL ABOVE 1x4 LET IN BRACE TYP. 4x12 HDR. 3-2x4 6x12 STRONGBACK 4x10 HDR. 4x10 HDR. 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. 2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C. 4x6 HDR. 4x4 HDR. 4x14 HDR. 2-2x4 FLUSH 4x4 2x8 C.J. @ 16" O.C. 6x6 CC 5|-6 5 1/8" x 10.5" GLU-LAM 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. 5 1/8" x1 0.5" GLU-LAM 3 1/8" x 13.5" GLU-LAM 4x8 HDR. 4x6 HDR. 4x6 HDR. 4x6 HDR. MST 28 W/ SOLID BLOCK @ WALL 4x14 HDR. 4x6 HDR. 6x12 HDR. Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities 6x6 W/ PC66 CAP MST 27 SOLID BLOCK @ WALL MST 48 STRAP FROM BM. TO BM. MST 27 SOLID BLOCK @ WALL ECC 5|-4 4x8 HDR. 25 FIGURE 120 Because of the complicated roof structure, the material used to frame the roof is separated from the material displayed on the roof plan (Figure 1.16). The roof plan shows the material used to frame the roof. The roof framing plan is used to display the structural materials used to transfer roof loads into the walls. 26 90'-0" MST 27 4x6 HDR. 1 1'-0" 19'-0" C 1'-0" 12'-4" 12 4'-4" 3'-8" 5'-4" 32'-4" 3'-2" 2'-8" 11'-8" 8'-8" A C 1 2'-0" B 1 13'-0" MST 27 SOLID BLOCK @ WALL R PROVIDE 4"x3"x 5/8" STEEL OVER EA. DOOR & WINDOW TYPICAL. 5 1/8" x 13.5" GLU-LAM 5 1/8" x 10.5" GLU-LAM 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. MST 48 STRAP FROM BM. TO BM. Q C 5 1/8" x1 0.5" GLU-LAM 6'-0" 4x8 HDR. 10 11 71'-0" 4x6 HDR. C 1 8'-4" MST 27 SOLID BLOCK @ WALL A 1 25'-8" 3'-2" 4x4 HDR. 4x4 HDR. 3'-10" 10'-0" 4x4 HDR. 4x8 HDR. ECC 5 1/4 x 4 13 8'-0" 8'-4" 2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C. 2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C. 6x12 HDR. 9'-10" 15'-0" 3'-10" C 1 A 1 12'-0" N P 9'-10" + B 1 17'-0" 90'-0" FIGURE 121A In addition to showing materials needed to frame the structure, materials needed to resist wind, seismic, and other forces of nature are shown. Architectural Drafting and Design A 0 2'-6" 2'-6" 6x6 CC 5 1/4" x 6 2'-7" 2 2'-4" 5'-4" E M 5'-0" 4x10 HDR. 4x4 4x8 HDR. 4'-6" 5'-4" 2x6 C.J. @ 24" O.C. C 1 P 4x4 HDR. A 0 38'-8" 2-2x4 SEE NOTE #7 6'-6" 6'-6" B 1 J 2'-6" 2'-10" 7'-2" 4x4 U-26 HGR. TYP. N 8'-1" 2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C. N 2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C. 4'-0" 3'-10" 6'-0" 8'-4" 4x4 HDR 5'-4" 4x4 HDR. P 1'-0" 1/4" N 4x4 HDR. 7'-8" 1'-0" FRAMING PLAN N 4x4 HDR. 5'-8" 33'-4" 4x4 W/ PC 44 FLUSH 4x8 HDR. 4x4 HDR. 2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C. 4'-0" 9'-6" 4x4 H 4x6 HDR. 2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C. 2'-10" 4'-6" 5'-6" 7'-6" 6'-10" 7'-3" 5 G 4x12 HDR. 3 9 3 1/8" x 13.5" GLU-LAM 7'-6" 14'-8" 12" WIDE WALL 7'-0" 4'-0" 1x4 LET IN BRACE TYP. 8'-10" 4x6 HDR. 4x6 HDR. 4 A D FULL WALL MST 27 9'-4" 12'-4" B 1 A 0 4x6 HDR. 8 L D 4x4 PC44 MST 27 W/ SOLID BLOCK @ WALL 4x12 STRONGBACK 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. W/ 2-H5 EA. END. B 1 4x8 HDR. 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. 6 4'-0" F 8'-4" 4'-0" 1'-0" 4x6 HDR. 3'-0" 3-2x6 0" B 1 4'-0" 4x10 HDR. -1 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. 4'-8" 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. 5'-8" K 4'-2" 16" WIDE WALL 2'-4" 2'-10" 8'-6" 6'-2" 5' A 0 2'-4" N 7'-6" 10'-10" 4x10 HDR. FLUSH 4x6 HDR. 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. 4'-2" N 5'-6" 16" O.C. 3'-10" 2x6 C.J. @ 4'-10" 3'-8" 2'-2" 4x8 HDR. 37'-0" 7'-4" 2'-8" F 2'-10" 7'-0" A A 0 4x6 HDR. 2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C. 4x12 HDR. 3'-0" 6x12 HDR. 3'-2" 7'-2" 4x6 HDR. 4x14 HDR. FLUSH 7'-2" 16'-0" B 6'-0" 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. 1'-0" 5'-8" 4x10 HDR. 14'-2" 5'-8" 2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C. 4'-0" 2'-4" 12'-6" 4x4 D 8'-10" B A 0 2x8 C.J. @ 16" O.C. 2-2x4 3-2x4 6x12 STRONGBACK 1'-10" 72'-6" B 1 B 1 2'-2" 8'-4" A 0 B 1 C 4x8 HDR. 4x14 HDR. 5'-6" 17'-2" 7 4x6 HDR. MST 28 W/ SOLID BLOCK @ WALL B 4x6 HDR. 6x10 HDR. B 1 5'-6" 1'-6" 5'-8" 6x6 W/ 6x12 HDR. EPC66 CAP 7'-4" 8'-10" 7'-6" 7'-0" 6'-0" 6'-8" 7'-2" 5'-9" 11'-2" 5 1/8"x10.5" GLU-LAM 6'-1" 14'-6" 5 1/8" x 13.5" GLU-LAM 4'-3" 25'-6" 13'-8" 8'-10" 4'-0" 11'-10" 19'-10" 4'-7" 3'-10" 3'-8" 8'-10" 32'-0" 2'-4" 24'-6" Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities 27 NOTES: 1. ALL FRAMING LUMBER TO BE DFL. #2 MIN. 2. FRAME ALL EXTERIOR WALLS W/ 2X6 STUDS @ 16" O.C. ALL EXTERIOR HEADERS TO BE 4X6 DFL. #2 UNLESS NOTED. 3. ALTERNATE: FOR ALL BMS. SMALLER THAN 4X10 USE 2X6 NAILER AT THE BOTTOM OF ALL 4X HEADERS @ EXTERIOR WALLS. BACK HEADER W/ 2" RIGID INSULATION. 4. ALL SHEAR PANELS TO BE 1/2" PLY NAILED W/ 8 d'S @ 4" O.C. @ EDGE BLOCKING AND 6 d'S @ 8" O.C. @ FIELD UNLESS NOTED. 5. ALL METAL CONNECTORS TO BE BY SIMPSON CO. OR OTHER. 6. ALL ANGLES ON INTERNAL WALLS TO BE 45˚ UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED. 7. USE 4X6 POST W/ EPC 5 1/4 TOP CAP TO 4X6 POST & PC 46 BASE CAP UPSIDE/DOWN TO HDR OVER GARAGE/HALL DOOR. 8. 1X4 DIAG. LET IN BRACE @ 45˚ MAX. TYPICAL. 9. BLOCK ALL WALLS OVER 10'-0" HIGH AT MIDHEIGHT. 10. SEE SHEET 8A FOR SYMBOL DEFINITIONS. SHEAR WALL SCHEDULE MARK A B C WALL COVER EDGE NAIL'G 15/32" C-D EXTR. 8d @ 6" O.C. PLYWD. (1) SIDE -U BLOCKED -UNBLOCKE 15/32" C-D EXTR. PLYWD. (1) SIDE - 8d @ 6" O.C. BLOCKED EDGES 15/32" C-D EXTR. PLYWD. (1) SIDE - 8d @ 4" O.C. BLOCKED EDGE FIELD NAIL'G 8d @ 12" O.C. 8d @ 12" O.C. 8d @ 12" O.C. HOLD DOWN SCHEDULE MARK HOLD DOWN 0 NON-REQ'D 1 SIMPSON PAHD42 CONN. MEMBER DETAIL 8d @ 6" O.C. FIGURE 121B Notes specifying minimum building standards are shown near the framing plan. Figure 1-24 shows what is typically the final drawing in a set of residential plans, although the foundation plan is one of the first drawings used at the construction site. Because of the importance of this drawing, it is typically completed by the designer or the senior drafter, although junior drafters may work on corrections or add notes to the drawing. Section 9 will provide information for creating drawings to represent the foundation and floor system. As you progress through this text, you will be exposed to each type of working drawing. It is important to understand that a drafter would rarely draw one complete drawing and then go on to another drawing. Because the drawings in a set of plans are so interrelated, often one drawing is started, and then another drawing is started so that relationships between the two can be studied before the first drawing is completed. For instance, floor plans may be laid out, and then a section may be drawn to work out the relationships between floors or any headroom problems. When the plans are completely drawn, they must be checked. Dimensions must be checked carefully and cross-referenced from one plan to another. Bearing points from beams must be followed from the roof down through the foundation system. Perhaps one of the hardest jobs for a new drafter is coordinating the 28 Architectural Drafting and Design 2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C. LINE OF ROOF BEYOND 3.125x12" GLULAM 3.125x12" GLULAM 300# COMP. SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT 12" R-30 MIN. BLOWN-IN BATH 2 BED 2 8"MIN, 6x10 GIRDER 6" BATTS. R-25 MIN. 6x10 GIRDER 2x6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2" Ø @ 10" A.B. @ 6'-0" O.C. MAX. -7" MIN. INTO CONC. ANCHOR BOLT W/ ~2" WASHER 4x4 POST 6" GUSSET 8" 12" 4x6 HDR. BED 3 2x4 @ 16" O.C. 2x4 LEDGER 2x4 STUDS @ 16" O.C. 6" BATTS. R-21 MIN. 2x4 SILL, TYP. 3/8" HARDBOARD OVERLAY 2x6 MUDSILL 1/2" SHEETROCK 12" MIN. C 1 2'-6" TYP. BATH 3 8'-0" 1x4 T&G @ ALL EXPOSED EAVES W/ 2x4 NAILER & CONT. VENT 12"MIN, 2-2x4 TOP PLATES, TYP. (2) 2x6 TOP PLATE LAP 48" MIN. TYP. ALL EXT. WALLS 2x6 FASCIA W/ GUTTER BAFFLE 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. SOLID BLOCK 2x4 NAILER W/ U24 HGR. 2x8 RAFT @ 16" O.C. A 0 18" MIN. SOLID BLOCK OMIT EA. 3RD FOR SCREENED VENTS 12 TYP. 5 2x4 BRACE @ 48" O.C. 45˚ MAX. TYP. CONC. PIER SEE FND. PLAN FOR .006 BLACK VAPOR BARRIER SECTION A-A 1'-0" 3/8" NOTES: 1. SEE FND. PLAN FOR GIRDER AND PIER SIZES. 2. SEE SHEET 8A FOR SYMBOL DEFINITIONS. SOLID BLOCK OMIT EA. 3RD FOR SCREENED VENTS 45˚ MAX. 5 12 2x8 RAFT. @ 24" 0.C. 4x4 26 ga. METAL FLASH 2x4 PLATE 2x4 @16" O.C. 2x4 BRACE @ 48" O.C. 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. U-26 HGR. EA. SIDE 2x6 FASCIA W/ GUTTER 1x4 T&G @ ALL EXPOSED EAVES W/ 2x4 NAILER & CONT. VENT 4" BRICK VENEER W/ 1" AIR SPACE W/ METAL TIES @ 24" O.C. EA. STUD 3/8" NOTES: 8"MIN, 9'-0" 2x6 @ 16" O.C. 2-2x4 TOP > GUSSET 2x4 STUDS @ 16" O.C. 4x4 POST 2x4 SILL 6" 12"MIN, 2x6 T&G DECKING 8" 16" 1" TREAD MATERIAL SOLID BLOCK 6" TYP. (7 3/4" MAX.) 12" MIN. 18" MIN. 2X6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2" @ 10" A.B. @ 6'-0" O.C. MAX. -7" MIN. INTO CONC. ANCHOR BOLT W/ 2" WASHER SECTION B-B 4x10 HDR. 8'-0" LINE OF WALL BEYOND CONC. PIER SEE FND. PLAN FOR SIZE 1'-0" 1. SEE SECTION A-A FOR BALANCE OF NOTES. FIGURE 122 Sections are used to show the vertical relationships of the structural members. A section or detail is used to represent each major shape within the structure. Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities 29 2-2x12 RIDGE BLOCK RIDGE VENT 2x8 RAFTER @ 16" O.C. 2x4 BRACE 48" O.C. @ 45˚ 45˚ MAX. 2x6 C.J. @ 24" O.C. 5 1/8"x13.5" GLU-LAM 12" MIN. 8'-0" 6" HGR. 4"x3"x 5/8" STEEL W/ 4" LEG TO WALL. TYP. 7'-0" 2x6 DFPT SILL LINE OF FIN. FLOOR SECTION C-C 3/8" 16" B 1 GARAGE 2x6 DF SILL 8" 5 3 1/8"x13.5" GLU-LAM U-26 EA. SIDE 5/8" TYPE 'X' GYP. BD. FOR 1-HR. WALL & CEIL. A 0 12 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. 4" CONC. SLAB OVER 4" GRAVEL-SLOPE 1/4" / 12" FOR DRAINAGE. 1'-0" NOTES: THICKEN SLAB TO 8" @ EDGE 6x12 CONT. FOOTING 1. SEE SECTION A-A FOR BALANCE OF NOTES. 2. SEE SHEET 8A FOR SYMBOL DEFINITIONS. 2x10 RAFTER @ 12" O.C. 3.125"x12" GLU-LAM HIP 2x8 RAFTER @ 24" O.C. 2"x12" HIP 12 5 2x8 COLLAR TIE @ 48" O.C. 2x6 NAILER 2x8 RAFTER @ 24" O.C. 2x8 PURLIN 2x4 PURLIN BRACE @ 48" O.C. @ 45˚ MAX. FROM VERT. 2x8 C.J. @ 16" O.C. SOLID BLK. 4x14 HEADER 2'-0" 2-2x4 TOP PLATES, TYP. LINE OF WALL BEYOND 15'-6" SOLID BLOCK @ MID SPAN FOR ALL WALLS OVER 10'-0" HIGH 2x4 NAILER 13'-6" 9'-0" 2X6 LEDGER W/ U26 HGR. PLANTER BEYOND 1" TREAD MATERIAL 2x8 LEDGER W/ U210 HGR. 4x8 TYP. 4x10 1'-6" 2x12 STRINGER @ 16" O.C. 2x KICKER GUSSET SECTION D-D 3/8" .006 BLACK VAPOR BARRIER 1'-0" 4x10 GIRDER & CONC. PIER. SEE FOUNDATION PLAN FOR SIZE. NOTES: 1. SEE SECTION A-A FOR BALANCE OF NOTES. 2. SEE FND. PLAN FOR GIRDER AND PIER SIZE. FIGURE 123 Each section is referenced to the framing plan with a viewing plane line to show where the structure is “cut” and in which direction the viewer is looking. 30 90'-0" 1/2"X10 @ 48" O.C. 1'-6" 4'-0" 4'-0" 4'-0" 32'-4" 4'-0" 4'-0" 4'-0" 4'-4" 9'-2" 1/2"X10 @ 48" O.C. 18'-0" 4'-0" 1'- 2" 5'-4" B 1 2 X 6 D.F.P.T. SILL W/ 1/2"X10" A.B. @ 6'-0" O.C. 7" MIN. INTO CONC. & 12" MAX. FROM ANY CORNER W/ 2" WASHERS W/ 2 MIN. PER PLATE. 18" X 6" SCREENED CLOSABLE VENTS @ 10' O.C. & 3' OF EA. CORNER. PLACE VENTS TO AVOID KING STUDS. 8" BLOCK OUT FOR DOORS 38'-8" 15'-8" 30"X12" DP. CONC. PIER W/ CB66 2'-7" PROVIDE 1/2" AIR SPACE @ ENDS & SIDE W/ 55# FELT & 3" MIN. BEARING A 0 1'-10" 1'-6" TYP. @ VENEER 11'-0" A 1 9'-10" 8'-0" 4'-0" 4'-0" 2'-0" 13'-0" 6'-6" 3 1/2" C 1 PROVIDE 1/2" AIR SPACE @ ENDS & SIDE W/ 55# FELT & 3" MIN. BEARING 9'-4" 6'-0" 4'-9" 4'-0" 4'-0" 4'-3" 4x10 GIRDER W/18" x 8" C 1 4x8 GIRDERS W/ 15" O.C. 12'-4" 16'-4" B 1 15"x15"x12"DP. W/ PB44 4x8 TYP. C 1 5'-1" 4x8 BLOCK EA. SPAN W/ U46 HGR. 7'-0" 18 R 4'-6" 2'-0" 1'-8" 3'-6" 4'-0" 4'-0" 4'-0" 2'-10" 4'-0" 3'-10" 4x10 GIRDER W/18"¯ x 8" PIERS 1'-4" 4'-0" 3'-2" 12"x6" TYP. 4" CONC. SLAB OVER 4" GRAVEL. FILL SLOPE |" MIN. PER FT. FOR DRAINAGE. 21"x21"x12"DP. CONC. PIER. A 1 6'-0" 9'-10" 25'-8" B 1 17'-0" 1'-0" 15'-0" U46 HGR. TYP. 4'-0" A 0 3'-2" 19'-0" 2'-8" 4'-0" 4'-0" 8" TYP. 90'-0" FIGURE 124 The foundation plan shows how each of the loads will be supported. The foundation resists not only the loads caused by gravity but also the loads from seismic forces, winds, and flooding. Architectural Drafting and Design 1'-0" 8'-0" OO FL TH IS 4x8 GIRDER ON 4x4 2'-4" POST (4x6 @ SPLICE) W/ GUSSET ON 55# FELT ON 15"¯ x 8" CONC. PIERS. TYP. 1. ASSUMED SOIL BEARING PRESSURE OF 2000 P.S.F. 2. ALL CONC. TO BEAR ON FIRM, NATURAL UNDISTURBED SOIL. 3. CONCRETE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH AT 28 DAYS TO BE: WALLS NOT EXPOSED TO WEATHER 2500 PSI WALLS EXPOSED TO WEATHER 3000 PSI PORCHES,STEPS AND GARAGE SLAB 3500 PSI 4. EXTEND FOOTINGS BELOW FROST LINE,(12" MIN. INTO NATURAL SOIL FOR 1 STORY AND 2 STORY CONSTRUCTION). FOOTINGS TO BE 6" THICK FOR 1 STORY, AND 7" THICK FOR 2 STORY CONSTRUCTION. ALL FOUNDATION WALLS TO BE 8" WIDE UNLESS STEEL IS PROVIDED WITHIN 2" BUT NOT CLOSER THAN 1" FROM THE FACE OF THE WALL AWAY FROM THE SOIL. STEEL TO BE 2-#3'8 HORIZONTAL. 5. THE GRADE AWAY FROM THE FOUNDATION WALLS TO FALL A MIN. OF 6" WITHIN THE FIRST 10 FEET. 6. ALL FRAMING LUMBER TO BE DOUG. FIR LARCH #2. 7. PROVIDE PEST SCREEN IN EACH INTERIOR PLANTER. 8. SEE SHEET 8A FOR SYMBOL SCHEDULE. 12'-0" LINE OF SUNKEN FLOOR 7'-8" 8'-0" 8'-0" 6x10 GIRDER W/ 18" x 8" PIERS @ 48" U46 HGR. TYP. 19'-10" 1'-0" 5'-4" 30"x15"x12" CONC. PIER 30"x15"x12" CONC. PIER 2'-4" 8'-4" 4'-0" B 1 4" 1'-0" 1/4" 4'-0" 5'-10" FOUNDATION PLAN 4'-0" ER 6'-2" 6'-0" LINE OF RAISED FLOOR 4'-0" 17'-6" 18" CONC. PIERS 3'-0" 3'-4" 4'-0" " 5'-4" 4x10 GIRDER 1'-0" 2'-4" 5'-2" 2'-8" B 1 4'-0" 3'-4" 6x10 GIRDER W/ 18"Ø x 8" PIERS 9'-10" 7'-0" 18"X8" CONC. PIER 15"x15" CONC. PIER 14'-10" 4'-8" B 1 3'-0" 1'-0" 72-6" 18"X8" CONC. PIER 5'-3" 4x8 GIRDER 8'-0" 18"X8" CONC. PIER 21"x21" CONC. PIER 2'-0" 37'-0" 8'-0" 18"X8" CONC. PIER A 0 B 1 18" MIN. CRAWL SPACE COVER W/ 6 MIL BLACK VAPOR BARRIER THROUGHOUT. LAP JOINTS 12" MIN. EXTEND UP STEM WALL & STAPLE TO MUD SILL. PIER SIZE 15"x15"x12" 6x6 W/ PB66 2'-6" B 1 15"x15" CONC. PIER 24"X8" CONC. PIER 4x10 GIRDER W/15"X8" PIERS @ 48" O.C. 3'-10" 4'-0" 4'-0" 15"X8" CONC. PIER 8'-0" 8'-4" 2'-10" 18"X8" CONC. PIER 4'-0" 7'-6" B 1 6'-4"x3'-4"x 12" DP. FIREPLACE FTG. 4'-0" 8'-0" 2'-2" 2'-10" 4'-0" 9'-2" LINE OF RAISED fLOOR 1'-10" 5'-6" 4'-0" 4'-0" B 1 28'-6" 14'-6" 22'-6" 11'-10" W 3'-10" LO 8'-10" 71'-0" 37'-0" 24'-6" Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities 31 drawings. As changes are made throughout the design process, the drafter must be sure that those changes are reflected on all affected drawings. When the drafter has completed checking the plans, the drafting supervisor will again review the plans before they leave the office. obtaining a permit varies depending on the local building department and the complexity of the drawings. Permit reviews generally take several weeks. Once the review is complete, either a permit is issued or required changes are made to the plans. Permit Procedures Job Supervision When the plans are complete, the owner will ask several contractors to estimate the cost of construction. Once a contractor is selected to build the house, a construction permit is obtained. Although the drafter is sometimes responsible for obtaining the permits, this is usually done by the owner or contractor. The process for In residential construction, job supervision is rarely done when working for a designer, but it is quite often provided when an architect has drawn the plans. Occasionally, a problem at the job site will require the designer or drafter to go to the site to help find a solution. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES See CD for more information The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you keep current with changes in the building industry. Address www.acec.org www.aceee.org www.aia.org www.aibd.org www.asce.org www.ashrae.org www.asla.org www.aspenational.com www.aeinstitute.org www.awa-la.org www.buildinggreen.com www.crbt.org www.corrim.org Company, Product, or Service American Consulting Engineers Council American Council for Energy Efficient Economy American Institute of Architects American Institute of Building Designers American Society of Civil Engineers American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and AirConditioning Engineers American Society of Landscape Architects American Society of Professional Engineers Architectural Engineering Institute Association for Women in Architecture Building Green Inc. (This site contains a listing of site-related links based on LEED standards and CSI formats.) Center for Resourceful Building Technology Consortium for Research of Renewable Industrial Materials www.thebluebook.com www.csinet.org www.eere.energy.gov www.dreamhomesmag.com www.eeba.org Construction Information Network Construction Specifications Institute DOE Integrated Building for Energy Efficiency Dream Homes Energy and Environmental Building Association www.energydesignresources.com www.energystar.gov www.afsonl.com www.greenbuilder.com www.thegbi.org www.greenguard.org www.build.com www.iesna.org www.ieee.org www.nahbrc.org www.noma.net www.nsbe.org www.nspe.org www.naima.org Energy Design Resources Energy Star (appliance energy standards) First Source™ Greenbuilder Green Building Initiative Green Guard Environmental Institute Home Building and Home Improvement Network Illuminating Engineering Society of North America Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers National Association of Home Builders National Organization of Minority Architects National Society of Black Engineers National Society of Professional Engineers North American Insulation Manufacturers Association 32 www.residentialarchitect.com www.raic.org www.scscertified.com www.sara-national.org Architectural Drafting and Design Residential Architect Online (bulletin board and buyers’ guide) Royal Architectural Institute of Canada Scientific Certification Systems Society of American Registered Architects www.oneshpe.org www.same.org www.housingzone.com www.usgbc.org www.wbdg.org www.beconstructive.com Society of Hispanic Professional Engineers Society of Military Engineers Sustainable Buildings Industry Council U.S. Green Building Council Whole Building Design Guide Wood Promotion Network Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities Test See CD for more information QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. Question 1–8 Why should furniture placement be considered in the preliminary design process? 1. Letter your name, Chapter 1 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines. Question 1–10 List five drawings that may be required for a complete set of house plans in addition to the five basic drawings. Question 1–1 List five types of work that a junior drafter might be expected to perform. Question 1–9 What would be the minimum drawings required to get a building permit? Question 1–11 List and describe the steps of the design process. Question 1–12 What are the functions of the drafter in the design process? Question 1–2 What three skills are usually required of a junior drafter for advancement? Question 1–13 Following the principles of this chapter, prepare a bubble sketch for a home with the following specifications: Question 1–3 What types of drawings should a junior drafter expect to prepare? a. 75 × 120' lot with a street on the north side of the lot Question 1–4 Describe what the junior drafter might be given to assist in making drawings. c. South property line 75' long Question 1–5 List four sources of written information that a drafter will need to be able to use. b. A gently sloping hill to the south d. 40' oak trees along the south property line e. 3 bedrooms, 2 1/2 baths, living, dining, with separate eating area off kitchen Question 1–6 List and briefly describe different careers in which drafting would be helpful. f. Exterior style as per your choice Question 1–7 What is the purpose of a bubble drawing? Explain why you designed the house that you did. CHAPTER 2 Introduction to Construction Procedures I N T R O D U C T I O N The architect or designer is often involved with several phases of preparation before construction begins on a project. The level of commitment can range from the preparation of plans to the complete supervision of the entire construction project. Clients need several items before construction starts, depending on the complexity or unique requirements of the project. Architects and designers are often involved with zone changes when necessary, specification preparation, building permit applications, bonding requirements, the client’s financial statement, the lender’s approval, and the building contractor’s estimates and bid procurement. LOAN APPLICATIONS Loan applications vary depending on the requirements of the lender. Most applications for construction financing contain similar information. The construction appraisal requirements proposed by the Federal Housing Administration (FHA), Veterans Administration (VA), and U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) are typical of most lenders and include: 1. Plot plan (three copies per lot). 2. Prints (three copies per plan). Prints should include the following: ● Four elevations: front, rear, right side, and left side. ● Floor plan(s). ● Foundation plan. ● Wall section(s). ● Roof plan. ● Cross sections of exterior walls, stairs, and other important details. ● Cabinet elevations including a cross section. ● Fireplace detail (manufacturer’s detail if fireplace is prefabricated). ● Truss detail and engineering (include name and address of supplier). ● Heating plan—For forced-air, show size and location of ducts and registers plus cubic feet per minute (cfm) at each register, and furnace British thermal units (Btu). ● Location of wall units with watts and cfm at register. 3. Specifications (one copy per print), which include information about the following: ● Appliances (make and model numbers). ● Smoke detectors (make and model number and “Direct Wire”). ● Typical detail for each plant type (if the project is landscaped). ● Plumbing fixtures (make and model number, size, and color). ● Carpet (brand, style, and directory number). ● Carpet pad (brand, style, thickness, and directory number). ● Truss manufacturer (name and address). ● Fireplace (if applicable) manufacturer and model number. 4. Public Utility District (PUD) or heating contractor’s heat loss calculation (one per specification sheet). Room-by-room Btu heat loss values showing the total Btu heat loss for the dwelling as well as the total output of the heating system. 5. Proposed sale price. 6. Copy of earnest money agreement, blank or completed for a presale. Earnest money is a good faith sum of money given to bind a contract, for example an agreement to purchase real property, or a commitment fee to ensure an advance of funds by a lender. In a real estate transaction, the money is applied to the purchase price and can be forfeited if the purchaser fails to carry out the terms of the agreement. A presale is an exclusive or private sale that is made before construction begins. For a presale, the buyer and the builder must sign the specification sheet. 33 34 Architectural Drafting and Design Most lending institution applications are not as comprehensive as that of the FHA, but some can require additional information. The best practice is to research the lender to identify the needed information. A wellprepared set of documents and drawings usually stands a better chance of funding. INDIVIDUAL APPRAISAL REQUIREMENTS An individual appraisal is required when a person or persons want to obtain financing to purchase or build a home or other building. The subdivision can be FHA approved, in which case, the FHA approval is submitted to the lender. A subdivision, also called a plat, divides land into pieces, also known as plots or lots, that are easier to develop and sell. The original land divided into individual parcels is a subdivision. A subdivision used for housing is also known as a housing subdivision, housing development, or community. Generally, a subdivision that is not FHA approved contains the following information when submitted to a lender: 1. Total number of lots in the subdivision. 2. Evidence of acceptance of streets and utilities by local authorities for continued maintenance. 1. Location map and a copy of the recorded plat and covenants. 2. A letter from the builder that includes the following information: a. The number of lots in the area owned by the builder and the number of lots proposed to be built on. b. The number of homes presently under construction and the number completed and unsold. If the builder has not worked with FHA previously, an equal employment opportunity certificate and an affirmative fair housing marketing plan must be submitted for either a master or an individual appraisal request. CHANGE ORDERS Any physical change in the plans or specifications should be submitted to FHA or the lender. The change order notes whether the described change is an increase or decrease in value and by what dollar amount. The change order must be signed by the lender, the builder, and by the purchaser if the structure is sold. A typical change order is located with Problem 2–3 on page 42 and on the Student CD. 3. One copy of the recorded plat and covenants. Covenants, also called deed restrictions, are legal agreements setting the conditions and restrictions for the property. Covenants, conditions, and restrictions (CC&R) is a commonly used short form in real estate business. CC&Rs are limitations and rules placed on a group of homes by a builder, developer, neighborhood, or homeowner association. All condominiums and townhomes, and most planned unit developments and established neighborhoods have CC&Rs. MASTER APPRAISAL REQUIREMENTS A master appraisal is required when a company wants to obtain financing to develop a subdivision where several homes will be constructed. A minimum of five lots for each plan type is normally required for a master appraisal. The subdivision should be FHA or VA approved and contain the following information: BUILDING PERMITS The responsibility of completing the building permit application can fall to the architect, designer, or builder. The architect should contact the local building official to determine the process to be followed. Generally, the building permit application is a basic form that identifies the major characteristics of the structure to be built, the legal description and location of the property, and information about the applicant. The application is usually accompanied by two sets of plans and up to five sets of plot plans. The fee for a building permit usually depends on the estimated cost of construction. The local building official determines the amount, which is based on a standard schedule at a given cost per square foot. The fees are often divided into two parts: a plan-check fee paid upon application and a building-permit fee paid when the permit is received. Other permits and fees may or may not need to be paid at this time. In some cases the mechanical, sewer, plumbing, electrical, and water permits are Chapter 2: Introduction to Construction Procedures obtained by the general contractor or subcontractors. Water and sewer permits can be expensive, depending on the local assessments for these utilities. A typical building permit application is found with Problem 2–1 on page 41 and on the Student CD for this text. CONTRACTS Building contracts can be very complex documents for large commercial construction or short forms for residential projects. The main concern in the preparation of the contract is that all parties understand what will specifically be completed in the project, in what period of time, and for what cost. The contract becomes an agreement between the client, general contractor, and architect. The Student CD includes an example of a typical building contract. It is customary to specify the date that the project is to be completed. On some large projects, completion dates for the various stages of construction are specified. Usually the contractor receives a percentage of the contract price for the completion of each stage of construction. Payments are typically made three or four times during construction. Another method is for the contractor to receive partial payment for the work done each month. Verify the method used with the lending agency. The owner is usually responsible for having the property surveyed. A survey determines the boundaries, area, or elevations of land, structures, and other features by means of measuring angles and distances. The architect can be responsible for administering the contract. As specified on typical building contracts, the contractor is responsible for construction and for the security of the site during the construction period. Certain kinds of insurance are required during construction. The contractor is required to have liability insurance and a performance bond. The liability insurance protects the contractor against being sued for accidents occurring on the site. The performance bond guarantees the contractor completes the work in a professional and timely manner or the insurance company covers the cost. The owner is required to have property insurance, including fire, theft, and vandalism. Workers’ compensation is another form of insurance that provides income for contractors’ employees if they are injured at work. The contractor must be licensed, bonded, and 35 insured under the requirements of the state where the construction occurs. The contract describes conditions under which it can be ended. A contract can be terminated if one party fails to comply with requirements, if one of the parties is disabled or dies, and for several other reasons. The two kinds of contracts in use for most construction are the fixed-sum contract and the cost-plus contract. Each contract type offers advantages and disadvantages. Fixed-sum contracts, sometimes called lump-sum contracts, are used most often. With a fixed-sum contract, the contractor agrees to complete the project for a certain amount of money. The greatest advantage of this kind of contract is that the owner knows the exact cost in advance. However, the contractor does not know what hidden problems may be encountered, and so the contractor’s price is likely to be high enough to cover unforeseen circumstances, such as excessive rock in the excavation or sudden increases in the cost of materials. A cost-plus contract is one in which the contractor agrees to complete the work for the actual cost, plus a percentage for overhead and profit. The advantage of this type of contract is that the contractor does not have to allow for unforeseen problems. A cost-plus contract is also useful when changes are to be made during the course of construction. The main disadvantage of this kind of contract is that the owner does not know the exact cost until the project is completed. To overcome this disadvantage, the contractor generally reports costs and is paid after specific phases of construction. The completion and payment for each phase should be specified in the contract. Regardless of the payment schedule, the contractor should report progress and cost periodically and never wait until the end of the project. A typical building contract is located on the Student CD. COMPLETION NOTICES The completion notice is a document that is posted in a noticeable place on or near the structure. This legal document notifies all parties involved in the project that work has been substantially completed. There can be a very small part of work or cleanup to be done, but the project, for all practical purposes, is complete. The completion notice must be recorded in the local jurisdiction. Completion notices serve several functions. Subcontractors and suppliers have a certain given period of time to file a claim or 36 lien against the contractor or property owner to obtain payment for labor or materials that have not been paid. Lending institutions often hold a percentage of funds for a given period of time after the completion notice has been posted. It is important for the contractor to have this document posted so the balance of payment can be made. The completion notice is often posted in conjunction with a final inspection by the local building official and the client. A series of inspections are conducted at different phases throughout the course of construction. The final inspection is the last opportunity to confirm that all work has been completed and the home or structure is ready to occupy. A checklist containing specific practices that must be accomplished and the proper methods and materials used for completion of each practice is evaluated. These inspections are always conducted by a local building official, and often by the lender and property owner. Most lenders require that all building inspection reports be submitted before payment is given, and some also require a private inspection by an agent of the lender. A sample completion notice is located with Problem 2–4 on page 43 and can also be found on the Student CD. CONSTRUCTION ESTIMATES A statement of probable construction cost is a forecast of construction costs prepared by the architect or designer during the design process to give the client an approximation of the expected cost to construct the building. This is an important responsibility of the architect or designer. Clients generally want to build a home that they can afford. Determining a budget in advance and designing within that budget can save serious trouble. Architects or designers need to inform the clients if their ideas and desires do not match the budget. Construction estimating is an analysis of construction cost based on a detailed examination of materials and labor for all work to be completed on the project. The construction estimate or elements of the estimate are often referred to as a takeoff. A takeoff carefully identifies the construction materials for a specific aspect of the project, such as a lumber takeoff. The lumber takeoff includes the cost of every piece of lumber, sheathing, trusses, engineered joists, and hardware needed for the project. An electrical takeoff, for example, includes all wire, outlets, switches, junction boxes, and every other item used for the rough-in of the electrical part of the project. The finish electrical fixtures are often found in a separate list of materials. Architectural Drafting and Design An accurate cost estimate requires an orderly and organized system of identifying and pricing every construction item in a phase of construction and for the entire project. Construction bids can be part of the construction estimate process when an architect, designer, or general contractor seeks estimates from subcontractors covering the materials and cost of their part of the project. The general contractor is responsible for working directly with the architect, designer, or property owner to complete the entire project in a quality and professional manner. Subcontractors complete specific aspects of the project. Many types of subcontractors, such as foundation, framing, electrical, plumbing, and heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC), can be asked to give separate bids to the architect or general contractor. Construction bids are often obtained by the architect or a general contractor for the client. The purpose is to get the best price for the best work. Some projects require that work be given to the lowest bidder, while other projects do not necessarily go to the lowest bid. In some situations, especially in the private sector, other factors are considered, such as an evaluation of the builder’s history based on quality, ability to meet schedules, cooperation with all parties, financial stability, and license, bond, and insurance. The bid becomes part of the legal documents for completion of the project. The legal documents usually include plans, specifications, contracts, and bids. The architect and client should know clearly what the bid includes. The following items are part of a total analysis of costs for residential construction: 1. Plans. 2. Permits, fees, and specifications. 3. Roads and road clearing. 4. Excavation. 5. Water connection (well and pump). 6. Sewer connection (septic). 7. Foundation, waterproofing. 8. Framing, including materials, trusses, and labor. 9. Fireplace, including masonry and labor. 10. Plumbing, both rough and finished. 11. Wiring, both rough and finished. 12. Windows. 13. Roofing, including sheet metal and vents. 14. Insulation. 15. Drywall or plaster. Chapter 2: Introduction to Construction Procedures 16. Siding. 17. Gutters, downspouts, sheet metal, and rain drains. 37 Refer to the Student CD: COUNTING THE COST, for more information. 18. Concrete flatwork and gravel. 19. Heating. CONSTRUCTION INSPECTIONS 20. Garage and exterior doors. The basics of construction inspections were introduced earlier. When the architect or designer is responsible for the supervision of the construction project, then it is necessary to work closely with the building contractor to get the proper inspections at the necessary times. Two types of inspections occur most frequently. The regularly scheduled code inspections required during specific phases of construction help ensure that the construction methods and materials meet local and national code requirements. The general intent of these inspections is to protect the safety of the occupants and the public. The second common type of inspection is lender inspections, which are conducted by the lender during certain phases of construction. Lender inspections ensure that materials and methods described in the plans and specifications are being used. The lender has a valuable interest in the construction quality. If the materials and methods are inferior or not of the standard expected, then the value of the structure may not be what the lender had considered when a preliminary appraisal was made. Another reason for inspections, and probably the reason that the builder likes best, has to do with disbursement. Included as part of the lender inspections, disbursement inspections are requested at various times, such as monthly, or they can be related to a specific disbursement schedule, such as four times during construction. If the disbursement inspection finds the work to be satisfactory, then funds are released to pay the builder for that completed work. When architects or designers supervise the total construction, then they must work closely with the contractor to make certain the project is completed in a timely manner. When a building project remains idle, the overhead costs, such as construction interest, begin to add up quickly. A contractor who bids a job high but builds quickly can save money in the final analysis. Some overhead costs go on daily even when work has stopped or slowed. The contractor or construction supervisor should also have a good knowledge of scheduling so subcontractors are available in proper sequence, and inspections are obtained at the proper time. If an inspection is requested when the project is not ready, the building official may charge a fee for excess time spent. Always try to develop a good rapport with building officials so each encounter goes as smoothly as possible. 21. Painting and decorating. 22. Trim and finish interior doors, including material and labor. 23. Underlayment. 24. Carpeting, including the amount of carpet and pad- ding, and the cost of labor. 25. Vinyl floor covering—amount and cost of labor. 26. Formica. 27. Fixtures and hardware. 28. Cabinets. 29. Appliances. 30. Intercom or stereo system. 31. Vacuum system. 32. Burglar alarm. 33. Weather stripping and venting. 34. Final grading, cleanup, and landscaping. 35. Supervision, overhead, and profit. 36. Subtotal of land costs. 37. Financing costs. As previously mentioned, the architect or general contractor is often responsible for the complete cost estimate and for getting bids. Cost-estimating education is normally a good idea for learning how to accurately and completely prepare a cost estimate. A variety of cost-estimating software programs are available. One way to find these software programs is to search the Internet with a search subject such as “construction estimating.” Microsoft Excel is a convenient and commonly used tool for preparing cost estimates. This program allows you to set up your own cost-estimating format that tracks and automatically calculates subtotals and totals for the estimate, bid, actual cost, cumulative cost, payee or subcontractor, check number, and date of payment. A Microsoft Excel sample cost estimate sheet for a 2366-square-foot new home construction is shown in Figure 2-1. Counting the Cost content on the Student CD includes information and analysis about the construction cost and general fees for the construction and financing of a new home. 38 Architectural Drafting and Design NEW HOME CONST. 2366 SQ FT Updated 2/26/10 EXPENSE Bid/Est. Cumulative Actual Cumulative Payee Appliances 10,000 10,000 budget Backfill 1000 11,000 estimate Bathroom Fixtures 3500 14,500 estimate Cabinets 25,000 39,500 budget Carpets 8500 48,000 estimate @ $45 / sq yd Carpets Labor 4732 52,732 estimate @ $2 / sq yd Cleanup 1000 53,732 estimate Concrete Flatwork/Patios 8000 61,732 estimate @ $2.50 / sq ft Concrete Pumping 875 63,857 estimate Concrete Stairs 1250 62,982 estimate lin ft @ $10 / lin ft Countertops 3000 66,857 estimate @ $22 / sq ft 0 66,857 2500 69,357 Ck # 0 Crane Truck & Operator Decks Demolition/Tree Removal estimate 0 69,357 Doors-Exterior 12,700 82,057 2 @325; IWP #645 $12,000 Doors-Interior 18,500 100,557 estimate Drywall 11,625 112,182 Chapperal Electrical-Finish 5500 117,682 Lite Rite Electric Inc. Electrical-Rough 12,000 129,682 Lite Rite Electric Inc. Electrical-Temporary 750 130,432 Electrical-Underground 4500 134,932 Electricity 0 134,932 Equipment Rental 0 134,932 Excavation 1000 135,932 estimate Finish Carpentry-Labor 10,000 145,932 estimate Finish Carpentry-Materials 5000 150,932 estimate Fireplace Mantels 1575 152,507 D Luchs Foundation Labor 15,260 167,767 Jet Concrete 0 167,767 w/ labor 24,000 191,767 Corban $2,400. Bailey $24,750 Foundation Materials Framing Labor Framing Materials 35,000 226,767 BMC 37K Lumbermans 30K Furnace & Mechanical 10,000 236,767 Wilfert or Rite Way Garage Doors 3500 240,267 Edelen Ga FIGURE 21 A sample cost-estimate sheet for a 2366-square-foot new home construction, created using Microsoft Excel. Date Chapter 2: Introduction to Construction Procedures 39 NEW HOME CONST. 2366 SQ FT Updated 2/26/10 EXPENSE Bid/Est. Cumulative Actual Cumulative Payee Gutters/Downspouts 1000 243,267 estimate Hardware-Bath 450 243,717 estimate Hardware-Cabinets 975 244,692 estimate Insulation 5200 249,892 Knez Insurance & Licenses 0 249,892 Labor-Misc. 0 251,892 Landscaping 0 249,892 Light Fixtures 2000 251,892 estimate Lumber/Materials-Misc. 27,500 279,392 Parr Lumber Masonry Veneer & Frplc 28,000 307,392 Dave Clooten 0 307,392 Painting 10,000 317,392 estimate Permits and Plan Ckk Fee 4600 321,992 County $1,200 paid Plans and Specs 10,000 331,992 Architectural Designer $10,000 paid Misc. Const. Expense Plumbing-Finish 2500 344,992 Fixtures estimate Plumbing-Rough/finish 10,500 342,492 Fowler $6,500; spkr sys $4,000 Pre-Wire Electronics 1700 346,692 Quadrant Rain Drains 1000 347,692 estimate Roof 20,000 367,692 Bliss Roofing Grand Manor Security Systems 1500 369,192 Quadrant Sewer Lines & Cesspools 6000 375,192 Nussbaumer Sheet Metal/Ducting 0 375,192 see Wilfert heat Siding Labor 3500 378,692 estimate Siding Materials 3500 382,192 estimate Skylights/Greenhouses 0 382,192 Steel Pipes 0 382,192 Structural Engineer 0 382,192 Supervision 0 382,192 Tile/Stone Floors 10,000 392,192 Tools & Hardware-Misc. 0 392,192 Truck Hauling 0 392,192 Underlayment 0 392,192 Water Main Extension 0 392,192 Water Meter Trench 0 392,192 Weather stripping 1000 393,192 estimate Windows 31,500 424,692 Pella 0 424,692 Wood Floors FIGURE 21 Continued @$10 / sq ft I-joist systems Ck # Date 40 Architectural Drafting and Design ADDITIONAL RESOURCES See CD for more information The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you find information related to construction supervision procedures and keep current with trends in the industry. Address www.fha.gov Company, Product, or Service Federal Housing Administration www.nahb.org www.sagecre.com www.hud.gov www.va.gov National Association of Home Builders Sage Software U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs Introduction to Construction Procedures Test See CD for more information QUESTIONS ● Project location address: 3456 Barrington Drive, your city and state ● Nearest cross street: Washington Street ● Subdivision name: Barrington Heights ● Township: 2S ● Range: 1E ● Section: 36 ● Tax lot: 2400 ● Lot size: 15,000 sq ft ● Building area: 2000 sq ft ● Basement area: None ● Garage area: 576 sq ft ● Stories: 1 ● Bedrooms: 3 ● Water source: Public ● Sewage disposal: Public ● Estimated cost of labor and materials: $88,500 ● Plans and specifications made by: You ● Owner’s name: Your teacher; address and phone may be fictitious PROBLEMS ● DIRECTIONS: All forms must be neatly hand-lettered or typed, unless otherwise specified by your instructor. Builder’s name: You, your address, and your phone number ● You sign as applicant ● Homebuilder’s registration number: Your social security number or another fictitious number ● Date: Today’s date DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 2 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines. Question 2–1 Define and list the elements of the following construction-related documents: a. Loan applications b. Contracts c. Building permits d. Completion notices e. Bids f. Change orders Question 2–2 Outline and briefly discuss the required building construction inspections. Problem 2–1 Access and print the building permit application on the Student CD, or copy the building permit application on page 41. Complete the application using this information. Chapter 2: Introduction to Construction Procedures Problem 2–2 Access and print the building contract on the Student CD. Complete the contract using this information: ● Date: Today’s date ● Name yourself as the contractor and your teacher as the owner. (Give complete first name, middle initial, and last name where names are required.) ● ARTICLE I: Construction of approximate 2000-square-foot house to be located at 3456 Barrington Drive, your city and state. Also known as Lot 8, Block 2, Barrington Heights, your county and state. ● Drawing and specifications prepared by you. ● All said work to be done under the direction of you. ● ARTICLE II: Commence work within 10 days and substantially complete on or before. (Give a date four months from the date of the contract.) ● ARTICLE III: $88,500. Payable at the following times: 41 1. One-third upon completion of the foundation. 2. One-third upon completion of drywall. 3. One-third 30 days after posting the completion notice. ● ARTICLE X: Insurance $250,000; $500,000; and $50,000. ● ARTICLE XVIII: Give the owner’s name, address, and phone number—a fictitious address and phone number may be used if preferred. Give your name and address as the contractor. ● ARTICLE XX: This contract amount is valid for a period of 60 days. If, for reasons out of the contractor’s control, construction has not begun by the end of this 60-day period, contractor has the right to rebid and revise the contract. Problem 2–3 Access and print the change order form found on the Student CD, or copy the change order form on page 42. Complete the form using this information: ● Date: Today’s date ● Project name: Your teacher’s name 42 Architectural Drafting and Design ● Location: 3456 Barrington Drive, your city and state. Also known as Lot 8, Block 2, Barrington Heights, your county and state. ● Description of change: Add a 24" × 48" insulated tempered flat glass skylight in the vaulted ceiling centered in the entry foyer. ● Additional cost: $850 ● Adjusted total project cost: $89,350 ● Signatures Problem 2–4 Access and print the completion notice found on the Student CD or copy the completion notice on page 43. Complete the top half of the form above the double line only. The rest of the information is for the official notary public and recording officer. Use this information: ● Date: Today’s date ● Owner or mortgagee: Your name ● P.O. address: Your address Chapter 2: Introduction to Construction Procedures The Stevens-Ness form has been reproduced with the permission of Stevens-Ness Law Publishing Co. No further copying or reproduction in any form is permitted without the express permission of the publisher. 43 CHAPTER 3 Architectural Drafting Equipment I N T R O D U C T I O N Manual drafting is the term used to describe traditional pencil or ink drafting. Manual drafting tools and equipment are available from a number of vendors of professional drafting supplies. For accuracy and durability, always purchase high-quality equipment. This chapter introduces a variety of manual drafting tools and their proper use. Additional products are described in the Supplemental Reference found on the Student CD. DRAFTING SUPPLIES Whether equipment is purchased in a kit or by the individual tool, the following items are the minimum normally needed for manual drafting: ● One mechanical lead holder with 4H, 2H, H, and F grade leads. This pencil and lead assortment allows for individual flexibility of line and lettering control, or for use in sketching. The lead holder and leads are optional if automatic pencils are used. ● One 0.3 mm automatic drafting pencil with 4H, 2H, and H leads. ● One 0.5 mm automatic drafting pencil with 4H, 2H, and F leads. ● One 0.7 mm automatic drafting pencil with 2H, H, and F leads. ● One 0.9 mm automatic drafting pencil with H, F, and HB leads. Automatic pencils and leads are optional if lead holders and leads are used. ● Lead sharpener (not needed if the lead holder is omitted). ● 6" bow compass. ● Dividers. Eraser. ● Erasing shield. ● 30°–60° triangle. ● 45° triangle. ● Irregular curve. ● Adjustable triangle (optional). ● 44 ● Scales: 1. Triangular architect’s scale. 2. Triangular civil engineer’s scale. ● Drafting tape. ● Architectural floor plan template for residential plans, with 1/4" = 1'−0" scale. ● Circle template with small holes. ● Lettering guide. ● Sandpaper sharpening pad. ● Dusting brush. Not all of the items listed here are used in every school or workplace. Additional equipment and supplies may be needed depending on the specific application, for example: ● Technical pen set. ● Drafting ink. ● Lettering template. ● Assorted architectural drafting templates. DRAFTING FURNITURE Special tables and chairs are available for professional drafting use. Refer to the Student CD: DRAFTING FURNITURE, for more information. DRAFTING PENCILS AND LEADS Manual drafting is generally done using pencils. The two most commonly used pencils are mechanical and automatic pencils. Most manual drafters prefer automatic pencils. Mechanical Pencils The term mechanical pencil refers to a pencil that requires a piece of lead to be manually inserted. Special sharpeners are available to help maintain a conical point. Chapter 3: Architectural Drafting Equipment 45 Automatic Pencils The term automatic pencil refers to a pencil with a lead chamber that, at the push of a button or tab, advances the lead from the chamber to the writing tip. Automatic pencils are designed to hold leads of one width that do not need to be sharpened. These pencils are available for leads 0.3 mm, 0.5 mm, 0.7 mm, and 0.9 mm thick. Many drafters have several automatic pencils, each with a different grade of lead hardness, used for a specific application. Lead Grades Several different grades, or hardness, of leads are used for drafting. Your selection depends on the amount of pressure you apply and other technique factors. You should experiment until you identify the leads that give you the best quality. Leads commonly used for thick lines and lettering range from 2H to F. Leads for thin lines range from 4H to H, depending on individual preference. Construction lines for layout and guidelines for lettering are very lightly drawn with a 6H or 4H lead. Figure 3-1 shows the different lead grades. Generally, leads used for sketching are softer than those used for formal drafting. Good sketching leads are H, F, or HB grades. Polyester and Special Leads Polyester leads, also known as plastic leads, are for drawing on polyester drafting film, often called by its trade name, Mylar. Plastic leads come in grades equivalent to F, 2H, 4H, and 5H and are usually labeled with an S, as in 2S. Some companies make a combination lead for use on both vellum and polyester film. See Chapter 4 for information about drafting media, such as vellum and polyester film. Colored leads have special uses. Red or yellow lead is commonly used to make corrections. Red or yellow lines appear black on a print. Blue lead can be used on 9H 8H 7H 6H 5H 4H 3H 2H H F HB B 2B 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B HARD MEDIUM SOFT 4H AND 6H ARE COMMONLY USED FOR CONSTRUCTION LINES. H AND 2H ARE COMMON LEAD GRADES USED FOR LINE WORK. H AND F ARE FOR LETTERING AND SKETCHING. THESE GRADES ARE FOR ARTWORK. THEY ARE TOO SOFT TO KEEP A SHARP POINT AND THEY SMUDGE EASILY. FIGURE 31 Range of lead grades. an original drawing for information that is not to show on a print, such as notes, lines, and outlines of areas to be corrected. Blue lines do not appear on the print when the original is run through a diazo machine but do reproduce in the photocopy process if not very lightly drawn. Some drafters use light blue lead for layout work and guidelines. Drawing reproduction is discussed in Chapter 4, with information about the diazo and photocopy processes. Basic Pencil Motions A mechanical pencil must be kept sharp with a slightly rounded point. A point that is too sharp breaks easily, but a point that is too dull produces fuzzy lines. Keep the pencil aligned with the drafting instrument and tilted at an angle of approximately 45° in the direction you are drawing. Always pull the pencil. If you are right-handed, it is recommended that you draw from left to right for horizontal lines, and from bottom to top for vertical lines. Left-handed people draw from right to left and top to bottom. It is very important to keep lines uniform in width. This is done by keeping the pencil at uniform sharpness and by rotating the pencil as you draw. This rotation helps keep the lead from having flat spots that cause the line to vary in width and become fuzzy. Even pressure is also needed to help ensure a uniform line weight. Your lines need to be crisp and dark. Keep practicing, so you can draw high-quality lines. When using an automatic pencil, keep it straight from side to side and tilted about 40° with the direction of travel. Try not to tilt the lead under or away from the straightedge. Automatic pencils do not require rotation, although some drafters feel that better lines are made by rotating the pencil. Provide enough pressure to make a line dark and crisp. Figure 3-2 shows some basic pencil motions. TECHNICAL PENS AND ACCESSORIES Technical pens provide excellent inked lines. Refer to the Student CD: TECHNICAL PENS AND ACCESSORIES, for more information. ERASERS AND ACCESSORIES The common shapes of erasers are rectangular and stick. The stick eraser works best in small areas. Select an eraser that is recommended for the particular material used. 46 Architectural Drafting and Design India Ink Refill Eraser The India ink refill eraser is for removing India ink from vellum or film. It contains a solvent that dissolves the binding agents in the ink and the vinyl, and then removes the ink. This eraser does not work well with pencil lead. ROTATE PENCIL AS YOU DRAW (OPTIONAL FOR AUTOMATIC PENCIL). PENCIL MOVES FROM BOTTOM TO TOP. KEEP AUTOMATIC PENCIL 90° TO SURFACE AND MECHANICAL PENCIL 45° TO SURFACE. PENCIL MOVES LEFT TO RIGHT. FIGURE 32 Basic pencil motions. Note, these pencil movements should be reversed (top to bottom, right to left) for lefthanded people. Erasers Used for Drafting White Pencil Eraser The white pencil eraser is used for removing pencil marks from paper. It contains a small amount of pumice but can be used as a general-purpose pencil eraser. Pumice is an abrasive material. Pink Pencil Eraser A pink pencil eraser contains less pumice than the white pencil eraser. It can be used to erase pencil marks from most kinds of office paper without doing any damage to the surface. Soft-Green or Soft-Pink Pencil Erasers Soft-green and soft-pink erasers contain no pumice and are designed for use on even the most delicate types of paper without damaging the surface. The color difference is maintained only to satisfy long-established individual preferences. Kneaded Eraser Kneaded erasers are soft, stretchable, and nonabrasive. They can be formed into any size you want. Kneaded erasers are used for erasing pencil and charcoal. Kneaded erasers are also used for shading. In addition, kneaded erasers are handy for removing smudges from a drawing and for cleaning a drawing surface. Vinyl Eraser A vinyl or plastic eraser contains no abrasive material. This eraser is used on polyester drafting film to erase plastic lead or ink. Erasing Tips In erasing, the idea is to remove an unwanted line or letter, not the surface of the paper or polyester film. Erase only hard enough to remove the unwanted feature. However, you must provide enough pressure to eliminate the feature completely. If the entire item does not disappear, ghosting results. A ghost is a line that should have been eliminated but still shows on a print. Lines that have been drawn so hard as to make a groove in the drawing sheet can also cause a ghost. To remove ink from vellum, use a pink or green eraser, or an electric eraser. Work the area slowly. Do not apply too much pressure or erase in one spot too long, or you will go through the paper. On polyester film, use a vinyl eraser and/or a moist cotton swab. The inked line usually comes off easily, but use caution. If you destroy the matte surface of either a vellum or film sheet, you will not be able to redraw over the erased area. Matte is a surface with some texture and is not glossy. Electric Erasers Professional manual drafters use electric erasers, available in cord and cordless models. When working with an electric eraser, you do not need to use very much pressure, because the eraser operates at high speed. The purpose of the electric eraser is to remove unwanted items quickly. Use caution, because these erasers can also remove paper quickly! Eraser refills for electric erasers are available in all types. Erasing Shields Erasing shields are thin metal or plastic sheets with a number of differently shaped slots and holes. They are used to erase small, unwanted lines or areas. For example, if you have a corner overrun, place one of the slots or holes of the erasing shield over the area to be removed while covering the good area. Now, erase through the slot or hole to erase the unwanted feature. Cleaning Agents Special eraser particles are available in a shaker-top can or a pad. Both types are used to sprinkle the eraser particles on a drawing to help reduce smudging and Chapter 3: Architectural Drafting Equipment to keep the drawing and your equipment clean. The particles also help float triangles, straightedges, and other drafting equipment to reduce line smudging. Use this material sparingly because too much of it can cause your lines to become fuzzy. Cleaning powders are not recommended for use on ink drawings or on polyester film. 47 HOLD THE COMPASS HERE DURING USE GEAR MESH CENTER-WHEEL ADJUSTING SCREW Dusting Brushes Use a dusting brush to remove eraser particles from your drawing. Doing so helps reduce the possibility of smudges. Avoid using your hand to brush away eraser particles, because the hand tends to cause messy smudges. A clean, dry cloth works better than your hand for removing eraser particles, but a brush is preferred. DRAFTING INSTRUMENTS This chapter began with a general list of required drafting instruments. Find a supplier that provides professional-quality drafting instruments of the type and characteristics described in the following section. ONE LEG REMOVABLE TO ADD IN EXTENSION REMOVABLE LEAD REMOVABLE NEEDLE POINT Kinds of Compasses Compasses are used to draw circles and arcs. A compass is especially useful for large circles. However, using a compass can be time consuming. Always use a template, whenever possible, to make circles or arcs quickly. There are several basic types of drafting compasses: ● The drop-bow compass is mostly used for drawing small circles. The center rod contains the needle point and remains stationary while the pencil, or pen, leg revolves around the point. ● The center-wheel bow compass is most commonly used by professional drafters. This compass operates on the screw-jack principle by turning the large knurled center wheel, as shown in Figure 3-3. ● The beam compass is a bar with an adjustable needle and a pencil or pen attachment for swinging large arcs or circles. Also available is a beam that is adaptable to the bow compass. Such an adapter works only on bow compasses that have a removable break point, not on the fixed-point models. FIGURE 33 Center-wheel bow compass and its parts. The compass lead should, in most cases, be one grade softer than the lead you use for straight lines because less pressure is normally used on a compass than a pencil. Keep the compass lead sharp. An elliptical point is commonly used with the bevel side inserted away from the needle leg. Keep the lead and the point equal in length. Figure 3-5 shows properly aligned and sharpened points on a compass. Use a sandpaper block to sharpen the elliptical point of a compass lead. Be careful to keep the graphite residue away from your drawing and off your hands. Compass Use Keep both the compass needle point and the lead point sharp. The points are removable for easy replacement. The better compass needle points have a shoulder, which helps keep the point from penetrating the paper more than necessary. Compare the needle points in Figure 3-4. COMPASS OR DIVIDER POINT WITH SHOULDER COMPASS OR DIVIDER POINT WITHOUT SHOULDER FIGURE 34 Common compass points. 48 Architectural Drafting and Design 3/8" 1/4" at about 45° FIGURE 35 Properly sharpened and aligned elliptical compass lead. ADJUSTING THE DIVIDER Remove excess graphite from the point with a tissue or cloth after sharpening. Sharpen the lead often. Some drafters prefer to use a conical compass point. This is the same point used in a mechanical pencil. If you want to try this point, sharpen a piece of lead in a mechanical pencil, and then transfer it to your compass. If you are drawing a number of circles from the same center, you will find the compass point causes an ugly hole in your drawing sheet. Reduce the chance of making such a hole by placing a couple of pieces of drafting tape at the center point for protection. There are also small plastic circles available for this purpose. Place one of the plastic circles at the center point, and then pierce the plastic with your compass point. Dividers Dividers are used to transfer dimensions or to divide a distance into a number of equal parts. Some drafters prefer to use a bow divider because the center wheel provides the ability to make fine adjustments easily. Also, the setting remains more stable than with standard friction dividers. A good divider should not be too loose or too tight. It should be easily adjustable with one hand. In fact, you should control dividers with one hand as you lay out equal increments or transfer dimensions from one feature to another. Figure 3-6 shows how the dividers should be handled. Proportional Dividers Proportional dividers are used to reduce or enlarge an object without mathematical calculations or scale manipulations. The center point of the divider is set at the correct point for the proportion you want. Then measure the original size object with one side of the proportional divider, and the other side automatically determines the new reduced or enlarged size. USING THE DIVIDER FIGURE 36 Using the divider. Parallel Bar The parallel bar slides up and down the drafting board on cables that are attached to pulleys mounted at the top and bottom corners of the table as shown in Figure 3-7. The function of the parallel bar is to allow you to draw horizontal lines. Vertical lines and angles are made with triangles in conjunction with the parallel bar as demonstrated in Figure 3-8. Angled lines are made with standard or adjustable triangles. The parallel bar is commonly found in architectural drafting offices because architectural drawings are frequently very large. Architects and architectural drafters often need to draw straight lines that are the full length of their boards, and the parallel bar is ideal for such lines. The parallel bar can be used with the board in an CABLE CABLE PULLEYS TENSION BRACKET FIGURE 37 Parallel bar. BAR Chapter 3: Architectural Drafting Equipment 49 angles of any degree. A protractor is an instrument used to measure angles. Architectural Templates FIGURE 38 Drawing vertical lines with the parallel bar and triangle. inclined position. Triangles and the parallel bar must be held securely when used in any position, which makes drafting more comfortable. Professional models have a brake that can lock the parallel bar in place during use. Triangles There are two standard triangles. One has angles of 30°–60°–90° and is known as the 30°–60° triangle. The other has angles of 45°–45°–90° and is called the 45° triangle. Triangles can be used as a straightedge to connect points for drawing lines. Triangles are used individually or in combination to draw angled lines in 15° increments (see Figure 3-9). Also available are adjustable triangles with built-in protractors that are used to make Templates are plastic sheets with standard symbols cut through them for tracing. There are as many standard architectural templates as there are architectural symbols to draw. Templates are commonly scaled to match a specific application, such as floor plan symbols. One of the most common architectural templates used is the residential floor plan template shown in Figure 3-10. This template is typically available at a scale of 1/4" = 1'−0" (1:50 metric), which matches the scale usually used for residential floor plans. Features that are often found on a floor plan template include circles, door swings, sinks, bathroom fixtures, kitchen appliances, and electrical symbols. Other floor plan templates are available for both residential and commercial applications. Additional architectural templates are introduced in chapters where their specific applications are discussed. Always use a template when you can. For instance, use a circle template rather than a compass when possible. Templates save time, are very accurate, and help standardize features on drawings. For most applications the template should be used only after the layout has been created. For example, floor plan symbols are placed on the drawing after walls, openings, and other main floor plan features have been established. When using a template, carefully align the desired template feature with the layout lines of the drawing. Hold the template firmly in position while you draw the feature. For best results, try to keep your pencil or pen perpendicular to the drawing surface. Template Use with Technical Pens 45° 30° 60° 15° 75° 90° FIGURE 39 Angles that can be made with the 30°–60° triangle and 45º triangle, individually or in combination. Information on using a template and a technical pen is included on the Student CD. FIGURE 310 Architectural floor plan symbol template. Courtesy Berol Corporation. 50 Architectural Drafting and Design FIGURE 312 Arm drafting machine. Courtesy VEMCO America, Inc. FIGURE 311 Irregular or French curves. Courtesy of C-Thru® Ruler Company. Irregular Curves Irregular curves are commonly called French curves. Irregular curves are used to draw arcs having no constant radii. A selection of irregular curves is shown in Figure 3-11. Also available are ship’s curves, which become progressively larger and also have no constant radii. Ship’s curves are used for layout and development of ships’ hulls. Flexible curves are made of plastic and have a flexible core. They can be bent and shaped to draw almost any desired curve. Irregular curves are used for a variety of applications in architectural drafting. Some drafters use the curves to draw floor plan electrical runs or leader lines that connect notes to features on the drawing. DRAFTING MACHINES Drafting machines can be used in place of triangles and parallel bars. Drafting machines have scales attached vertically and horizontally, which are used as straightedges and for measuring increments on a drawing. The drafting machine maintains a 90º relationship between scales using a protractor mechanism. The protractor allows the scales to be set quickly at any angle. There are two types of drafting machines: arm and track. Although both types are excellent tools, the track machine has advantages over the arm machine in industry. A major advantage of the track machine is it allows you to work with a board in the vertical position. A vertical drafting surface position is generally more comfortable to use than a horizontal table. For school or home use, the arm machine can be a good economical choice. When you order a drafting machine, the size specified should relate to the size of the drafting table. For example, a 37 1/2 × 60" machine fits the same size table. Arm Drafting Machine The arm drafting machine is compact and less expensive than a track machine. The arm machine clamps to a table and through an elbow-like arrangement of supports allows you to position the protractor head and scales anywhere on the board. The arm drafting machine is shown in Figure 3-12. Track Drafting Machine A track drafting machine has a traversing arm that moves left and right across the table, and a head unit that moves up and down the traversing arm. There is a locking device for both the head and the traversing arm. The shape and placement of the controls of a track machine vary with the manufacturer, although most brands have the same operating features and procedures. Figure 3-13 shows the component parts of a track drafting machine. As with the arm machines, track drafting machines have a vernier scale head that allows you to measure VERTICAL TRACK BRACKET CLAMP HORIZONTAL TRACK VERTICAL BRAKE LEVER VERTICAL TRACK HORIZONTAL BRAKE LEVER DOUBLE HINGE VERTICAL SCALE HORIZONTAL SCALE SCALE CHUCK PLATE SCALE CHUCK ARM MICRO ADJUSTMENT ANGLE-SETTING CLAMP BASE-LINE CLAMP FOOT ROLLER FIGURE 313 Track drafting machine and its parts. Courtesy Mutoh America, Inc. Chapter 3: Architectural Drafting Equipment 51 angles accurately to 5 minutes of arc (5'). A vernier scale is an auxiliary scale sliding alongside a main scale to allow reading of fractional values during measurement. There are 360 degrees in a circle. One degree equals 60 minutes (1° = 60'), and 1 minute equals 60 seconds (1' = 60"). DRAFTING MACHINE CONTROLS AND MACHINE HEAD OPERATION that given in the title block. Drawings are scaled so that the object represented can be illustrated clearly on standard sheet sizes. It would be difficult, for example, to draw a full-size house, so a scale is used to reduce the size of such large objects. Drawing title blocks and sheet sizes are discussed in Chapter 4. The drawing scale selected depends on: ● The drafting machine head contains controls for horizontal, vertical, and angular movement. Refer to the Student CD: DRAFTING MACHINE CONTROLS AND MACHINE HEAD OPERATION for more information. Actual size of the structure. Amount of detail to be shown. ● Sheet size selected. ● Amount of dimensions and notes required. ● Common standard practice that regulates the scale of specific drawing types. SCALES The following scales and their notation are frequently used on architectural drawings. The drafting instruments used for making measurements, establishing dimensions, and drawing features at reduced size are called scales. Architectural drafting scales are available in a variety of shapes and calibrations. Scale Shapes There are four basic scale shapes, which are shown in Figure 3-14. The two-bevel scales are also available with chuck plates for use with standard arm or track drafting machines. These machine scales have typical calibrations, and some have no scale reading, for use as a straightedge alone. Drafting machine scales are purchased by designating the length needed, such as 12", 18", or 24", and the scale calibration, such as metric; engineer’s full scale in tenths and half scale in twentieths; or architect’s scale 1/4" = 1'−0" and 1/2" = 1'−0". Many other scales are also available. The triangular scale is commonly used because it offers many scale options and is easy to handle. Scale Notation The scale of a drawing is usually noted in the drawing title block or below the view that differs in scale from TWO BEVEL FOUR BEVEL FIGURE 314 Scale shapes. OPPOSITE BEVEL TRIANGULAR ● 1/8" = 1'−0" 3/8" = 1'−0" 1 1/2" = 1'−0" 3/32" = 1'−0" 1/2" = 1'−0" 3" = 1'−0" 3/16" = 1'−0" 3/4" = 1'−0" 12" = 1'−0" 1/4" = 1'−0" 1" = 1'−0" Some scales used in civil drafting are noted as follows: 1" = 10' 1" = 50' 1" = 300' 1" = 20' 1" = 60' 1" = 400' 1" = 30' 1" = 100' 1" = 500' 1" = 40' 1" = 200' 1" = 600' Metric Scale According to the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), the International System of Units (SI) linear unit, which is commonly used on drawings is the millimeter. On drawings where all dimensions are in either inches or millimeters, individual identification of units is not required. However, the drawing shall contain a note stating: UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED, ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN INCHES (or MILLIMETERS as applicable). Where some millimeters are shown on an inch-dimensioned drawing, the millimeter value should be followed by the symbol mm. Where some inches are shown on a millimeter-dimensioned drawing, the inch value should be followed by the abbreviation in. Metric symbols are as follows: millimeter = mm dekameter = dam centimeter = cm hectometer = hm decimeter = dm kilometer = km meter = m 52 Architectural Drafting and Design 112 mm 60 mm 1000 mm 25 mm 500 mm I00 mm I0 mm 20 mm I mm 1:25 1:1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 0 FULL SCALE = 1:1 500 1 m = 1 meter ONE TWENTY-FIFTH SCALE = 1:25 112 mm 60 mm 800 mm 25 mm I00 mm I0 mm 2 mm 2 mm 1:2 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 1:33 1/3 180 50 0 HALF SCALE = 1:2 1m ONE THIRTY-THREE AND ONE-THIRD SCALE = 1:33 1/3 280 mm 1800 mm 112 mm 1000 mm 60 mm I00 mm I0 mm 5 mm 50 mm 1:5 0 100 200 1:75 300 0 ONE-FIFTH SCALE = 1:5 1m ONE SEVENTY-FIFTH SCALE = 1:75 METRIC SCALES THAT MATCH ARCHITECT AND CIVIL SCALES Metric Scales Inch-to-Feet Architectural Scales Civil Engineering Scales 1:1 FULL SCALE, 1:1 1:5 Close to 3" = 1'–0" 1:10 Between 1" = 1'–0" and 1 1/2" = 1'–0" 1:20 Between 1/2 " = 1'–0" and 3/4" = 1'–0" 1:50 Close to 1/4 " = 1'–0" 1:100 Close to 1/8" = 1'–0" 1:200 Close to 1/16 " = 1'–0" 1:500 Close to 1" = 40' 1:1000 Close to 1" = 80' FIGURE 315 Common metric scale calibrations and measurements. Some metric-to-metric equivalents are provided in the following: 10 millimeters = 1 centimeter 10 centimeters = 1 decimeter 10 decimeters = 1 meter 10 meters = 1 dekameter 10 dekameters = 1 kilometer Some metric-to-U.S. customary equivalents are provided in the following: 1 millimeter = 0.03937 inch 1 centimeter = 0.3937 inch 1 meter = 39.37 inches 1 kilometer = 0.6214 mile Chapter 3: Architectural Drafting Equipment 53 Some U.S. customary-to-metric equivalents are provided in the following: 1/16 1 mile = 1.6093 kilometers = 1609.3 meters 1 yard = 914.4 millimeters = 0.9144 meter 1 foot = 304.8 millimeters = 0.3048 meter 1 inch = 25.4 millimeters = 0.0254 meter 1/32 1/64 16 To convert inches to millimeters, multiply inches by 25.4. One advantage of metric scales is any scale is a multiple of 10. Therefore, reductions and enlargements are easily performed. In most cases, no mathematical calculations are required when using a metric scale. Whenever possible, select a direct reading scale. If no direct reading scale is available, use multiples of other scales. To avoid the possibility of error, avoid multiplying or dividing metric scales by anything other than multiples of 10. Some metric scale calibrations are shown in Figure 3-15. FIGURE 317 Enlarged view of an architect’s 16 scale. ● Floor plans for most residential structures are drawn at 1/4" = 1'−0". Architect’s Scale ● Although some applications require a larger or smaller scale, commercial buildings are often drawn at 1/8" = 1'−0" when they are too large to be drawn at the same scale as a residence. ● Exterior elevations are commonly drawn at 1/4" = 1'−0", although some architects prefer to draw the front, or most important, elevation at 1/4" = 1'−0" and the rest of the elevations at 1/8" = 1'−0". ● Construction details and cross sections can be drawn at larger scales to help clarify specific features. Some cross sections can be drawn at 1/4" = 1'−0" with clarity, but complex cross sections require a scale of 3/8" = 1'−0" or 1/2" = 1'−0" to be clear. ● Construction details can be drawn at any scale between 1/2" = 1'−0" and 3" = 1'−0", depending on the amount of information presented. The triangular architect’s scale contains 11 different scales. On 10 of the scales, each inch represents a foot and is subdivided into multiples of 12 parts to represent inches and fractions of an inch. The 11th scale is the full scale with a 16 in the margin. The 16 means that each inch is divided into 16 parts, and each part is equal to 1/16 inch. Figure 3-16 shows an example of the full architect’s 16 scale. Figure 3-17 shows the fraction calibrations of the full architect’s 16 scale. Look at the architect’s scale examples in Figure 3-18. Notice the form in which scales are expressed on a drawing. The scale is expressed as an equation of the drawing size in inches or fractions of an inch to 1 foot. For example: 3" = 1'−0", 1/2" = 1'−0", or 1/4" = 1'−0". The architect’s scale commonly has scales running in both directions along an edge. When reading a scale from left to right, be careful not to confuse its calibrations with the scale that reads from right to left. When selecting scales for preparing a set of architectural drawings, several factors must be considered. 2 17/32 1 3/16 1/2 16 0 1 2 FIGURE 316 Full (1:1), or 12" = 1'−0", architect’s scale. 3 1/8 1/4 1/2 Some parts of a set of drawings are traditionally drawn at a certain scale, for example: Civil Engineer’s Scale The architectural drafter also commonly uses the civil engineer’s scale to draw site plans, maps, or subdivision plats or to read existing land documents. Most landrelated plans such as construction site plans are drawn using the civil engineer’s scale, although some are drawn with an architect’s scale. Common architect’s scales used for site plans are 1/8" = 1'−0", 3/32" = 1'−0", and 1/16" = 1'−0". Common civil engineer’s scales used for site plans are 1" = 10', 1" = 50', and 1" = 100'. The triangular civil engineer’s scale contains six scales, one on each of its sides. The civil engineer’s scales are calibrated in multiples of ten. The scale margin specifies the scale 54 Architectural Drafting and Design 2 11/16 1/8 1/16 16 0 1 2 3 11 12 FULL SIZE; 1:1 ; 12"= 1'–0" 1 1 8 1/2 1/4 9 1 1/2 6 3 0 0 3 1/8 SIZE; 1 1/2" = 1'–0" 1/4 1/8 8 1/2 6 1/4 SIZE; 3" = 1'–0" 6 9 3 20 0 1/2 3'–5" 1'–7 1/2" 1 3 9 8 1 4 1/24 SIZE; 1/2" = 1'–0" 1 — 1/2" 2 0 2 9 10 1/12 SIZE; 1" = 1'–0" 1/2 1 5'–4" 3/8 0 2 14 2'–7 1/2" 4 13 12 6 2 26 28 1 3/4 0 1/16 SIZE; 3/4" = 1'–0" 1/32 SIZE; 3/8" = 1'–0" 1 2 18'–4" 1/8 0 46 8 42 4 44 1/8 5'–3" 12 40 16 38 20 36 76 8 80 6 84 88 4 92 0 2 1/4 1/4 1/48 SIZE; 1/4" = 1'–0" 1/96 SIZE; 1/8" = 1'–0" 1 2 11'–4" 23'–0" 3/32 0 62 3/32 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 60 58 56 54 52 50 48 1/128 SIZE; 3/32" = 1'–0" 4 12 10 8 8 12 16 20 24 6 4 2 0 1/64 SIZE; 3/16" = 1'–0" 3/16 3/16 FIGURE 318 Architect’s scale combinations. represented on a specific edge. Keep in mind that any multiple of 10 is available with this scale. The 10 scale is used in civil drafting for scales such as 1" = 10', 1" = 100', and 1" = 1000'. Any multiple of 10 can be used (see Figure 3-19). The 20 scale is used for scales such as 1" = 2', 1" = 20', or 1" = 200'. The remaining scales on the civil engineer’s scale are used in a similar manner. The 50 scale is popular in civil drafting for drawing plats of subdivisions, for example. Figure 3-20 shows commonly used civil engineer’s scales, with sample measurements provided. PROTRACTORS A protractor can be used when a drafting machine is not used or when combining triangles does not provide enough flexibility for drawing angles. Protractors can be used to measure angles to within 1/2°. Chapter 3: Architectural Drafting Equipment 55 4450' 1" = 1000' Division Ratio Scales Used with This Division 10 20 1:1 1:2 1" = 1" 1" = 2" 1" = 1' 1" = 2' 1" = 10' 1" = 20' 1" = 100' 1" = 200' 30 1:3 1" = 3" 1" = 3' 1" = 30' 1" = 300' 40 50 1:4 1:5 1" = 4" 1" = 5" 1" = 4' 1" = 5' 1" = 40' 1" = 50' 1" = 400' 1" = 500' 60 1:6 1" = 6" 1" = 6' 1" = 60' 1" = 600' 235' 1" = 100' 17' 1" = 10' 10' 1" = 10' 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 FIGURE 319 Civil engineer’s scale, units of 10. 285' 1" = 100' 570' 1" = 200' 23' 1" = 10' 35' 1" = 20' 1.6' 1" = 1' 1.2 1:1 2' 1" = 2' .10 1:1 .10 1:2 10 20 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 1" 1" 10 SCALE 20 SCALE 6900' 1" = 3000' 3 4 5 6 6 8 10 12 7400' 1" = 4000' 550' 1" = 300' 660' 1" = 400' 45' 1" = 30' 53' 1" = 40' 3' 1" = 3' 4' 1" = 4' .10 1:3 .10 1:4 40 30 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 1" 1" 30 SCALE 40 SCALE 8300' 1" = 5000' 13600' 1" = 6000' 770' 1" = 500' 1130' 1" = 600' 64' 1" = 50' 88' 1" = 60' 5' 1" = 5' 6' 1" = 6' .10 1:5 .10 1:6 50 60 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 4 1" 1" 50 SCALE 60 SCALE FIGURE 320 Civil engineer’s scales and sample measurements at different scales. 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 56 Architectural Drafting and Design CADD APPLICATIONS As a professional drafter, designer, or architect, you may continue to see the traditional manual drafting equipment in some offices. However, drafting has changed. The concepts and theories are the same, but the tools are different. Traditional manual drafting has been converting to computer-aided design and drafting (CADD). Computer-aided design and drafting is common in architectural drafting schools and architectural businesses. The CADD workstation is ADDITIONAL RESOURCES See CD for more information The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you find information related to drafting supplies and equipment. Address www.alvinco.com www.vemcocorp.com different from the traditional manual drafting table and equipment described throughout this chapter. Drafting tools have changed. For example, the new table is flat and holds a computer, monitor, keyboard, and mouse. A printer and a plotter are usually on or available to the workstation. Chapter 7 describes the computer-aided drafting workstation in detail and explains computer-aided design and drafting applications. ■ Company, Product, or Service Drafting equipment and tables Drafting machines Drafting pencils www.mayline.com Drafting tables For additional Web sites, search for these key words on your Web browser. Drafting pencils, supplies, tables, machines, templates www.pentel.com Architectural Drafting Equipment Test See CD for more information QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. Question 3–5 In a short, complete paragraph, describe how to properly use a mechanical pencil. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 3 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines. Question 3–7 List three characteristics recommended for technical pen inks. Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: TECHNICAL PENS AND ACCESSORIES. Question 3–1 Describe a mechanical drafting pencil. Question 3–2 Describe an automatic drafting pencil. Question 3–3 List three lead sizes available for automatic pencils. Question 3–4 Identify how graphite leads are labeled. Question 3–6 In a short, complete paragraph, describe how to properly use an automatic pencil. Question 3–8 Describe one advantage and one disadvantage of using an electric eraser. Question 3–9 What type of compass is most commonly used by professional drafters? Question 3–10 Why should templates be used whenever possible? Chapter 3: Architectural Drafting Equipment 57 Question 3–11 Why should a compass point with a shoulder be used when possible? Question 3–30 Name the scale shape that is commonly used, and why. Question 3–12 Identify two lead points that are commonly used in compasses. Question 3–31 To convert inches to millimeters, multiply inches by _____. Question 3–13 What is the advantage of placing drafting tape or plastic at the center of a circle before using a compass? Question 3–32 What is an advantage of using metric scales? Question 3–14 A good divider should not be too loose or too tight. Why? PROBLEMS Question 3–15 What are two uses for dividers? Question 3–16 At what number of degree increments do most drafting machine heads automatically lock? Question 3–17 How many minutes are there in 1°? How many seconds in 1'? Question 3–18 Explain the uses of and differences between the soft-green and soft-pink erasers. Question 3–19 What type of eraser is recommended for use on polyester drafting film? Question 3–20 Provide a short, complete paragraph explaining the proper erasing technique. Question 3–21 Name at least five features found on a residential floor plan template. Question 3–22 What piece of drafting equipment is used to draw curves that have no constant radii? Question 3–23 Describe the parallel bar and how it is used. Question 3–24 Why is the parallel bar commonly used for manual drafting in the architectural office? Question 3–25 In combination, the 30° to 60° triangle and the 45° triangle may be used to make what range of angles? Question 3–26 Show how the following scales are noted on an architectural drawing: 1/8", 1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 1 1/2", and 3". Question 3–27 What civil engineer’s scale is commonly used for subdivision plats? Question 3–28 What architectural scale is usually used for drawing residential floor plans? Question 3–29 List three factors that influence the selection of a scale for a drawing. Determine the length of the following lines using an architect’s scale, a civil engineer’s scale, and a metric scale. The scales to use when measuring are given above each line. The architect’s scale is first; the civil engineer’s scale is second; and the metric scale is third. Problem 3–1 a. Scale: 1/8" = 1'−0" b. 1" = 10'−0" c. 1:1 (metric) Problem 3–2 a. Scale: 1/4" = 1'−0" b. 1" = 20'−0" c. 1:2 (metric) Problem 3–3 a. Scale: 3/8" = 1'−0" b. 1" = 30'−0" c. 1:5 (metric) Problem 3–4 a. Scale: 1/2" = 1'−0" b. 1" = 40'−0" c. 1:10 (metric) Problem 3–5 a. Scale: 3/4" = 1'−0" b. 1" = 50'−0" c. 1:20 (metric) Problem 3–6 a. Scale: 1" = 1'−0" b. 1" = 60'−0" c. 1:50 (metric) Problem 3–7 a. Scale: 1 1/2" = 1'−0" b. 1" = 100" c. 1:75 (metric) Problem 3–8 a. Scale: 3" = 1'−0" b. 1" = 200' c. 1:75 (metric) CHAPTER 4 Drafting Media and Reproduction Methods I N T R O D U C T I O N This chapter covers the types of media used for the drafting and the reproduction of architectural drawings. Manual drawings are generally prepared on precut drafting sheets with printed graphic designs for the company logo and information, borders, and title blocks. Computer-aided drawings are generally created using a template containing a border, title block, and graphic designs for the company. The computer-aided drawings are stored in files and reproduced on media by printing or plotting. This is described in Chapter 7. Drawing reproductions or copies are made for use in the construction process so the original manual drawings are not damaged. Alternative materials and reproduction methods are described as they relate to common architectural practices. PAPERS AND FILMS A variety of paper and plastic media, known as film, has been used for manual drafting applications. Computer-aided drawings can be printed on the same media used for most manual drafting applications, but are generally printed on materials better suited for computer printing methods. Selection of Drafting Media This discussion relates to the selection of media for manual drafting applications. The selection of these media can also apply to CADD, but other factors are also described for these applications. Several factors influence the choice and use of manual drafting media. These include durability, smoothness, erasability, dimensional stability, transparency, and cost. ● 58 Durability should be considered if the original drawing is expected to have a great deal of use. Originals can tear or wrinkle, and the images become difficult to see if the drawings are used often. ● Smoothness relates to how the medium accepts line work and lettering. The material should be easy to draw on, so the image is dark and sharp without excessive effort on the part of the drafter. ● Erasability is important because errors need to be corrected and changes are made frequently. When images are erased, ghosting should be kept to a minimum. Ghosting is the residue when lines are not completely removed. These unsightly ghost images can reproduce in a print. Materials with good erasability are easy to clean. ● Dimensional stability is the quality of the medium that maintains size despite the effects of atmospheric conditions such as heat and cold. Some materials are more dimensionally stable than others. ● Transparency is one of the most important characteristics of drawing media. The diazo reproduction method requires light to pass through the material. Diazo printing is not commonly used today, and is described on the Student CD. The final goal of a drawing is good reproduction, so the more transparent the material is, the better the reproduction, assuming that the image drawn is of professional quality. Transparency is not a factor with photocopying. ● Cost can influence the selection of drafting media. When the best reproduction, durability, smoothness, erasability, and dimensional stability are important, there may be few cost alternatives. If drawings are to have normal use and reproduction quality, then the cost of the drafting media can be kept to a minimum. The following discussion of available materials can help you evaluate cost differences. Vellum Vellum is drafting paper that is specially designed to accept pencil or ink. Lead on vellum is the most common combination used for manual drafting. Chapter 4: Drafting Media and Reproduction Methods Vellum is the least expensive material and has good smoothness and transparency. Use vellum originals with care. Drawings made on vellum that require a great deal of use could deteriorate. Vellum is not as durable as other materials. Also, some brands are more erasable than others. Affected by humidity and other atmospheric conditions, vellum generally is not as dimensionally stable as other materials. Polyester Film Polyester film, also known by its trade name Mylar, is a plastic manual drafting material that is more expensive than vellum but offers excellent durability, erasability, dimensional stability, and transparency. Drawing on polyester film is best accomplished using ink or special polyester leads. Do not use regular graphite leads, because they smear easily and do not adhere properly to the surface. Drawing techniques that drafters use with polyester leads are similar to those used with graphite leads except that polyester lead is softer and feels like a crayon. Film is available with a single- or double-matte surface. Matte is a surface texture that is not glossy. Manual drafting is done on the matte surface. Double-matte film has texture on both sides so drawing can be done on either side if necessary. Single-matte film, which is more common, has a matte surface on one side and a slick surface on the other side. When using polyester film, be very careful not to damage the matte by erasing. Erase at right angles to the direction of your lines, and do not use too much pressure. This helps minimize damage to the matte surface. Once the matte is removed, the surface does not accept ink or pencil. Also, be careful not to get moisture on the polyester film surface. Moisture or grease from your hands can cause ink to skip across the material. Normal handling of drawing film is bound to soil it. Inked lines applied over soiled areas do not adhere well and in time can chip off or flake. It is always good practice to keep the film clean. Soiled areas can be cleaned effectively with special film cleaner. MANUAL DRAWING REPRODUCTION The one thing most engineers, architects, designers, and drafters have in common is that their finished drawings are made to be reproduced. The goal of 59 every professional is to produce drawings of the highest quality, providing the best possible prints when reproduced. Reproduction is the most important factor in the selection of media for drafting. The primary combination that achieves the best reproduction is the blackest, most opaque lines or images on the most transparent base or material. Each of the materials described makes good prints if the drawing is created with clean, sharp, and opaque lines and lettering. Some products have better characteristics than others for quality reproduction. It is up to the individual or company to determine the combination that works best for the purpose and budget. The question of reproduction is especially important when sepias must be made. Sepias are second- or third-generation originals. For more information on sepias, see the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION. Figure 4-1 shows a magnified view of graphite on vellum, plastic lead on polyester film, and ink on polyester film. Notice that each combination provides progressively improved reproduction quality. As you can see from the figure, the best reproduction is achieved with a crisp, opaque image on transparent material. If your original drawing is not of good quality, it will not get better on the print. Even though graphite on vellum is shown as the lowest quality combination for quality reproduction, this combination is the most commonly used for manual drafting practice. The use of graphite on vellum is generally considered the easiest and fastest combination for use in professional manual drafting. Quality originals are created using graphite on vellum when professional drafters follow proper techniques. GOOD BETTER BEST GRAPHITE ON VELLUM PLASTIC LEAD ON MYLAR DIRECT INK DRAFTING ON MYLAR FIGURE 41 A magnified comparison of graphite on vellum, plastic lead on Mylar, and ink on Mylar. Courtesy Koh-I-Noor, Inc. 60 Architectural Drafting and Design CADD APPLICATIONS Drafting Archives CADD has almost entirely taken over manual drafting in architecture and industry. Some companies and individuals hold on to traditional drafting practices. Many have said that professional manual drafting is an art form made up of line styles, contrasting line thicknesses, and lettering. Manual architectural lettering is an art style of its own. While there are similarities in the style of architectural lettering, the artistic presentation follows examples provided in Chapter 6. Preserving this artistic lettering style is so important that CADD programs have text styles closely duplicating the best architectural hand lettering. For a time into the near future, there may be a need for you to create new manual drawings or revise archive SHEET SIZES, SHEET FORMAT, TITLE BLOCKS, AND BORDERS Every professional drawing has a title block. Standards have been developed for the information put into the title block and on the sheet next to the border. A standardized drawing is easier to read and file than drawings that do not follow a standard format. The term file, as it relates to manual drafting, is the storage of drawings in standard file cabinets. Sheet Sizes Drafting materials are available in standard sizes, which are determined by manufacturers’ specifications and based on national standards. Paper and polyester film can be purchased in cut sheets or in rolls. Architectural drafting offices generally use cut sheet sizes, in inches, of 18 × 24, 24 × 36, 28 × 42, 30 × 42, 30 × 48, or 36 × 48. Roll sizes vary in width from 18" to 48". Sheet sizes used in architectural drafting are often different, but can be the same as sheet sizes recommended by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) for mechanical drafting done for manufacturing. ANSI sheet sizes, title block format, and content follow a strict set of standards for use in the industry. Architectural sheets, title block format, and content do not generally follow the same strict standards. The actual application depends on the practice followed drawings. The term archive defines old drawings that are no longer in use and are stored for possible future use or reference. When revising archive drawings, handle the original very carefully to avoid causing damage. Use the same medium, such as graphite, used on the original drawing. Try to carefully match the line and lettering style used on the original. Reproduce the original as needed and carefully store the original in its proper archive location when finished. Many companies have converted or are continuing to convert their manual drawings to computer-aided drawings. ■ Sheet Size Dimensions (inches) A 8 1/2 × 11 or 11 × 8 1/2 B 17 × 11 C 22 × 17 D 34 × 22 E 44 × 34 F 40 × 28 TABLE 41 Standard ANSI Inch Drawing Sheet Sizes in a specific architectural office. Table 4-1 shows the standard ANSI-recommended inch sheet sizes. Metric sheet sizes vary from 297 × 210 mm to 1189 × 841 mm. Metric roll sizes range from 297 mm to 420 mm wide. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has established standard metric drawing sheet sizes that have been adopted by ANSI. Standard metric drawing sheet sizes are shown in Table 4-2. Sheet Size Dimensions (mm) Dimensions (inches) A0 1189 × 841 46.8 × 33.1 A1 841 × 594 33.1 × 23.4 A2 594 × 420 23.4 × 16.5 A3 420 × 297 16.5 × 11.7 A4 297 × 210 11.7 × 8.3 TABLE 42 Standard Metric Drawing Sheet Sizes Chapter 4: Drafting Media and Reproduction Methods Zoning Some companies use a system of numbers along the top and bottom margins, and letters along the left and right margins. This system is called zoning. Zoning allows a drawing to be read like a road map. For example, the reader can refer to the location of a specific item as D-4, which means the item can be found on or near the intersection of row D and column 4. Zoning can be found on some architectural drawings, although it is more commonly used in mechanical drafting for manufacturing. Architectural Drafting Title Blocks Title blocks and borders are normally preprinted on drawing paper or polyester film for manual drafting applications to help reduce drafting time and cost. “Drawing borders” are thick lines that go around the entire sheet. Top, bottom, and right-side border lines are usually between 3/8" and 1/2" away from the sheet edge. The left border can be between 3/4" and 1 1/2" away from the sheet edge. This extrawide left margin allows for binding drawing sheets. Preprinted architectural drawing title blocks are generally placed along the right side of the sheet, although some companies place them across the bottom of the sheet. Each architectural company uses a slightly different title block design, but this same general information is found in almost all blocks: ● Drawing number. This can be a specific job or file number for the drawing. ● Company name, address, and phone number. ● Project or client. This is an identification of the project by company or client, project title, or location. ● Drawing name. This is where the title of the drawing is placed. For example, MAIN FLOOR PLAN or ELEVATIONS. Most companies leave this information off the title block and place it on the face of the sheet below the drawing. ● Scale. Some company title blocks provide space for the drafter to fill in the general scale of the drawing. Any view or detail on the sheet that differs from the general scale must have the scale identified below the view title, and both are placed directly below the view. 61 ● Drawing or sheet identification. Each sheet is numbered in relation to the entire set of drawings. For example, if the complete set of drawings has 8 sheets, then consecutive sheets are numbered 1 of 8, 2 of 8, 3 of 8, through 8 of 8. ● Date. The date noted is the one on which the drawing or project is completed. ● Drawn by. The place for the initials or name of the drafter, designer, or architect who prepared the drawing. ● Checked by. This is the identification of the individual who approves the drawing for release. ● Architect or designer. Most title blocks provide for the identification of the individual who designed the structure. ● Revisions. Many companies provide a revision column where changes in the drawing are identified and recorded. After a set of drawings is released for construction, there can be changes. When this is necessary, there is usually a written request for a change from the contractor, owner, or architect. The change is then implemented on the affected drawings. Where changes are made on the face of the drawing, a circle with a revision number accompanies the change. This revision number is keyed to a place in the drawing title block where the revision number, the revision date, the initials of the individual making the change, and an optional brief description of the revision are located. For further record of the change, the person making the change also fills out a form, called a change order. The change order was discussed in Chapter 2. The change order contains complete information about the revision for future reference. The change process and the method of documenting changes vary between companies. Figure 4-2 shows different architectural title blocks. Notice the similarities and differences between the title blocks. HOW TO FOLD PRINTS Architectural drawings are generally created on large sheets, and prints are made from the originals. It is necessary to fold the architectural prints properly when they must be mailed or filed in a standard file cabinet. Folding large prints is much like folding a road map. Folding is done in a pattern of bends that 62 Architectural Drafting and Design FIGURE 42 Sample architectural title blocks. (A) Courtesy Summagraphics; (B) Courtesy Southland Corporation; (C) Courtesy Structureform. puts the title block and sheet identification on the front. Using the proper method to fold prints also aids in unfolding and refolding prints. Never fold original drawings. Figure 4-3 shows how large prints are folded. DIAZO REPRODUCTION The diazo reproduction method, also known as blue-line prints, has historically been one of the most common methods for reproducing original manual drawings. Refer to the Student CD: DIAZO REPRODUCTION, for more information. PHOTOCOPY REPRODUCTION A photocopy is a photographic reproduction of printed or graphic material. Photocopies of architectural drawings are commonly made on large-size engineering copy machines, also called engineering copiers or engineering printers. The photocopy engineering-size printer makes prints up to 36" wide and up to 25' long from originals up to 36" wide by 25' long. Prints can be made on bond paper, vellum, polyester film, colored paper, or other translucent materials. Reproduction capabilities also include reduction and enlargement on some models. Bond paper is a strong, durable paper especially suitable to electronic printing and use in office machines including copiers and desktop printers. Almost any large original can be converted into a smaller-sized reproducible print for distribution, inclusion in manuals, or more convenient handling. Also, a random collection of mixed-scale drawings can be enlarged or reduced and converted to one standard scale and format. Reproduction clarity is so good that halftone illustrations, photographs, and solid or fine line work have excellent resolution and density. The photocopy process has mostly replaced the diazo reproduction process for copying architectural drawings. A halftone is the reproduction of continuous-tone artwork, such as a photograph, by converting the image into dots of various sizes. MICROFILM Microfilm is a film containing a reduced image of a drawing or other printed material for compact storage and for future access, viewing, and reproduction. Refer to the Student CD: MICROFILM, for more information. Chapter 4: Drafting Media and Reproduction Methods 63 FOLD 5 FOLD 4 FOLD 3 FOLD 2 FOLD 1 FOLD 5 FOLD 1 FOLD 2 FOLD 1 FOLD 2 FOLD 3 FOLD 2 FOLD 1 B-SIZE C-SIZE D-SIZE E-SIZE FIGURE 43 How to fold B-size, C-size, D-size, and E-size prints. 64 Architectural Drafting and Design ADDITIONAL RESOURCES See CD for more information The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you find information related to drafting media and standards. Address www.aia.org Company, Product, or Service American Institute of Architects www.ansi.org American National Standards Institute www.clearprintpapercompany.com Drafting paper Drafting Media and Reproduction Methods Test See CD for more information QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. Question 4–12 Identify two different locations where the scale can be located on an architectural drawing. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 4 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines. Question 4–14 Briefly describe the revision process and its steps. Question 4–13 What are the results of a properly folded print? Question 4–15 What is another name for a diazo print? Question 4–1 List five factors in the choice and use of drafting materials. Question 4–16 Is a diazo print the same as a blueprint? Explain. Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION. Question 4–2 Why is transparency so important in reproducing copies using the diazo process? Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION. Question 4–17 Describe the diazo process. Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION. Question 4–3 Describe vellum. Question 4–4 Describe polyester film. Question 4–5 What is another name for polyester film? Question 4–6 Define matte, and describe the difference between single-matte and double-matte. Question 4–7 Which of the following combinations yields the best reproduction: graphite on vellum, plastic lead on polyester film, or ink on polyester film? Question 4–8 What are the primary elements that give the best reproduction? Question 4–9 Identify three standard sheet sizes commonly used by architectural offices. Question 4–10 Describe zoning. Question 4–11 What six elements are normally found in a standard architectural title block? Question 4–18 What should a good-quality diazo print look like? Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION. Question 4–19 Define sepias and describe their use. Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION. Question 4–20 Discuss safety precautions in the handling of ammonia. Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION. Question 4–21 Describe the recommended first-aid for the following accidents: ammonia spilled on the skin, ammonia in the eyes, and inhaling excess ammonia vapor. Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION. Question 4–22 List four advantages of photocopying over the diazo process. Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION. Chapter 4: Drafting Media and Reproduction Methods 65 Question 4–23 Give at least two reasons for using microfilm. Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: MICROFILM. Question 4–25 Why is CADD rapidly replacing the need for microfilm? Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: MICROFILM. Question 4–24 What is the big advantage of microfilm? Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: MICROFILM. Question 4–26 Given the architectural title block shown in the illustration for this question, identify elements a through h. h. g. f. e. d. c. b. BLKID SODERSTROM ARCHITECTS, P.C. ARCHITECTURE PLANNING SPECIALIZED STUDIES 1200NW FRONT SUITE 410 PORTLAND, OR 97209 (503) 228-5617 a. CHAPTER 5 Sketching Applications I N T R O D U C T I O N Sketching, or freehand drawing, is drawing without the aid of drafting equipment. Sketching is convenient because only paper, pencil, and an eraser are needed. There are a number of advantages to freehand sketching. Sketching is fast, visual communication. The ability to make an accurate sketch quickly can often be an asset when communicating with people at work or at home. Especially for technical concepts, a sketch can be the best form of communication. Most drafters prepare a preliminary sketch to help organize thoughts and minimize errors on the final drawing. The computer-aided drafter usually prepares a sketch on graph paper to help establish the coordinates for drawing objects or just to organize the drawing before beginning. Some architects, designers, and drafters use sketches to help record the stages of progress until a final design is ready for formal drawings. SKETCHING TOOLS AND MATERIALS The pencil used for sketching should have a soft lead. A common No. 2 pencil works fine for most people. A mechanical pencil with a soft lead such as H, F, or HB is good. An automatic 0.7-mm or 0.9-mm pencil with F or HB lead is also good, and commonly used because of its availability and ease of use. Soft pencil leads allow for maximum control and variation of line weight. The pencil lead should not be sharp. A slightly rounded pencil point is best because it is easy to control and does not break easily. The lead point is not a factor when using an automatic pencil. Different thicknesses of line, if needed, can be drawn by changing the amount of pressure applied to the pencil. Paper quality is not critical, either. A good sketching paper is newsprint, although almost any kind of paper works. Use commonly available paper such as standard copy machine bond paper or notebook paper. Paper with a surface that is not too smooth is best. Many preliminary architectural designs have been created on a napkin at a lunch table. Sketching paper should not be taped down to the table. The best sketches are made when you are able to move the paper to the most comfortable drawing position. Some people make horizontal lines 66 better than vertical lines. If this is your situation, move the paper so vertical lines become horizontal. Such movement of the paper may not always be possible, so it does not hurt to keep practicing all forms of lines for the best results. SKETCHING STRAIGHT LINES Lines should be sketched lightly in short, connected segments, as shown in Figure 5-1. If you sketch one long stroke in one continuous movement, your arm tends to make the line curved rather than straight. If you make a dark line, you may have to erase it if you make an error. If you draw a light line, there is often no need to erase an error because it does not show up very much when the final lines are darkened to your satisfaction. Use the following procedure to sketch a horizontal straight line with the dot-to-dot method: STEP 1 Mark the starting and ending positions or dots, as in Figure 5-2. The letters A and B are only for instruction. All you need are the points. STEP 2 Without actually touching the paper with the pencil point, make a few trial motions between the marked points to adjust your eye and hand to the anticipated line. SHORT 2"–3" STROKES MAKE STROKES FROM LEFT TO RIGHT AND BOTTOM TO TOP IF RIGHT-HANDED DOT-TO-DOT FIGURE 51 Sketching short line segments. A FIGURE 52 Step 1: Dot-to-dot. B Chapter 5: Sketching Applications 67 A B FOR A Ø 6" CIRCLE FIGURE 53 Step 3: Short, light strokes. 3" R 1 A A B B FIGURE 54 Step 4: Darken to finish the line. 1/2"–1" WIDE STEP 3 Sketch very light lines between the points by moving the pencil in short, light strokes, 2" to 3" long. With each stroke, attempt to correct the most obvious defects of the preceding stroke so the finished light lines are relatively straight (see Figure 5-3). STEP 4 Darken the finished line with a dark, distinct, uniform line directly on top of the light line. Usually the darkness can be obtained by pressing on the pencil (see Figure 5-4). FIGURE 56 Step 1: Making a trammel. 2 CENTER A B FIGURE 57 Step 2: Marking the radius with a trammel. SKETCHING CIRCULAR LINES The parts of a circle are shown in Figure 5-5. Three sketching techniques are used in making a circle: trammel, hand compass, and nail and string. Sketching Circles Using the Trammel Method A trammel is an instrument used for making circles. In this example, the instrument is a strip of paper. Use the following steps to sketch a 6" diameter circle using the trammel method: STEP 1 To sketch a 6" diameter circle, tear or cut a strip of paper approximately 1" wide and longer than the radius of 3". On the strip of paper, mark an approximate 3" radius with tick marks, such as A and B in Figure 5-6. STEP 2 Sketch a straight line representing the diameter at the place where the circle is to be located. On the sketched line, locate with a dot the center of the circle. Use the marks on the trammel to mark the other end of the radius line, as shown in Figure 5-7. Place the trammel next to the sketched line, being sure point B on the trammel is aligned with the center of the circle. STEP 3 Pivot the trammel at point B, making tick marks at point A as you rotate the trammel, as shown in Figure 5-8, until you have a complete circle, as shown in Figure 5-9. STEP 4 Lightly sketch the circumference over the tick marks to complete the circle, as shown in Figure 5-9. RA CENTER D R IUS X Y DIAMETER Ø C B Z 3 A CIRCUMFERENCE FIGURE 55 Parts of a circle. FIGURE 58 Step 3: Sketching the circle with a trammel. 68 Architectural Drafting and Design 4 5 FIGURE 59 Steps 4 and 5: Completing and darkening the circle. STEP 5 Darken the circle, as shown in Figure 5-9. You can darken the circle directly over the tick marks if your sketching skills are good, or if you are in a hurry. Sketching Circles Using the Hand-Compass Method The hand-compass method is a quick and fairly accurate way to sketch circles, although it takes some practice. Use the following steps to sketch a 6" diameter circle using the hand-compass method: STEP 1 Be sure your paper is free to rotate completely around 360°. Remove anything from the table that might stop such a rotation. STEP 2 To use your hand and a pencil as a compass, place the pencil in your hand between your thumb and the upper part of your index finger so your index finger becomes the compass point and the pencil becomes the compass lead. The other end of the pencil rests in your palm, as shown in Figure 5-10. FIGURE 511 Steps 4 and 5: Sketching a circle with the handcompass method. STEP 3 Determine the approximate radius by adjusting the distance between your index finger and the pencil point. Now, with the radius established, place your index finger on the paper at the proposed center of the circle. STEP 4 Using the established radius, keep your hand and pencil point in one place while you rotate the paper with your other hand. Try to keep the radius steady as you rotate the paper (see Figure 5-11). STEP 5 You can perform Step 4 very lightly and then go back and darken the circle or, if you have had a lot of practice, you may be able to draw a dark circle as you go (see Figure 5-11). Sketching Circles Using the Nail-and-String Method A method used to sketch large circles is to tie a pencil and a nail together with a string. The distance between the pencil and nail is the radius of the circle. When a large circle is to be sketched, use this method because the other methods do not work as well. This method is used with a nail driven at the center and a string connected to a pencil, for drawing large circles at a construction site. MEASUREMENT LINES AND PROPORTIONS FIGURE 510 Step 2: Holding the pencil for the hand-compass method. In sketching an object, all the lines that make up the object are related to each other by size and direction. In order for a sketch to communicate accurately and completely, it should be proportional to the object. The actual size of the sketch depends on the paper size and the desired size of the sketch. The sketch should be large enough to be clear, but the Chapter 5: Sketching Applications 69 LINE 1 TABLE LINE 2 FIGURE 512 Measurement lines. proportions of the features are more important than the size of the sketch. Look at the lines in Figure 5-12. How long is line 1? How long is line 2? Answer these questions without measuring either line; instead, relate each line to the other. For example, line 1 can be described as half as long as line 2, or line 2 described as twice as long as line 1. Now you know how long each line is relative to the other. This relationship is called proportion. You do not know how long either line is in terms of a measured scale, but no scale is used for sketching, so this is not a concern. Whatever line you decide to sketch first determines the scale of the drawing, regardless of the actual length of the line. This first line sketched is called the measurement line. You relate all the other lines in your sketch to the first line. This is one of the secrets in making a sketch resemble the object being sketched. The second thing you must know about the relationship of the two lines in the example is their direction and position relative to each other. Do they touch each other? Are they parallel, perpendicular, or at some other angle to each other? When you look at a line, ask yourself the following questions (for this example use the two lines given in Figure 5-13): 1. How long is the second line? Answer: Line 2 is about three times as long as line 1. 2. In what direction and position is the second line relative to the first line? Answer: Line 2 touches the lower end of line 1 with about a 90° angle between the lines. Carrying this concept a step further, a third line can relate to the first line or the second line, and additional lines can continue to relate in the same manner. Again, the first line drawn is the measurement line, which sets the scale for the entire sketch. This idea of relationship can also apply to spaces. In Figure 5-14, the location of a table in a room can be FIGURE 514 Spatial proportions. determined by spatial proportions. A typical verbal location for the table in this floor plan might be as follows: “The table is located about one-half the table width from the top of the floor plan or about two table widths from the bottom, and about one table width from the right side or about three table widths from the left side of the floor plan.” Using Your Pencil to Establish Measurements on a Sketch Your pencil can be a useful tool for establishing measurements on a sketch. When you are sketching an object that you can hold, use your pencil as a ruler. Place the pencil next to the feature to be sketched and determine the length by aligning the pencil tip at one end of the feature and marking the other end on the pencil with your thumb. The other end can also be identified by a specific contour or mark on the pencil. Then transfer the measurement to your sketch. The two distances are the same. Even though sketches do not require this accuracy, this is a quick way to establish measurement lines. A similar technique can be used to sketch a distant object. For example, to sketch a house across the street, hold your pencil at arm’s length and align the pencil with a feature of the house, such as the house width. With the pencil point at one end of the house, place your thumb on the pencil, marking the other end of the house. Transfer this measurement to your sketch in the same orientation taken from the house. Repeat this technique for all of the house features until the sketch is complete. If you keep your pencil at arm’s length and your arm straight, each measurement has the same accuracy and proper proportions. Block Technique for Sketching MEASUREMENT LINE FIGURE 513 Study the relationship between the two lines. Any illustration of an object can be surrounded overall with a rectangle or any other geometric shapes as shown in Figure 5-15. Before starting a sketch, visualize the object inside a rectangle. Then use the measurement-line 70 Architectural Drafting and Design FIGURE 517 Step 2: Block technique. Cut out the sections and lightly sketch the shapes. lines you learned previously. An elevation is an exterior view of a structure, which is the house in this case. To use the measurement-line and block techniques, follow these steps: FIGURE 515 Block technique. technique with the rectangle, or block, to help determine the shape and proportions of your sketch. Sketching Procedures Using the Measurement-Line and Block Techniques You can sketch any object, such as an elevation, as you look at an actual house or a floor plan and think about how the features of the house relate to the measurement STEP 1 When you start to sketch an object, try to visualize the object surrounded with an overall rectangle. Sketch this rectangle first with very light lines. Sketch the rectangle in the proper proportion with the measurement-line technique, as shown in Figure 5-16. STEP 2 Cut sections out or away using proper proportions as measured by eye or using your pencil to establish measurements. Use light lines, as shown in Figure 5-17. WIDTH HEIGHT WIDTH THIS IS THE ELEVATION TO BE SKETCHED. FIGURE 516 Step 1: Sketch the block. THIS RECTANGLE IS IMPORTANT, ESTABLISHED AS OVERALL WIDTH AND HEIGHT OF VIEW. USE CONSTRUCTION LINES. Chapter 5: Sketching Applications 71 FIGURE 521 Step 2: Evenly spaced grid sketched over the swimming pool. FIGURE 522 Steps 3 and 4: Proportioned box with a regular grid. FIGURE 523 Step 5: Sketching the shape using a regular grid. FIGURE 524 Step 6: Darkening the object completely. FIGURE 518 Step 3: Darken the view. STEP 3 Complete the sketch by darkening the outlines desired for the finished sketch as shown in Figure 5-18. Sketching Irregular Shapes By using a frame of reference or an extension of the block method, irregular shapes can be sketched easily to their correct proportions. Follow these steps to sketch the free-form swimming pool shown in Figure 5-19: STEP 1 Enclose the object in a lightly constructed box (see Figure 5-20). STEP 2 Sketch several evenly spaced horizontal and vertical lines, forming a grid, as shown in Figure 5-21. If you are sketching an object already drawn, draw your reference lines on top of the object lines to establish a frame of reference. Make a photocopy, and sketch on the photocopy if the original cannot be used. If you are sketching an object directly, you have to visualize these reference lines on the object you sketch. STEP 3 On your sketch, correctly locate a proportioned box similar to the one established on the original drawing or object, as shown in Figure 5-22. STEP 4 Use the drawn box as a frame of reference, and include the grid lines in correct proportion as shown in Figure 5-22. STEP 5 Using the grid, sketch small, irregular arcs and lines that match the lines of the original object, as in Figure 5-23. STEP 6 Darken the outline for a complete proportioned sketch, as shown in Figure 5-24. INTRODUCTION TO MULTIVIEW SKETCHES FIGURE 519 Free-form swimming pool. FIGURE 520 Step 1: Imaginary box. A multiview, or multiview projection, is also known as orthographic projection. Multiview projection is the views of an object as projected upon two or more picture planes in orthographic projection. Orthographic projection is any projection of the features of an object onto an imaginary plane called a plane of projection, where the projection of the object’s features is made by lines of sight that are perpendicular to the plane of projection. These terms 72 Architectural Drafting and Design TOP TOP FRONT FRONT RIGHT SIDE RIGHT SIDE FIGURE 526 Pictorial view. FIGURE 525 Multiviews. are traditionally used in drafting, but they are more commonly used in mechanical drafting for manufacturing. In architectural drafting such drawings are referred to as elevation views. Elevation views are two-dimensional views of an object, such as a house, that are established by a line of sight perpendicular to the surface of the object. When you make multiview sketches, follow a methodical order. Learning to make these sketches can help you later as you begin to prepare elevation drawings. 45° Multiview Alignment To keep your drawing in a standard form, sketch the front view in the lower left portion of the paper, the top view directly above the front view, and the rightside view to the right of the front view as shown in Figure 5-25. The views needed may differ depending on the object. FIGURE 527 Step 1: Block out views and establish a 45° line. Multiview Sketching Technique The following describes how to sketch three basic views of a house: STEP 1 Sketch and align the proportional rectangles for the front, top, and right side of the house given in Figure 5-26. Sketch a 45° line to help transfer width dimensions. The 45° line is established by projecting the width from the proposed top view location across and the width from the proposed right-side view location up until the lines intersect, as shown in Figure 5-27. STEP 2 Complete the shapes within the blocks, as shown in Figure 5-28. FIGURE 528 Step 2: Block out shapes. STEP 3 Darken the lines of the object, as in Figure 5-29. Remember to keep the views aligned for ease of sketching and understanding by others. Chapter 5: Sketching Applications 73 STEP 1 Sketch a horizontal reference line. You can consider this as the ground-level line. STEP 2 Sketch a vertical line perpendicular to the ground line somewhere near its center. This vertical line is used to measure height. STEP 3 Sketch two 30° angular lines, each starting at the intersection of the first two lines, as shown in Figure 5-30. Making an Isometric Sketch The steps in making an isometric sketch from a multiview drawing or from a real object are as follows: STEP 1 Select an appropriate view of the object to use as FIGURE 529 Step 3: Darken all lines. ISOMETRIC SKETCHES Isometric sketches provide a three-dimensional (3D) pictorial representation of an object, such as the shape of a building. Isometric sketches are easy to draw and provide a fairly realistic 3D view of an object. An isometric sketch tends to represent objects as they appear to the eye. Such a sketch can help you visualize an object because three sides of the object are shown in a single three-dimensional view. Establishing Isometric Axes Me asu 3rd re len LIN E gth of ob jec ta lon 30° APPROXIMATELY gt his lin e 2nd LINE Measure height of object along this line To establish isometric axes, you need four beginning lines: a horizontal reference line, two 30° angular lines, and one vertical line. Draw these lines as very light construction lines as shown in Figure 5-30. Use the following steps to establish the isometric axes: a front view, or study the front view of the multiview drawing. STEP 2 Determine the best position in which to show the object. STEP 3 Begin your sketch by setting up the isometric axes as previously described (see Figure 5-30). STEP 4 Using the measurement-line technique, sketch a rectangular box to the correct proportion, which surrounds the object to be sketched. Use the object shown in Figure 5-31 as an example. Imagine that the rectangular box represents a glass box that surrounds the object to be sketched inside. Begin to sketch the box by marking off the width at any convenient length. This is the width measurement line shown in Figure 5-32. Next, estimate and mark the length and height relative to the measurement line (see Figure 5-33). Sketch the three-dimensional box by using lines parallel to the original axis lines (see Figure 5-33). The box must be sketched correctly; otherwise the rest of your sketch will be out of proportion. All lines drawn in the same direction must be parallel. ne s li ct pth r asu Me e ed of je ob hi gt n alo 4th E LIN 30° APPROXIMATELY 1st LINE — GROUND LINE FIGURE 530 Isometric axes. FIGURE 531 Given structure. Architectural Drafting and Design Ab ou t1 1/4 as lon ga sw idt h About 1 1/2 as long as width 74 h dt Wi FIGURE 532 Step 4: Lay out length, width, and height. FIGURE 534 Step 5: Sketch the features of the structure. NONISOMETRIC LINES FIGURE 533 Step 4: Sketch the three-dimensional box. ISOMETRIC LINES STEP 5 Lightly sketch the features that define the details of the object. When you estimate distances on the rectangular box, you will find that the features of the object are easier to sketch in correct proportion than they would be if you tried to draw them without the box (see Figure 5-34). STEP 6 Darken all the outlines to finish the sketch, as shown in Figure 5-35. Sketching Nonisometric Lines Isometric lines are lines on or parallel to one of the three original isometric axes. All other lines are nonisometric lines. Isometric lines can be measured in true length. Nonisometric lines appear either longer or shorter than their actual length (see Figure 5-35). You can measure and draw nonisometric lines by connecting their endpoints. Find the endpoints of the nonisometric lines by measuring along isometric lines. FIGURE 535 Step 6: Darken the structure. To locate where nonisometric lines should be placed, you have to relate to an isometric line. Sketching Isometric Circles and Arcs Circles and arcs appear as ellipses in isometric views. To sketch isometric circles and arcs correctly, you need to know the relationship between circles and the faces, or planes, of an isometric cube. Depending on which isometric plane the circle appears, isometric circles look like one of the ellipses shown in Figure 5-36. The angle at which the isometric circle slants is determined by the surface on which the circle is to be sketched. Using the Four-Center Method to Sketch Isometric Circles The four-center method of sketching an isometric circle is fairly easy, but care must be taken to form the ellipse Chapter 5: Sketching Applications 75 1 2 22 LEFT PLANE HORIZONTAL PLANE RIGHT PLANE 1 1 FIGURE 536 Isometric circles. arcs properly so the ellipse does not look distorted. Use the following steps to sketch isometric circles using the four-center method: STEP 1 Sketch an isometric cube or box similar to Figure 5-37. STEP 2 On each surface of the box sketch line segments connecting the 120° corners to the centers of the opposite sides as shown in Figure 5-38. STEP 3 With points 1 and 2 as the centers, sketch arcs beginning and ending at the centers of the opposite sides on each isometric surface (see Figure 5-39). STEP 4 On each isometric surface, with points 3 and 4 as the centers, complete the isometric circles by sketching arcs that meet the arcs sketched in Step 3 (see Figure 5-40). Sketching Isometric Arcs Sketching isometric arcs is similar to sketching isometric circles. First, block out the overall shape of the object. Next, establish the centers of the arcs. Finally, sketch the arc shapes. Remember that isometric arcs, just like isometric circles, must lie in the proper plane and have the correct shape. 120° CORNER 6 PLACES 2 1 FIGURE 539 Step 3: Sketch arcs from points 1 and 2. HORIZONTAL (TOP) PLANE 3 3 LEFT PLANE 3 4 4 RIGHT PLANE FIGURE 540 Step 4: Sketch arcs from points 3 and 4. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION Orthographic projection is any projection of features of an object onto an imaginary plane called a plane of projection. The projection of the features of the object is made by lines of sight that are perpendicular to the plane of projection. When a surface of the object is parallel to the plane of projection, the surface appears in its true size and shape on that plane. In Figure 5-41, the plane of projection is parallel to the surface of the object. The line of sight from the object is perpendicular to the plane of projection. Notice also that the object appears three-dimensional, which means the object has width, depth, and height. The view on the plane of projection is two-dimensional, which means the view has only width and height. In situations where the plane of projection is not parallel to the surface of the object, the resulting orthographic view is foreshortened, or shorter than the true length, as shown in Figure 5-42. 3 MULTIVIEW PROJECTION FIGURE 537 Step 1: Isometric cube. FIGURE 538 Step 2: Fourcenter construction of an isometric ellipse. As a review, multiview projection establishes two or more views of an object as projected on two or more planes by using orthographic projection techniques. 76 Architectural Drafting and Design OBJECT 5 2 PLANE OF PROJECTION 3 2 1 6 1 1 5 3 4 4 2 2 3 6 1 5 LINES OF SIGHT PROJECTORS PERPENDICULAR TO PLANE OF PROJECTION 1 3 LINES OF SIGHT PROJECTORS PERPENDICULAR TO PLANE OF PROJECTION 4 5 4 PLANE OF PROJECTION ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEW ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEW FORESHORTENED ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEW OF SURFACE 1, 2, 3, 4 2 TRUE SHAPE OF THE ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEW 1 PLANE OF PROJECTION 3 1 5 2 6 4 3 5 4 TRUE SHAPE ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEW OF SURFACE 2, 3, 5, 6 PLANE OF PROJECTION FIGURE 542 Projection of a foreshortened orthographic surface. FIGURE 541 Orthographic projection to form orthographic view. The result of multiview projection is a multiview drawing. Multiview drawings represent the shape of an object using two or more views. The six possible views include: the front, top, right side, left side, bottom, and rear. All six views are seldom used. Consideration should be given to the choice and number of views so, when possible, the surfaces of the object are shown in their true size and shape. If you can hold an object in your hands, you can visualize the views by turning the object until you are looking directly at a side. Continue turning the object, stopping to look at each view as your line of sight becomes perpendicular to the object surface. Figure 5-43 is a graphic representation of a person holding and rotating an object in this manner. As the object is rotated to each position, the person stops to look directly at the object surface. What the person sees at each of these positions is related to the specific multiview seen in proper positions within a set of multiviews in Figure 5-43. Some people can visualize multiviews better than others. If you have difficulty visualizing views, pick up any object and try to sketch what you see as you rotate the object looking at each side. Holding an object and rotating to see the sides works well if you can pick up and hold the object. To see the views of your home, for example, go outside and stand so you can see the front of the house with your line of sight as perpendicular as possible to the front. This is the front view. You can do the same thing by walking around your home and stopping to look at each side in the same manner. Take a sketch pad and sketch what you see at each location, just like you do when holding an object. Elevations as Multiviews It is often easier to visualize a three-dimensional drawing of a structure than it is to visualize a two-dimensional drawing of the same structure. In architectural drafting, however, it is common to prepare construction drawings showing two-dimensional exterior views of a structure that provide representations of exterior materials or interior views of features such as kitchen and bath cabinets. These drawings are called elevations. The method used to draw elevations is multiview projection. Chapter 5: Sketching Applications 77 TOP VIEW REAR VIEW LEFT-SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW RIGHT-SIDE VIEW BOTTOM VIEW FIGURE 543 A graphic representation of a person holding and rotating an object. As the object is rotated to each position, the person stops to look directly at the object surface. What the person sees at each of these positions is related to the specific multiview seen in proper positions shown. A more detailed discussion of elevation drawing is found in Chapter 24 and Chapter 25. Figure 5-44 shows an object represented by a three-dimensional drawing, called a pictorial drawing, and three twodimensional views. This is the same object that the TOP OR PLAN VIEW TOP (PLAN VIEW) FRONT SIDE FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW FIGURE 544 Comparison of a pictorial and a multiview presentation. person is holding in Figure 5-43. Look at the object represented in Figure 5-43 and compare it to the pictorial and multiview drawing shown in Figure 5-44. Using the Glass Box Viewing Method If you place the object in Figure 5-44 in a glass box so the sides of the glass box are parallel to the major surfaces of the object, you can project the surfaces of the object onto the sides of the glass box and create the multiviews shown in Figure 5-45. Imagine the sides of the glass box are the planes of projection previously described. Look at Figure 5-45 again to see if you can visualize this idea. If you look at all sides of the glass box, you see the six views: front, top, right side, left side, bottom, and rear. Now, unfold the glass box as if the corners were hinged about the front view as demonstrated in Figure 5-46. These hinge lines are commonly called fold lines. 78 Architectural Drafting and Design TOP TOP REAR LEFT RIGHT FRONT BOTTOM FIGURE 547 Glass box unfolded. FRONT SIDE FIGURE 545 Glass box. Completely unfold the glass box onto a flat surface, and you have the six views of an object represented in a multiview. Figure 5-47 shows the glass box unfolded. Notice also that the views are labeled: TOP front, top, right, left, bottom, and rear. Views are always found in this arrangement when using multiview projection. Now, analyze Figure 5-48 in detail so you see the features that are common among the views. Knowing how to identify the features of an object that are common among views can aid you later in the visualization of elevations. Notice again how the views are aligned in Figure 5-48. The top view is directly above and the bottom view is directly below the front view. The left side is directly to the left and the right side is directly to the right of the front view. This alignment allows the drafter to project features from one view to the next to help establish each view. Now, look closely at the relationship of the front, top, and right-side views. A similar relationship exists using the left-side view. Figure 5-49 shows a 45° projection line established by projecting the fold or reference line (hinge) between the front and side view up, and the fold line between the front and top view over. All of the features established on the top view can be projected to the 45° line and then down onto the side view. This is possible because the depth dimension is the same in both the top and the side views. The reverse is also true. WIDTH FRONT TOP SIDE HEIGHT REAR LEFT FRONT RIGHT DEPTH BOTTOM FIGURE 546 Unfolding the glass box at hinge lines, also called fold lines. FIGURE 548 View alignment. Chapter 5: Sketching Applications 79 FOLD LINE 45° Y X FOLD LINE FOLD LINE FOLD LINE X Y FIGURE 549 Establishing a 45° projection line. FIGURE 551 Using dividers to transfer view projections. Features from the side view can be projected to the 45° line and then over to the top view. The transfer of features in Figure 5-49 using the 45° line can also be accomplished by using a compass with one leg at the intersection of the horizontal and vertical fold lines. The compass establishes the relationship between the top and side views, as shown in Figure 5-50. Another method for transferring the size of features from one view to the next is the use of dividers to transfer distances from the fold line at the top view to the fold line at the side view. The relationship between the fold lines and the two views is shown in Figure 5-51. The front view is usually most important because it is the one from which the other views are established. There is always one common dimension between adjacent views. For example, the width is common between the front and top views and the height is common between the front and side views. This knowledge allows you to relate information from one view to another. Take one more look at the relationship of the six views, as shown in Figure 5-52. RADIUS FOLD LINE TOP REAR LEFT FRONT RIGHT BOTTOM FIGURE 552 Multiview orientation. Proper View Selection There are six primary views that you can use to describe a structure completely. In architectural drafting, the front, left-side, right-side, and rear views are used as elevations to describe the exterior appearance of a structure completely. Elevation drawings are discussed in more detail in Chapter 24 and Chapter 25. The top view is called the roof plan view. This view shows the roof of the structure and provides construction information and dimensions. Roof plans are discussed in detail in Chapter 22 and Chapter 23. The bottom view is not used in architectural drafting. PROJECTION OF FEATURES FROM AN INCLINED PLANE FOLD LINE FIGURE 550 Projection with a compass. When you use multiview projection, features of objects that are parallel to projection planes appear true size and shape, but features that are not parallel to projection planes are foreshortened, and are not in true size and shape. 80 Architectural Drafting and Design ROUND WINDOW LINE OF INTERSECTION ROUND WINDOW FORESHORTENED SKYLIGHT TRUE WIDTH ROOF PROJECTION LINES FIGURE 553 Rectangular features on an inclined plane. FIGURE 554 Round window is a circle when the line of sight is perpendicular. FORESHORTENED DIAMETER MINOR DIAMETER Rectangular Features on an Inclined Plane When a rectangular feature such as a skylight projects out of a sloped roof, the intersection of the skylight with the roof appears as a line when the roof also appears as a line. This intersection can then be projected onto adjacent views, as shown in Figure 5-53. SKYLIGHT DIAMETER MAJOR DIAMETER TOP (ROOF PLAN) Circles on an Inclined Plane When the line of sight in a view is perpendicular to a circle, such as a round window, the window appears round, as shown in Figure 5-54. When a circle is projected onto an inclined surface, such as a round skylight projected onto a sloped roof, the view of the inclined circle is elliptical, as shown in Figure 5-55. FORESHORTENED DIAMETER MINOR DIAMETER SKYLIGHT DIAMETER MAJOR DIAMETER ROUND SKYLIGHT FRONT SIDE FIGURE 555 Circle projected onto an inclined surface appears as an ellipse. CADD APPLICATIONS Using CADD for Conceptual Design and Presentation Sketches Google SketchUp is a CADD program that can be used to create, share, and present three-dimensional models with an easy-to-use interface. Interface, also called user interface, is the term describing the tools and techniques used to provide and receive information to and from a computer application. Google SketchUp is often used in the conceptual design phase of a project and to create presentation drawings that look hand-sketched, as shown in Figure 5-56. Tools such as Line, Arc, Rectangle, and Circle are used to sketch two-dimensional (2D) closed boundaries, known as faces. Then, tools such as the Push/Pull, Follow-Me, and Move are used to “pull” faces and edges into three-dimensional (3D) objects (see Figure 5-57). CADD graphic and image files can be imported into Google SketchUp, and then traced over with sketch tools to create quick 3D models for design studies (see Figure 5-58). Chapter 5: Sketching Applications CADD APPLICATIONS FIGURE 556 Google SketchUp can be used in the conceptual design phase to sketch new ideas and designs. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN. FIGURE 557 In Google SketchUp, use sketch lines to create faces, then push/pull the faces into 3D geometry. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN. 81 82 Architectural Drafting and Design CADD APPLICATIONS FIGURE 558 Google SketchUp lines are traced over an imported image to create a 3D model. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN. “hand-sketched” styles, and shadows to create presentation drawings as shown in Figure 5-59. Custom appearances can be used to create a sampling of different presentation styles. When Google SketchUp is combined with Google Earth, a location from Google Earth can be found and imported into Google SketchUp. A new design idea is sketched relative to the Google Earth location. The Google SketchUp file is then imported back into Google Earth to create a 3D presentation file of the design within Google Earth as shown in Figure 5-60. Google SketchUp is available for download from the Google Web site and comes in two formats. Google SketchUp is a free download and allows you to create 3D models very quickly. Google SketchUp Pro is a premium version and includes all of the tools from the free version plus advanced settings for commercial use and interaction with other CADD programs. ■ In addition to sketching and modeling tools, Google SketchUp can be used to add finish materials, FIGURE 559a Apply different materials and sketch styles to 3D model geometry to create unique presentation drawings. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN. Chapter 5: Sketching Applications CADD APPLICATIONS FIGURE 559 b Continued FIGURE 560 Use Google Earth to import a site into Google SketchUp, design the 3D model, then send the model back to Google SketchUp for design review. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN. 83 84 Architectural Drafting and Design ADDITIONAL RESOURCES See CD for more information The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you find information related to sketching applications. Address www.sketchup.google.com www.drawsketch.about.com Company, Product, or Service Google Sketch Up Sketching lessons and tutorials Sketching Applications Test See CD for more information QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. Question 5–13 When is a surface foreshortened in an orthographic view? 1. Letter your name, Chapter 5 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines. Question 5–15 Give at least two reasons why the multiviews of an object are aligned in a specific format. Question 5–1 Define sketching. Question 5–2 How are sketches useful in CADD? Question 5–3 Describe the proper sketching tools. Question 5–4 Should paper for sketching be taped to the drafting board or table? Why or why not? Question 5–5 What kind of problem can occur if a long, straight line is drawn without moving the hand? Question 5–6 What type of paper should be used for sketching? Question 5–7 Briefly describe a method that can be used to sketch irregular shapes. Question 5–14 How many principal multiviews of an object are possible? Question 5–16 In architectural drafting, what are the exterior front, right-side, left-side, and rear views also called? Question 5–17 If a round window appears as a line in the front view and the line of sight is perpendicular to the window in the side view, what shape is the window in the side view? Question 5–18 If a round skylight is positioned on a 5/12 roof slope and appears as a line in the front view, what shape is the skylight in the side view? Question 5–19 Briefly describe the trammel method for sketching a circle. Question 5–20 Why must the paper be free to rotate when you are using the hand-compass method for sketching a circle? Question 5–8 Define isometric sketch. Question 5–21 What is the distance from the center of a circle to the circumference called? Question 5–9 What is the difference between an isometric line and a nonisometric line? Question 5–22 Name the distance that goes all the way across a circle and passes through the center. Question 5–10 What do proportions have to do with sketching techniques? Question 5–11 Define orthographic projection. Question 5–23 Describe an easy way to sketch a 15" circle on paper and a 6'–6" circle at a construction site. Question 5–12 What is the relationship between the orthographic plane of projection and the projection lines from the object or structure? Question 5–24 In a short but complete paragraph, discuss the importance and use of measurement lines and proportions in sketching objects. Chapter 5: Sketching Applications Question 5–25 Briefly describe how the block technique works for making sketches of objects. 85 elements large enough to fill most of an 8 1/2 × 11" sheet of paper. Question 5–26 Name two basic applications for multiviews in architectural drafting. Question 5–27 In multiview projection, what is the top view commonly called? PATIO Question 5–28 Name the four views that are commonly used as elevations to describe the exterior appearance of a structure. Question 5–29 Why should a soft lead and slightly rounded pencil point be used when sketching? SWIMMING POOL Question 5–30 Briefly describe how you would use your pencil to establish measurements if you were sketching a house across the street. PROBLEMS DIRECTIONS: On 8 1/2" × 11" bond paper or newsprint, use proper sketching materials and techniques to solve the following sketching problems. Use very lightly sketched construction lines for all layout work. Darken the lines of the object, but do not erase the layout lines. Additional problems are available on the Student CD. Problem 5–1 Sketch the front view of your home or any local single-family residence using the block technique. Use the measurement-line method to approximate proper proportions. SPA Problem 5–8 Given the top and side views shown in the sketch for this problem, redraw these views and draw the missing front view, filling most of an 8 1/2 × 11" sheet of paper. Problem 5–2 Use the box method to sketch a circle with a diameter of approximately 4". Sketch the same circle using the trammel and hand-compass methods. Problem 5–3 Find an object with an irregular shape, such as a French (irregular) curve, and sketch a two-dimensional view using the grid method. Sketch the object to correct proportions without measuring. Problem 5–4 Use the same structure you used for Problem 5–1, or a different structure, to prepare an isometric sketch. Problem 5–5 Use the same structure you used for Problem 5–1 to sketch a front view and right-side view. Problem 5–6 Use a scale of 1/4" = 1'–0" to draw a 38° acute angle with one side horizontal and both sides 8'–6" long. Problem 5–7 Given the sketch for this problem of a swimming pool, spa, and patio, resketch these START VIEW HERE 86 Architectural Drafting and Design Problem 5–9 Given the pictorial sketch for this problem, draw the front, top, and right-side views, filling most of an 8 1/2 × 11" sheet of paper. FRO NT Problem 5–10 Given the three views of the house shown in the sketches for this problem, sketch an isometric view, filling most of an 8 1/2 × 11" sheet of paper. CHAPTER 6 Architectural Lines and Lettering I N T R O D U C T I O N Drafting is a universal graphic language that uses lines, symbols, dimensions, and notes to describe a structure to be built. Lines and lettering on a drawing must be of a quality that reproduces clearly. Properly drawn lines are dark, crisp, sharp, and of a uniform thickness. There should be no variation in darkness, only a variation in thickness, known as line contrast. Certain lines are drawn thick to stand out clearly from other information on the drawing. Other lines are drawn thin. Thin lines are not necessarily less important than thick lines, but they can be subordinate for identification purposes. Recommended line thicknesses are much more defined in mechanical drafting for manufacturing than in architectural drafting. Architectural drafting line standards have traditionally been more flexible, and the creativity of the individual drafter or company can influence line and lettering applications. This is not to say that drafters can do anything that they desire when preparing an architectural drawing. This chapter presents some general guidelines, styles, and techniques that are recommended for architectural drafting. Practices using CADD are covered in Chapter 7 and applied to specific content in later chapters. TYPES OF LINES Lines are the primary method of displaying images on architectural drawings. The lines must accurately and clearly represent the drawing content. There are a variety of line types found on drawings. Each type of line conveys a meaning in the way it is represented and its placement on the drawing. There are basically two widths of lines commonly found on architectural drawings, thick and thin. The purpose of different line widths is to make certain that lines stand out more than others. Thicker lines are meant to be more dominant than other lines. They may not be any more important, but they are the first lines that are intended to be seen by the viewer. For example, when you look at a floor plan, the wall lines and related features should be the main focus at first glance. Other lines, such as dimension lines, are equally important, but their appearance is subordinate to the lines used to create the plan. Even though national standards recommend two different line thicknesses for use on drawings, some companies use three line thicknesses to represent different lines on a drawing. Confirm the actual practice used by your school or company. This discussion introduces you to each of the lines commonly used in architectural drafting. Figure 6-1 shows each type of architectural line and its desired width. Construction Lines and Guidelines Construction lines are used for laying out a drawing. They are drawn very lightly so they do not reproduce and so they are not mistaken for any other lines on the drawing. Manually drawn construction lines are drawn with very little pressure using a pencil with 4H to 6H lead, and if drawn properly do not need to be erased. Use construction lines for all preliminary work. Construction lines are drawn on a separate layer when CADD is used. This layer can be turned on or off as needed. CADD layers are discussed in Chapter 7. Guidelines are similar to construction lines in that they should be drawn lightly enough so they do not reproduce. Guidelines are drawn to guide your manual lettering. For example, if lettering on a drawing is 1/8" (3 mm) high, then the lightly drawn guidelines are placed 1/8" (3 mm) apart. Guidelines are not used with CADD. Some manual drafters prefer to use a light-blue lead rather than a graphite lead for all construction lines and guidelines. Light-blue lead does not reproduce in a diazo printer and is usually cleaner than graphite. Blueline can reproduce in a photocopy machine unless it is drawn very lightly. Object Lines In architectural drafting the outline lines—or object lines, as they are commonly called—are a specific thickness so they stand out from other lines, as they form the outline of views. Object lines are used to define the outline and characteristic features of architectural plan components, but the method of presentation can differ 87 88 Architectural Drafting and Design THICK VISIBLE OBJECT LINES THICK LINE APPROXIMATE WIDTH: 0.025" (0.6 mm) FLOOR PLAN WALL OUTLINES, ELEVATION OUTLINE/ACCENT, SECTION ACCENT, FOUNDATION OUTLINES AND BEAMS THIN THIN LINE THIN LINE APPROXIMATE WIDTH: 0.012" (0.3 mm) FLOOR PLAN SYMBOLS, ELEVATION FEATURES, SECTION FEATURES THIN HIDDEN LINE THIN LINE APPROXIMATE WIDTH: 0.012" (0.3 mm) THIN CENTER LINE EXTENSION LINE LEADER DOT DIMENSION LINE DIMENSION LINE, EXTENSION LINE, AND LEADER LINE THIN 20'0" SLASH ARROWHEAD THICK CUTTING-PLANE LINE OR VIEWING-PLANE LINE THICK THICK THICK SHORT BREAKS BREAK LINE THIN LONG BREAKS THICK CHAIN LINE THICK LINE APPROXIMATE WIDTH: 0.025" (0.6 mm) PROPERTY LINES DIMENSION LINE VISIBLE OBJECT LINE GARB. DISP. GFI GFI DW HIDDEN LINE HOOD W/ LIGHT & FAN. VENT TO OUTSIDE AIR 12'-0" LEADER LINE REFR 48"X72" LIGHT SOFFIT W/ 5-48" PERIOD FIXTURES S3 DBL OVEN HIDDEN LINE BREAK LINE BRM S S 3 EXTENSION LINE CUTTING-PLANE LINE THIN LINE FIGURE 61 Recommended architectural line styles and weights, with an example as used in a partial floor plan. Chapter 6: Architectural Lines and Lettering 89 slightly from one office to another. The following techniques are alternatives for object line presentation: ● A popular technique is to enhance certain drawing features so they stand out clearly from outer items on the drawing. For example, the outline of floor plan walls and partitions, or beams in a cross section, can be drawn thicker than other lines so that they are more apparent than the other lines on the drawing. When drawn manually, these thicker lines can be drawn with a mechanical pencil or 0.7-mm or 0.9-mm automatic pencil using a 2H, H, or F lead (see Figure 6-2A). This technique can also use light shading to highlight the walls of a floor plan. Dark shading can be used, but it hides the thicker outline lines. ● Another technique is for all lines of the drawing to be the same thickness. This method does not differentiate one type of line from another, except that construction lines are always very lightly drawn. The idea of this technique is to make all lines medium-thick to save drafting time. The drafter uses a lead that works best, although a mechanical pencil or 0.5-mm automatic pencil with 2H or H lead is popular (see Figure 6-2B). This technique can use dark shading to highlight features such as walls in floor plans, as shown in Figure 6-2C. The objective with any manual drafting line work is to get all lines dark and crisp. If the lines are fuzzy, they do not reproduce well. ● Some object lines may not be drawn as thick as others. This idea can be confusing at first. When you are creating an architectural drawing, you need to think about what features you want to be most visual. On a floor plan, for example, the outlines of the walls might be drawn thick to stand out clearly from other features. However, the outlines of cabinets, doors, and other objects might be drawn thin even though they are objects and their outlines might be considered object lines. The partial floor plan in Figure 6-1 shows this variation between object lines. Although this practice is common, the confusion can be compounded for the beginner because some variations can exist between offices. The best thing for you to do is spend as much time as you can looking at sets of architectural drawings with the goal of observing how lines are displayed. Also, quickly become familiar with the methods preferred by your instructor and the company where you work. 10'–0" 10'–0" 5'–0" 5'–0" 5'–0" 5'–0" ALL LINES SAME THICKNESS THICK WALL OUTLINES B 10'–0" 5'–0" 5'–0" THICK LINES FOR BEAMS AND FOOTINGS DARK SHADING A THICK LINES FOR FOUNDATION WALL C FIGURE 62 (A) Thick outlines. (B) All lines the same thickness. (C) Accent with shading. 90 Architectural Drafting and Design Dashed Lines In mechanical drafting dashed lines are called hidden lines; the terms are interchangeable in architectural drafting. Dashed lines are used to show drawing features that are not visible in the view or plan. In architectural drafting, dashed lines can also be considered hidden lines because they are used to show drawing features that are not visible in the view or plan. These dashed features are important but subordinate to the main emphasis of the drawing. Dashed lines vary slightly from one office to the next. These lines are thin and generally drawn about 1/8" to 3/8" (3 to 10 mm) in length with a space of 1/16" to 1/8" (1.5 to 3 mm) between dashes. The dashes should be kept uniform in length on the drawing, for example, all 1/4" (6 mm) should have equal spaces. Dashed lines are thin, and the spacing between dashes should not be measured, but should be approximately the same. Draw dashed lines manually by estimating the dash length and spacing. It takes practice to manually draw dashed lines. Recommended leads for manual drafting are a 0.5-mm automatic pencil with 2H or H lead, or a sharp mechanical pencil with 4H, 2H, or H lead. Examples of dashed-line representations include beams shown in Figure 6-3, headers shown in Figure 6-4, and upper kitchen cabinets, dishwasher, and electrical circuit runs as shown in Figure 6-5. These concepts are discussed again throughout this textbook as used with specific applications. Extension and Dimension Lines Extension lines show the extent of a dimension. Dimension lines show the length of the dimension and terminate at the related extension lines with slashes, 4 X 12 BEAM DASHED LINE BEAM FIGURE 63 Dashed line beam representation. 4 X 14 HDR. DASHED LINE HEADER FIGURE 64 Dashed line header representation. DASHED LINE DISHWASHER DASHED LINE UPPER CABINETS DASHED LINE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT RUN FIGURE 65 Dashed lines for upper kitchen cabinets, dishwasher, and electrical circuit runs. arrowheads, or dots. The dimension numeral in feet and inches, or millimeters, is generally placed above and near the center of the dimension line. Extension lines generally start a short distance, such as 1/16" (1.5 mm) away from the feature being dimensioned and typically run 1/8" (3 mm) beyond the last dimension line. When you are dimensioning to a feature such as the center of a window, the center line becomes an extension line. Figure 6-6 shows several extension and dimension lines. Further discussion and examples are provided in later chapters. Extension and dimension lines are generally thin, dark, crisp lines that can be drawn with a sharp mechanical pencil or 0.5-mm automatic pencil using 4H, 2H, or H lead, depending on the amount of pressure you use. Leader Lines Leader lines are also thin, dark, crisp lines. These lines are used to connect notes to related features Chapter 6: Architectural Lines and Lettering 91 DIMENSION LINE 10'-0" EXTENSION LINE 5'-0" 5'-0" 1/8 45° CENTER-LINE EXTENSION LINE FREEHAND SLASH ALL IN THE SAME DIRECTION 10'-0" 5'-0" 1/8" A THICK SLASH IS COMMON ON MANY MANUAL AND CADD DRAWINGS SOME COMPANIES USE A DOT TO END DIMENSION LINES TO 3/16" 5'-0" 1/16 FREEHAND ARROWHEAD CADD ARROWHEADS MAY BE FILLED OR UNFILLED FIGURE 66 Extension and dimension lines. on a drawing. Leader lines can be drawn freehand or with an irregular curve. Do them freehand if you can do a good job, but use an irregular curve if they are not smooth. Confirm the preferred practice with your school or company standards. The leader should start from the vertical center at the beginning or end of a note and be terminated with an arrowhead at the feature. Some companies prefer that leaders be straight lines beginning with a short shoulder and angling to the feature. Figure 6-7 shows several examples. 2 X 6 PT SILL 1/2"o X 10" A.B. @ 6'–0" O.C. 8" X 16" CONC. FTG. 8" THICK FND. WALL ALL FIGURE 67 Sample leader lines. The style for leaders should be the same throughout the drawing. Break Lines Break lines are used, for example, to remove a portion of an object, to show a partial view, or to shorten a long object. Break lines are also used to terminate features on a drawing when the extent of the feature has been clearly defined. Two types of break lines can be used in architectural drafting: the long break line and the short break line. The long break line is normally associated with architectural drafting, and uses a break symbol that is generally drawn freehand. Figure 6-8A shows several examples. The short break line can be found on some architectural drawings. This line, as shown in Figure 6-8A, is an irregular line drawn freehand and is used for a short area. The short break line is less commonly used in architectural drafting than the long break line. Breaks in cylindrical objects such as steel bars and pipes are shown in Figure 6-8B. LINE TECHNIQUES For more information and instructions covering manual drafting techniques for drawing lines with pencil on vellum, polyester lead on polyester film, and inking on vellum and polyester film, refer to the Student CD: LINE TECHNIQUES. 92 Architectural Drafting and Design LONG BREAK LINE 1/3 R R LONG BREAK LINE ALTERNATE SYMMETRICAL ABOUT CENTER 1/2 R SHORT BREAK LINE NOT AS COMMON A R B FIGURE 68 (A) Solid break lines. (B) Cylindrical break lines. CADD APPLICATIONS Drawing Lines INTRODUCTION POINT ENTRY METHODS The process of specifying points to create and edit objects, such as locating line endpoints, is known as SINK 2'–0" W WASHER DRYER R 8'–0" 6" BACKK SPLASH ADJ. SHELVES L 3'–0" Drawing line segments is one of the simplest forms of CADD. To draw a line, first access the proper line tool or command. Typically, a line is drawn by specifying a start point and an endpoint. Both points are often known as endpoints. The line appears between the selected points. Usually the LINE command remains active, allowing you to create multiple connected single line segments. When finished, exit the LINE command or restart the command to draw other disconnected lines. Drawing lines using a LINE command represents the fundamental approach to creating computer-aided drawings, because a drawing is a grouping of lines and shapes. Figure 6-9, for example, shows an interior elevation drawing. If you look closely, you can see how the drawing consists of lines and different line types. As you learn more about CADD and specific CADD systems, you will become more familiar with the commands and options that allow you to create and modify complex objects without using individual line segments. 5'–3" 4 1'–10" UTILITY ELEVATION A FIGURE 69 An example of a utility room interior elevation. The drawing consists of lines assigned specific line types, created using LINE and OBJECT commands. point entry. A common traditional method of point entry relies on the Cartesian coordinate system, also referred to as rectangular coordinates. This system is based on Chapter 6: Architectural Lines and Lettering 93 CADD APPLICATIONS establishing points at a given distance from the x, y, and z axes. For two-dimensional drafting applications, objects are drawn on the x,y plane and use horizontal x and vertical y coordinates. Three-dimensional drawings make use of the z axis and require x, y, and z coordinate entry. The intersection of the axes is called the origin. This is where x = 0, y = 0, and z = 0, or the 0,0,0 coordinate is located. Absolute coordinate entry uses the exact coordinates from the origin to locate points. Figure 6-10 shows the two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. In this example, two lines have been drawn by entering the absolute coordinate 2,1 followed by 2,4 and finally 4,4. The z axis usually requires no consideration when preparing two-dimensional drawings. The actual entry technique varies depending on the CADD system and work environment settings. For example, typing 2,1 or #2,1 may be necessary to enter an absolute coordinate two units right and one unit up from the origin. Figure 6-10 shows how the Cartesian coordinate system is divided into quadrants. Positive and negative values specify coordinates from the origin in each quadrant. Generally, the origin is in the lower left corner of the drawing area to allow for drawing in the upper right quadrant, using positive x,y coordinates. The drawing area is often infinite in size, though drawing limits, or the specified drawing area, can be set to create a virtual drawing area according to sheet size and drawing scale. Depending on the CADD program, many point entry methods exist for placing objects, such as the endpoints of lines. Absolute coordinate entry, as well as relative, and polar coordinate entry are common. Relative coordinate entry is used when points are located at a specified – ,y –x distance on the x and y axis from the previous point. For example, when using relative coordinate entry, and the first point is located at 2,2 from the origin, the next point is 2 units directly above the first point by entering @0,2. In this example, the @ symbol indicates from the previous point. Polar coordinate entry is used when points are located from the previous point at a specified distance and angle. For example, when using polar coordinate entry, and the first point is located at 2,2 from the origin, the next point is 2 units directly above the first point by entering @2<90. In this example, the @ symbol indicates from the previous point and the < symbol establishes the polar relationship. The relative and polar coordinate entry symbols used here are for AutoCAD applications. Other CADD systems use similar or different entry methods. The most basic point entry technique is to pick points using the cursor, which can appear as a crosshair, arrow, wand, or point. Often, coordinates appear on-screen as you move the cursor to various positions. This is known as the coordinate display, and it constantly identifies where the cursor is located relative to the origin or to the previous point, as desired. Picking a point using the screen cursor can be an accurate method of point entry when specific tools or options are used to aid precise point selection. AutoCAD Snap Mode, Ortho Mode, and Polar Tracking are examples of options that help position the cursor at designated increments, and specified coordinates and angles. Other AutoCAD functions, such as Object Snaps and Object Snap Tracking, allow you to pick or reference points on existing objects. Some tools allow you to enter the length of the line and angle at which the line is drawn, significantly reducing the need to consider and identify exact coordinates. Figure 6-11 shows how a combination of drawing aids can be used to draw a 4" long line to the midpoint and perpendicular to an existing line. x,y 2,4 4,4 START P POINT AT THE MID DPOINT ENTER AN ALTERNATIVE ANGLE 2,1 ENDPOINT PERPENDICULAR TO AND 4" FROM THE MIDPOINT ORIGIN 0,0 – ,–y –x – x,–y – FIGURE 610 Using absolute coordinates and the Cartesian coordinate system to locate line endpoints. LENGTH AND DIRECTION OF CURRENT LINE ENTER THE LENGTH OF THE LINE FIGURE 611 An example of using drawing aids to precisely size and locate a line. 94 Architectural Drafting and Design CADD APPLICATIONS ASSIGNING LINE FORMAT In most situations, unique line formats are used when preparing computer-aided drawings. Many systems, such as AutoCAD layers, allow you to define the name, color, line type, line weight (thickness), and display characteristics for each line type and object. For example, a line format used to draw a door on a floor plan using visible object lines might be named Doors or A-DOOR, use a blue color, use a solid (continuous) line type, and have a thickness of .014" (0.35 mm). A line format used to draw an upper cabinet on a floor plan that uses hidden lines might be named Upper Cabinets, A-CSWK-UPPR, or A-FLOR-CSWK-UPPR, use a red color, use a dashed or hidden line type, and have a thickness of .014" (0.35 mm). Example Figure 6-12 shows a variety of single line segments drawn using CADD. The ability to use systems, such as layers, is a major advantage to CADD. The line used to represent underground natural gas lines in Figure 6-12 highlights the advantage. This complex line, complete with text and a specific line weight, would be very time consuming and less accurate if drawn manually. Different line configurations can be set before or after lines are drawn, though it is good practice to set the line format before you begin drafting. All lines drawn after you choose a specific format use that format’s characteristics. You must select a different line format each time you draw a different type of object. Still, you can modify the properties of an existing line using a variety of editing tools. ■ Purpose Name Line Type Dimensions A-ANNO-DIMS Continuous 0.3 mm Line Weight Borders and title blocks A-ANNO-TTBL Continuous 0.7 mm Doors A-DOOR Continuous 0.5 mm Underground natural gas lines A-NGAS-UNDR GAS_LINE 0.5 mm Property lines A-PROP PHANTOM 0.7 mm Upper cabinets A-FLOR-WDWK-DASH DASHED 0.5 mm FIGURE 612 Examples of common computer-aided drafting line formats. LETTERING Information on drawings that cannot be represented graphically by lines can be presented by lettered dimensions, notes, and titles. It is extremely important that these lettered items be exact, reliable, and entirely legible in order for the user to have confidence in them and never have any uncertainty as to their meaning. Poor lettering can ruin an otherwise good drawing. The following is basic terminology commonly associated with lettering: ● Composition refers to the spacing, layout, and appearance of the lettering. ● Justify means to align the text. Several lines of text that are left-justified are aligned along the left side, for example. ● Lettering is the term used to describe the traditional handmade letters and numbers on a drawing. ● Text is the term for lettering that is done using CADD. The term annotation is commonly used in architectural CADD applications to refer to any text, notes, dimensions, and text symbols on a drawing. ● A font is a complete assortment of any one size and style of lettering or text. ● Text style is a set of text characters, such as font, height, width, and angle. Lettering and text used on mechanical drafting for manufacturing follow very strict guidelines recommended by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). Architectural lettering and text requirements follow less strict principles, but have developed as an artistic style that is commonly used by architects, architectural designers, and drafters. Chapter 6: Architectural Lines and Lettering 95 A E F H I K L M N T VW X Y Z & BCDG J O PQR S U 123456 78 3 1 – 3/4 – 9 0 1/2 2 4 FIGURE 613 Vertical straight element letters, curved element letters, numerals, and fractions. Single-Stroke Lettering The standard lettering that has been used for generations by drafters is called vertical single-stroke letters. The term single stroke comes from the fact that each letter is created by single straight or curved line elements that make it easy to draw and clear to read. There are uppercase and lowercase letters, although the industry has traditionally used uppercase lettering. Figure 6-13 shows the recommended strokes used to form architectural letters and numbers. Architectural lettering styles can vary, but there are similarities. Figure 6-14 shows typical architectural lettering. As a beginning drafter, you should be conservative in the style you use to create architectural letters. Too much flair causes unnatural lettering. One important point regarding lettering technique is to make letters consistent. Do not make a letter one way one time and another way the next time. Also, keep letters vertical and always use guidelines. Entry-level drafters should pay particular attention to match the style used at the architectural firm where they are employed. A professional FIGURE 614 Examples of architectural lettering. 96 FIGURE 615 Slanted letters (uppercase) and numerals. drafter should be able to letter rapidly with clarity and neatness. Slanted Lettering Most architectural drafting is done using vertical uppercase lettering and text, but some companies prefer slanted lettering. These letters slant to the right with an angle of 68° from horizontal. Structural drafting is one field where slanted lettering is commonly found. Uppercase slanted lettering is generally used for water feature names in mapping, such as streams, rivers, lakes, and oceans. Figure 6-15 shows typical slanted uppercase letters and numerals. Lettering Height Minimum lettering height should be 1/8" (3 mm). Some companies use 5/32" (4 mm). All dimension numerals, notes, and other lettered information should be the same height except for titles, drawing numbers, and other captions. Titles and subtitles, for example, can be 3/16" or 1/4" (4 or 6 mm) high. The height of numbers in fractions should be the same height as the other lettering associated with the fraction. The fraction bar can be placed horizontally at mid height of the whole numbers, or it can be placed diagonally. It is common for the fraction bar to be placed horizontally when used with dimension values and notes, but titles often use diagonal fraction bars. The exact practice depends on the preference of the architectural office. Some offices allow fraction numbers to be smaller than the other lettering, but for best readability, this is not preferred. Verify the specific requirements with your instructor or employer. Lettering Legibility Lettering should be dark, crisp, and sharp so it provides excellent reproduction quality. The composition of letters in words and the space between words in sentences should be such that the individual letters are uniformly spaced, with approximately equal background areas. Architectural Drafting and Design To achieve uniform spacing usually requires that letters such as I, N, or S be spaced slightly farther apart than L, A, or W. A minimum recommended space between letters is approximately 1/16" (1.5 mm). The space between words in a note or title should be about the same as the height of the letters. Notes should be lettered horizontally on a sheet. In some cases where space or format requires, notes can be lettered vertically so they read from the right side of the sheet. You should confirm if this is acceptable with your instructor or drafting manager. When lettering notes, sentences, or dimensions requiring more than one line, the vertical space between the lines should be a minimum of one-half the height of the letters. The maximum recommended space between lines of lettering is equal to the height of the letters. Some companies prefer to use the minimum space to conserve space, while other companies prefer the maximum space for added clarity. Some companies choose to exceed the maximum space between lines by using twice the height of letters between separate notes. Rules for Lettering and Text Numeral Applications The following outlines basic rules for placing inch and metric unit values on drawings in dimensions, notes, and specifications: ● Foot units are followed by the foot symbol ('), and inch units are followed by the inch symbol ("). ● Inches and fractions are used for values less than 12 inches, as in 6". Numerals are given in feet and inches for values equal to or over 12". A dash separates the feet and inch values, for example 8'–6". ● Metric values in architectural drafting are generally in millimeters; the abbreviation “mm” is not used when all the values are in metric. ● When metric values are used on a predominantly foot and inch drawing, the millimeter abbreviation symbol (mm) follows the metric value. ● Metric unit names are lowercase, except those resulting from proper names, for example, millimeter, meter, kilogram, Kelvin, Newton, and Pascal. ● Use vertical text for unit abbreviations. Use lowercase text, such as mm (millimeter), m (meter), and kg (kilogram), unless the unit name is derived from a proper name, as in K (Kelvin), N (Newton), or Pa (Pascal). ● Leave a space between a numeral and an abbreviation, for example, 55 kg, 24 m, 455 Hz. Chapter 6: Architectural Lines and Lettering ● Do not leave a space between a unit abbreviation and its prefix, for example, use kg, not k g. ● Do not use plural unit symbols, for example, use 5 kg, not 5 kgs. ● Use the plural of spelled-out metric measurements, for example, 125 meters. Use either names or symbols for units; do not mix them. Symbols are preferred on drawings. ● Millimeters (mm) are assumed on architectural drawings unless something else is specified. 97 HINTS FOR PROFESSIONAL LETTERING Refer to the Student CD: HINTS FOR PROFESSIONAL LETTERING, for more information on creating professional manual lettering, including making lettering guidelines, and lettering guideline templates. There is also a discussion covering the use of mechanical lettering equipment, lettering machines, and transfer lettering. CADD APPLICATION CADD Lettering The term annotation is commonly used in architectural CADD applications to refer to any text, notes, dimensions, and text symbols on a drawing. Adding annotation to a drawing is one of the most efficient and effective tasks associated with CADD. CADD eliminates the usually tedious task of freehand lettering. The process of placing text varies depending on the CADD system, the tools and commands used to generate the text, and the purpose of the text. Typically, adding text involves defining and selecting a text style, picking the text location, and typing characters using the keyboard. Some commands and options automatically add text to symbols and other drawing content. For example, dimensions used to describe the size and location of features automatically include text of dimension values when placed. Another example is a floor plan refrigerator symbol that when inserted, includes the text REFR as the abbreviation for refrigerator. TEXT STYLES Most CADD programs contain standard, or default, text styles. Default refers to any value maintained by the computer for a command or function that has variable settings. For example, the default text height might be 1/8" (3 mm), but can be changed. Though the default text style can be used to add text, a new or modified style can be more appropriate. CADD systems have multiple text options allowing you to create text styles based on the nature of the drawing and specified drafting standards. Font, height, width, and slant angle are a few of the characteristics applied to text. Figure 6-16 shows examples of CADD text styles assigned specific fonts. Most CADD programs include, or allow you to add, text fonts that resemble quality freehand architectural lettering. AutoCAD, for example, includes the CityBlueprint, CountryBlueprint, and Stylus BT fonts. These architectural fonts allow computer-aided drawings to have the artistic flair often desired in architectural drafting. The examples shown in Figure 6-16C and Figure 6-16D use an architectural text style with fonts that closely duplicate the artistry of freehand architectural lettering. Many architects and architectural drafters have adopted a less artistic style with a more computergenerated appearance. The U.S. National CAD Standard recommends using uppercase text that is proportional and nonstylized. The standard suggests a SanSerif or similar font (see Figure 6-16E). A basic uniform font such as RomanS is another alternative (see Figure 6-16F). These fonts are very clear and easy to read, and can eliminate misunderstanding, which occasionally results from the use of a more architectural appearing font. DRAWING SCALE FACTOR Depending on the CADD program, objects should be drawn full size, or full scale. This is a benefit to using CADD because you can draw according to the actual size of objects, without considering the scale factor. However, scale factor becomes an issue when adding text and other annotations. To help understand the concept of drawing scale, look at the kitchen floor plan shown in Figure 6-17. All objects, such as the walls, cabinets, and appliances are drawn full scale. This means that the sink, for example, is actually drawn 2' long. However, text that is drawn at full scale, 1/8" high for example, is extremely small compared to the other fullscale objects (see Figure 6-17A). As a result, you must adjust the text height according to the drawing scale, as shown in Figure 6-17B. Some CADD programs require you to increase the size of, or scale, text according to the drawing scale. For example, in order for text on a final drawing, plotted at a scale of 1/4" = 1'−0", to be 1/8" high, you must use a text height of 6". Six inches at this scale is actually 1/8". The scale factor establishes the relationship between 98 Architectural Drafting and Design CADD APPLICATIONS Arial font A Times font B CountryBlueprint font C Stylus BT font D SanSerif font E RomanS font F FIGURE 616 (A) Arial font. (B) Times font. Architectural text styles with fonts that closely duplicate the artistry of freehand architectural lettering can be seen in (C) CountryBlueprint and (D) StylusBT. (E ) The U.S. National CAD Standard recommends using uppercase, proportional, nonstylized text, such as the SanSerif shown here. (F ) A basic uniform font such as RomanS is another alternative. Chapter 6: Architectural Lines and Lettering 99 CADD APPLICATIONS 9'–5" 12'–7" REFR A 9'–11'5" B FIGURE 617 An example of a kitchen floor plan drawn to scale. (A) If text is drawn full scale, the text is too small compared to the large objects. (B) The text must be scaled in order to appear and be plotted correctly. the drawing scale and the desired text height. An architectural drawing to be plotted at a 1/4" = 1'−0" scale has a scale factor of 48, calculated as follows: 1/4" = 1'−0" (1/4" = 0.25") 0.25" = 12" 12/0.25 = 48 Other CADD programs automate the process of scaling text, and certain other objects, reducing the need for you to calculate the scale factor. AutoCAD Annotative Object tools, for example, allow you to select an annotation scale, which is the same as the drawing scale. Then, when you create text that uses an annotative text style, the text height adjusts according to the appropriate drawing scale text height. For example, in order for text on a final drawing, plotted at a scale of 1/4" = 1'−0", to be 1/8" high, you set an annotation scale of 1/4" = 1'−0". Then you draw the text using a text height of 1/8", ignoring the drawing scale. The 1/8" high text is scaled to 6" automatically, because of the preset 1/4" = 1'−0" annotation scale. Changing the annotation scale automatically updates the height of text according to the new scale. ADDING TEXT TO A DRAWING In some ways, the practice of adding text to an architectural drawing has not changed from manual drafting to CADD. You still must decide how the text should look, and where the text is to be located. The actual process of adding text is, however, quite different from freehand lettering. Depending on the CADD program, tools and commands are available to place a basic single line of text, paragraphs with extensive formatting, and objects that include text. Figure 6-18 shows an example of a single word created using a basic text command. To add this text to a drawing, once you access the command, you typically use point entry to specify the location for the text. Text is justified to control where the text occurs from the selected start point. Justified means to align the text. Several lines of text that are left-justified are aligned along the left side, for example. 100 Architectural Drafting and Design CADD APPLICATIONS TOP CENTER MIDDLE CENTER TOP RIGHT TOP LEFT MIDDLE RIGHT MIDDLE LEFT LEFT RIGHT BOTTOM LEFT BOTTOM CENTER CENTER BOTTOM RIGHT FIGURE 618 Some common justification options used to locate and position text. be familiar. These types of commands are especially useful in architectural drafting where an entire sheet can consist of notes and specifications. Other commands allow you to place text with objects such as the window schedule, shown in Figure 6-19B, created using a table command. Another example is the dimension shown in Figure 6-19C, created using a dimension command. In this example, lines, symbols, the dimension value, offsets, and all other dimension properties are drawn using a single dimension command. ■ 5'–5" Common justification options are shown in Figure 6-18. Justification is critical for accurately placing text. For example, use middle-center justification to place text in the center of a circle. You also have the option of rotating or further adjusting the text before it is actually created. Figure 6-19 shows examples of other text objects created using specific CADD commands. Some text commands, such as the command used to create the list of notes shown in Figure 6-19A, function much like word processing programs with which you may already A B C FIGURE 619 (A) A list of notes created using a word processing command. (B) A window schedule created using a table command. (C) A dimension placed using a specialized dimension command. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES See CD for more information The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you find information related to drafting standards. Address www.aia.org www.ansi.org Company, Product, or Service American Institute of Architects American National Standards Institute Chapter 6: Architectural Lines and Lettering 101 Architectural Lines and Lettering Test See CD for more information QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. Question 6–17 What are the minimum recommended lettering heights? 1. Letter your name, Chapter 6 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines. Question 6–19 What is the recommended space between words in a note? Question 6–1 Is there any recommended variation in line darkness, or are all properly drawn lines the same darkness? Question 6–2 What are construction lines used for, and how should they be drawn? Question 6–3 Discuss line uniformity and line contrast. Question 6–4 Define guidelines. Question 6–5 What is the recommended thickness of outlines? Question 6–6 Identify two items that dashed lines represent on a drawing. Question 6–7 Describe a situation in which an extension line is also the center line of a feature. Question 6–8 Extension lines are thin lines that are used for what purpose? Question 6–9 Where should extension lines begin relative to the object and end relative to the last dimension line? Question 6–18 How should letters within words be spaced? Question 6–20 What is the recommended horizontal space between horizontal lines of lettering? Question 6–21 When should guidelines be used for lettering on a drawing? Question 6–22 Why are guidelines necessary for freehand lettering? Question 6–23 Describe the recommended leads and points used in mechanical and automatic pencils for freehand lettering. Question 6–24 Identify a method to help avoid smudging a drawing when lettering. Refer to the Student CD: LINE TECHNIQUES. Question 6–25 For lettering fractions, what is the recommended relationship of the fraction division line to the whole numbers on the same line? Question 6–26 List two manual methods that can be used to make guidelines rapidly. Refer to the Student CD: HINTS FOR PROFESSIONAL LETTERING. Question 6–10 Describe leaders. Question 6–27 Why should the mechanical lettering template be placed along a straightedge when lettering? Refer to the Student CD: HINTS FOR PROFESSIONAL LETTERING. Question 6–11 Describe and show an example of three methods used to terminate dimension lines at extension lines. Question 6–28 Identify an advantage of using lettering guides. Refer to the Student CD: HINTS FOR PROFESSIONAL LETTERING. Question 6–12 How does architectural line work differ from mechanical drafting line work? Question 6–29 Describe a use of lettering machines. Refer to the Student CD: HINTS FOR PROFESSIONAL LETTERING. Question 6–13 What is the advantage of drawing certain outlines thicker than other lines? Question 6–14 If all lines on a drawing are the same thickness, how can walls and partitions, for example, be represented so they stand out clearly on a floor plan? Question 6–15 Describe the proper technique to use for drawing lines with a technical pen. Refer to the Student CD: LINE TECHNIQUES. Question 6–16 Describe proper architectural lettering. Question 6–30 List four uses of transfer materials. Refer to the Student CD: HINTS FOR PROFESSIONAL LETTERING. Question 6–31 The Cartesian coordinate system is also called what? Question 6–32 What is the basis of the Cartesian coordinate system? Question 6–33 Where is the origin found in the Cartesian coordinate system? 102 Question 6–34 How are points in the absolute coordinate system located relative to the origin? Question 6–35 How is an absolute coordinate specified that is 4 units on the x axis and 3 units on the y axis? Question 6–36 Describe how relative coordinate points are located. Question 6–37 If the first point is located at 2,2, then how do you specify the next point, using relative coordinates, if it is to be 2 units directly above the first point? Question 6–38 Describe how polar coordinate points are located. Question 6–39 If the first point is located at 2,2, how do you specify the next point, using polar coordinates, if it is to be 2 units directly above the first point? Question 6–40 Explain how a CADD system might have commands and options that allow you to pick points accurately with the cursor. Question 6–41 What is the function of the coordinate display on a CADD system? Question 6–42 Define font. Question 6–43 Define annotation. Question 6–44 What does the term default mean when applied to CADD? Architectural Drafting and Design second drawing, make all lines the same thickness. Each drawing represents a line thickness technique discussed in this chapter. 5. Use guidelines for all lettering. Using architectural lettering, letter the title FLOOR PLAN; center it below the drawing in 1/4"-high letters. In 1/8"-high letters and centered below the title, letter the following: SCALE: 1/4" = 1'–0". Letter your name and all other notes and dimensions using 1/8" high architectural lettering. 6. Lightly lay out the drawing using construction lines. When you are satisfied with the layout, darken all lines. 7. For the lettering exercise, use 1/8" guidelines with 1/8" space between the lines. 8. Leave a 3/4" minimum margin around the lettering exercise sheet. 9. Make a diazo print or photocopy of your original drawings or lettering exercise sheet as specified by your instructor. 10. Submit your copies and originals for evaluation and grading, unless otherwise specified by your instructor. 11. Problems can be completed manually or with CADD, or both, depending on your specific course objectives and instructions. Confirm this with your instructor. Problem 6–1 Lines and lettering. Given the following information, draw the garage floor plan: 1. Overall dimensions are 24'−0" × 24'−0". Dimensions are measured to the outside of walls. 2. Make all walls 4" thick. Question 6–45 Explain the function of a template drawing. 3. Center a 16'−0" wide garage door in the front Question 6–46 What is another name for a template? 4. Using dashed lines, draw a 4 × 12 header over the Question 6–47 Discuss the purpose of drawing scale factors related to text height. garage door and label it 4 × 12 HEADER with a leader from the note and pointing to the header. Question 6–48 What drawing scale factor should be used if you want text 1/8" (3 mm) high on a drawing with a 1/4" = 1'−0" scale? Show your calculations. 5. Label the garage floor 4" CONC OVER 4" GRAVEL Question 6–49 Give at least three advantages of doing lettering with a CADD system. Question 6–50 Explain how it might be possible to have CADD text that looks like high-quality architectural freehand lettering. PROBLEMS DIRECTIONS: 1. Read all instructions carefully before you begin. 2. Use an 8 1/2" × 11" vellum or bond paper drawing sheet for each drawing or lettering exercise. 3. Use the architect’s scale of 1/4" = 1'–0" for each drawing. 4. Draw the floor plan described in Problem 6–1 twice. On the first drawing, use thick lines for the walls and thin lines for extension, dimension, and symbol lines. On the wall. FILL. Use a leader. Problem 6–2 Lettering practice. Using uppercase architectural lettering with proper guidelines, letter the following statement as instructed: YOUR NAME MOST ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS THAT ARE NOT MADE WITH CADD EQUIPMENT ARE LETTERED USING VERTICAL FREEHAND LETTERING. THE QUALITY OF THE FREEHAND LETTERING GREATLY AFFECTS THE APPEARANCE OF THE ENTIRE DRAWING. MANY ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTERS LETTER WITH PENCIL ON VELLUM OR POLYESTER LEAD ON POLYESTER FILM. LETTERING IS COMMONLY DONE WITH A SOFT, SLIGHTLY ROUNDED LEAD IN A MECHANICAL PENCIL OR A 0.5MILLIMETER LEAD IN AN AUTOMATIC PENCIL. LETTERS ARE MADE BETWEEN VERY LIGHTLY DRAWN GUIDELINES. GUIDELINES ARE PARALLEL AND SPACED AT A DISTANCE EQUAL TO THE HEIGHT OF THE LETTERS. GUIDELINES ARE REQUIRED TO HELP KEEP ALL LETTERS THE SAME UNIFORM HEIGHT. THE SPACE BETWEEN LINES OF LETTERING MAY BE BETWEEN HALF TO EQUAL THE HEIGHT OF THE LETTERS. ALWAYS USE GUIDELINES WHEN LETTERING FREEHAND. LEARN TO RELAX SO THAT THE STROKES FOR EACH Chapter 6: Architectural Lines and Lettering 103 Problem 6–3 Given the partial floor plan shown for this problem, identify the line types labeled A through K. LETTER FLOW SMOOTHLY. WHEN YOUR HAND BECOMES TIRED, REST FOR A WHILE BEFORE BEGINNING AGAIN. 54'-0" 34'-0" 15'-6" 8'-0" 11'-9" 3'-0" 11'-0" 7'-6" B C 3'-9" A REFR STA ACK PLUMBING ST D RANGE W/ MICRO OVER OVER F E 7'-8" R&S 4x8 I 4x8 )2 (2 8 1'-3" X (2) 2 X 10 R&S 4 4'-2" 3' -8 " R 6X8 14 UPPER FLR OVER OVER 2'-4" 3'-4" X 6" J 6'-2" 10 1'-2"1'-8" 1'-10" 1'-10" 3'-6" UP CONC. FILLED HARD POST 5'-4" H 3'-8" 1'-10" 9'-6" G K CHAPTER 7 Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture I N T R O D U C T I O N In Chapter 3 you learned about the traditional manual drafting workstation with conveniences such as an adjustable drafting table and a drafting machine or parallel bar. Also available to enhance your speed and accuracy are automatic pencils, electric erasers, and templates of all kinds. As a professional drafter, designer, or architect, you may continue to see the traditional equipment in some offices. However, drafting is changing. The concepts and theories are the same, but the tools are different. Traditional manual drafting is rapidly converting to computer-aided design and drafting (CADD). CADD is now available in most drafting and architectural schools and is commonly used in architectural firms. Both acronyms CADD and CAD are commonly used to identify the use of computers in the drafting industry. CADD, as previously mentioned, refers to computer-aided design and drafting. CAD is the acronym for computer-aided design, but is often used as a reference to computer-aided drafting. Even as the computer waits for input, architectural designers continue to make sketches. The traditional method of making bubble drawings to determine a preliminary room arrangement continues to be a common practice. Designers still create sketches in an effort to establish design ideas. The computer can help in the design process, but individual creativity happens before the computer is turned on. The CADD system can perform a number of design functions in a manner that often exceeds expectations. Plan components, such as room arrangements, can be stored in a design file; this allows the designer to call on a series of these components and rearrange them in a new design. Another aid to design is that a given plan can be quickly reduced or enlarged in size, with all components remaining in proportion. One particular room can be changed while the rest of the design stays the same. The design capability of drawing layers allows the architect to prepare a preliminary layout on one layer while changing and rearranging components on another layer. Layers allow for details of a design or different drafting information to be separated. Layers are generally of different colors and have their own names. 104 Layers can be kept together, or individual layers can be turned on or off as needed. Creativity is enhanced with CADD, and the repetitive aspects of design are handled more effectively. For example, in the design of an apartment or condominium complex, an initial unit can be designed, and then any number of the same units can be attached to one another as desired, very quickly. Alternative designs, such as a reverse plan, can also be made. Some units can be expanded or reduced in size, or alternatives for bedrooms and baths can be implemented quickly. Architecture in education and business today uses a vast variety of design and drafting applications from the traditional manual drafting discussed in Chapter 3, to the most modern form of CADD explained in the next section. Most educational institutions and architectural firms have evolved to CADD. CADD is here to stay and will eventually be a part of every architectural school’s curriculum and every office’s operational practices. The next section gives you a look at the future of architecture. Innovative minds are always looking for better ways to be creative. What makes this the future is that eventually all schools and companies will be using CADD and those who want to use the full power and potential of CADD will be involved in applications of this type. ARCHITECTURAL CADD SOFTWARE PRODUCTS The following provides general information about a variety of CADD software manufacturer products. Much of the information is taken from the related Web sites. The information provided is intended as an introduction only. For more information, refer to the list of Web sites at the end of this chapter. This discussion is not intended to promote or endorse any of the products represented. Other CADD software products are available. Do an Internet search using keywords such as computer-aided drafting, computer-aided design, computer-aided design and drafting, CADD, architectural CADD, and CADD software to find additional products or more information about the products listed here. Chapter 7: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture Autodesk, Inc. Autodesk’s core product is AutoCAD. AutoCAD is a two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) drafting and design software product. AutoCAD LT software is a 2D drafting product. Autodesk products are available for industries such as building, infrastructure, manufacturing, media and entertainment, and wireless data. Autodesk has a variety of CADD software programs created for specific disciplines such as architectural, civil, electrical, and mechanical. The following provides a sample of the architectural, engineering, and construction products: AutoCAD Civil 3D software is used for civil engineering applications using a dynamic engineering model. AutoCAD Architecture provides the efficiency of real-world building objects, design, and documentation productivity for architects and architectural designers. AutoCAD Revit Architecture Suite software combined with AutoCAD or AutoCAD Architecture software gives the competitive advantage of building information modeling (BIM). Autodesk Revit platform for BIM is a complete architectural design and documentation solution supporting all phases of design and all the architectural drawings and schedules required for a building project. 105 SolidBuilder software package was created by contractors for contractors. Features include true 3D modeling, framing, complex roof generation, and working drawings. DetailPro makes detailing and drafting easy with a complete library of over 200 predrawn details. Each detail can also be customized and saved. DetailPro saves drafting time when used with SolidBuilder. BidBuilder estimating software is used to produce professional estimates, proposals, and bids for all types of construction projects, with an Excel-like interface that contains the power of a database. Digital Takeoff is on-screen takeoff software for contractors, builders, and remodelers. A takeoff is the quantity estimates and areas and footages taken from a drawing. Google Google SketchUp is available for download from the Google Web site and comes in two formats. Google SketchUp is a free download and allows you to create 3D models very quickly. Google SketchUp Pro is a premium version and includes all of the tools from the free version plus advanced settings for commercial use and interaction with other CADD programs. Refer to the CADD applications feature at the end of Chapter 5 for more information. Bentley Systems, Inc. Graphisoft Bentley Systems provides a wide range of software products for building areas such as plant, civil and geospatial, architecture, engineering, construction, and operations. MicroStation is Bentley’s key product for the design, construction, and operation applications. MicroStation PowerDraft is a professional CADD application used for production 2D/3D drafting and detailing. PowerDraft is used to create, edit, and manipulate drawings and models, and is completely integrated with all Bentley solutions. ProjectWise is an engineering project team collaboration system that is used to help teams improve quality, reduce rework, and meet project deadlines. Generative Design and Building Performance products are Bentley’s integrated multidisciplinary BIM software for architects, engineers, energy assessors, and other professionals to design, analyze, construct, and manage buildings of all types. Graphisoft is the manufacturer of the ArchiCAD Design/ Building Series, which is a set of tools for builders and residential designers. Graphisoft packages are based on open standards, allowing you to create data without recreation. A Graphisoft product called Virtual Building manages the full information cycle of buildings from concept through occupancy. The program contains information about building materials and characteristics. Virtual Building is a 3D digital database that tracks all elements that make up a building, allowing the designer to use items such as surface area and volume, thermal properties, room descriptions, costs, product information, and window, door, and finish schedules. Digital Canal Corporation Digital Canal provides home design software, with Building Blocks technology. This software allows you to create house and floor plan designs, and at any point in the process, you can take your Building Blocks design into SolidBuilder to utilize its powerful features. The SoftPlan Systems, Inc. SoftPlan Architectural Design software is a residential and light commercial CADD software package. SoftPlan allows you to create floor plans, cross sections, elevations, framing plans, detail drawings, and site plans. Drawings are assembled with features such as walls, windows, doors, and beams. SoftView takes the drawing created in SoftPlan and generates a 3D rendering of the model. You can also create photorealistic interior and exterior 3D renderings from any view. 106 Architectural Drafting and Design CADD APPLICATIONS The Future Is Here with CADD CADD software programs offer a wide variety of applications that make the design and drafting process efficient. Software is the program or instructions that run the computer. One example is a concept referred to as the Virtual Building. With regard to computer usage, the term virtual refers to something that appears to have the properties of a real or actual object or experience. The Virtual Building stores your work in a single building file where the information remains integrated, up-to-date, and easy to manage. Working from the Virtual Building file, you can create and modify buildings in 2D and 3D views and easily create sections, elevations, details, and other working drawings. Because the Virtual Building is integrated, changes are automatically updated in all views, saving time and reducing errors along the way. Architects and designers can share their work directly across a local network or the intranet and Internet. An intranet links computers within a company or organization; the Internet is a worldwide network of communication between computers. The Virtual Building allows coordination among the activities and elements of a project as shown in Figure 7-1: • Complete plans, sections, and elevations. • Architectural and structural details. • Window, door, and finish schedules with elevation and plan symbols. • Component lists with quality calculations for estimating and building management. • Photorealistic renderings for presentation and marketing. • Virtual reality (VR) to show clients or to display on a Web site. Virtual reality refers to a world that appears to be a real or actual world, having many of the properties of a real world. The VR world often appears and feels so real that it almost is real. This is where the computer is used to simulate environments, including the inside and outside of buildings; sound; and touch. • Walk-through or fly-through animation. Walk-through can be described as a camera in a computer program that is set up like a person walking through a building, around a building, or through a landscape. Fly-through is similar, but the camera is like a helicopter flying over the area. Fly-through is generally not used to describe a tour through a building. Walk-through or FIGURE 71 The Virtual Building covers every facet of the architectural process of communication and collaboration. ArchiCAD Images. Courtesy Graphisoft. Chapter 7: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture 107 CADD APPLICATIONS fly-through has the effect of a computer-generated movie in which the computer images represent the real architecture; or it is like a VR presentation in which the computer images turn or move as you turn your head in the desired direction. Realistic renderings, animations, and VR are excellent tools for PRODUCTIVITY WITH CADD Users agree that CADD increases drafting productivity over traditional manual drafting methods. Estimates range from two times to ten times productivity increase over manual drafting. In reality, any increase in productivity depends on the task, the system, and how quickly employees learn to use CADD. Productivity is also directly related to the amount of time a company has had CADD in use, and to employee acceptance experience with the technology. Most companies can expect more productivity after the users become comfortable with the capabilities of the equipment and software. For many duties, CADD does multiply productivity several times. This is especially true of repetitious and time-consuming tasks, which CADD performs much faster and more accurately than manual techniques. A great advantage of CADD is that it increases the time available to designers and drafters for creativity by reducing the time they spend on the actual preparation of drawings. A big increase in productivity over manual drafting is when drawings are revised. CADD makes the drawing revision process quick and easy. Some of the business tasks related to architectural design and drafting, such as analyzing construction costs, writing specifications, computing, taking materials inventories, scheduling time, and storing information, are also done better and faster on a computer. With some CADD systems, a designer can look at several design alternatives at one time. The drafter draws in layers; one layer can be the plan perimeter, the next layer fixtures, the next electrical, and the next dimensions and notes. Each layer appears in a different color for easy comparison. THE CADD WORKSTATION This content provides information covering the CADD hardware, ergonomics and ergonomic workstations, and positive work habits. Refer showing a client how a building will look inside and out. At this stage, design ideas can be created and changes made easily. • Sun studies for any location, date, and time. • Reference drawings for sharing within the company and for sharing with consultants in other companies. ■ to the Student CD: The CADD Workstation for more information on CADD hardware and the CADD work environment. USING CADD TEMPLATES A CADD template is a pattern of a standard or commonly used feature or features that is created once and then used on following drawings. A collection of symbols in a symbol library could be called a template. If you create a base drawing that contains standard components, values, settings, borders, and title blocks, it is referred to as a template drawing. Most schools and companies use template drawings. Template drawings save time and help produce consistency in the drawing process. Template Drawing Contents Template drawings should be stored in a common location that is accessible to everyone who needs them. This is often on a network computer. If you maintain your own templates, be sure they are stored in at least two different locations for safekeeping. Template drawings can and should be updated and added to periodically. When updating a template, it is important that you replace all old copies with the updated versions. Keep on file a variety of template drawings that contain settings for different drawing disciplines, drawing applications, and scales. Template drawings can contain, but are not limited to, the following items: ● Border and title block with standard title block text information completed if desired. ● Several named text styles with heights to match different scale drawings. ● Named dimension styles with values and settings for specific drawing scales. ● Named layers containing colors, line types, and line weights. 108 Architectural Drafting and Design ● Display settings for point styles, line styles, and line weights. ● User profiles containing display screen menu layouts, colors, fonts, and configuration. ● Drafting settings, such as object snaps, grid, snap, units, and limits. ● Section patterns (hatch) and scales. ● Plot styles and settings. architectural and civil drafting templates are based on appropriate architectural and civil drafting standards, including standards specified in the U.S. National CAD Standard. Template drawings on the Student CD include the following: Template File Application ARCHITECTURALUS.dwt Architectural draw- Architectural C size ings dimensioned Architectural D size in feet and inches. ARCHITECTURALMETRIC.dwt Architectural draw- Architectural A2 size ings dimensioned Architectural A1 size in metric units. CIVIL-US.dwt Civil drawings dimensioned in decimal inches. Civil C size CIVIL-METRIC.dwt Civil drawings dimensioned in metric units. Civil A2 size Using Template Drawings Template drawings help you create new drawings by referencing a base drawing that contains many of the standard items required for multiple drawing projects. Using template drawings is an easy process, and if a standard procedure is followed, creates a productive drawing session and ensures consistency in your drawings. Template drawings function and are used differently, depending on the CADD program. Many programs provide convenient tools for referencing stored drawing templates. This automates the traditional method of opening a template file and then saving a copy of the template file using the name of the new drawing. For example, AutoCAD software makes use of drawing template (.dwt) files. Other CADD programs have different but similar applications. Once you create a .dwt file containing standard drawing settings and objects, save the file in an easily accessible location and create backup copies. When you are ready to prepare a new drawing (.dwg) file, use the NEW command to reference an existing .dwg file. A new drawing file appears, with all the template file settings and contents. Use the SAVE command immediately to save the drawing in the appropriate project file location and with the desired name. The new drawing name is normally related to the drawing type or project. Confirm this with your school or company standards. You are now ready to begin work on the new drawing project. As you work, you may discover additional items that should be included in your template drawings. When using AutoCAD, for example, use the OPEN command to open a .dwt file. Then add content to the file as needed. Once you resave the file, the modified template is ready to use. This leads to greater productivity in future work. TEMPLATES DRAWINGS ON THE STUDENT CD The TEMPLATE DRAWING section of the Student CD contains several predefined templates that you can use to create drawings in accordance with correct architectural and civil drafting standards. The Layout Sheet Sizes Civil D size Civil A1 size U.S. NATIONAL CAD STANDARD In 1997, a group of agencies including the CADD/GIS Technology Center (CGTC), the American Institute of Architects (AIA), the Construction Specifications Institute (CSI), the U.S. Coast Guard, the Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association (SMACNA), and the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) came together to develop a single CADD standard for the United States, now referred to as the U.S. National CAD Standard (NCS). The NIBS Facility Information Council (FIC) facilitated the development of the NCS, and continues to support its advancement. The development groups have agreed to maintain, revise, and support the continued publication of the standard in cooperation with the NIBS NCS Project Committee. This cooperative agreement is unique in the architectural design, construction, and computer industries. The NCS is made up of three documents previously published by member organizations of the FIC and a report from the NIBS NCS Project Committee. The NCS Project Committee report describes how the documents are related, resolves discrepancies between the documents, and ensures the integration of previously independent parts of the document. The previously independent documents include: ● The American Institute of Architects (AIA) CAD Layer Guidelines. ● The Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) Uniform Drawing System, Modules 1–8. Refer to Chapter 8 of this textbook. ● The CSI Plotting Guidelines. Chapter 7: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture 109 Standards are very important in drafting. The purpose of the standard is to allow consistent and streamlined communication among owners, architects and designers, and construction teams. Use of the standard can result in reduced costs for developing and maintaining office standards and greater efficiency in the transfer of building design information from design to construction. The standard is not intended to be applied with any specific CAD software program, but AutoCAD and MicroStation were selected as the primary applications because of their popularity. UNIFORM DRAWING SYSTEM The Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) created the Uniform Drawing System (UDS) modules consisting of standards, guidelines, and other tools for organizing and presenting architectural information that is used for the planning, design, construction, and operation of facilities. The UDS was adopted by the U.S. National CAD Standard. The UDS modules are based on flexibility, consistency, and the linking of modules. UDS provides a framework for the creation of a facility model that is represented using drawings. The facility model is all information created that relates to a specific facility. Drawings store and catalog information that is distributed through the project cycle. A facility is a physical structure or group of structures, including site construction, serving one or more purposes. A project is a set of related activities taking place at a facility and can include planning, design and construction documents, consulting, purchasing, construction, and post-construction activities. The need for information contained within drawings is different for each phase of a facility or project cycle. Information in one cycle is normally the basis for developing new information for the next cycle. It is important for the drawings to be accurate and organized in a way that makes them easy to find and reuse. The project cycle is graphically presented in Figure 7-2. The basic content found in each UDS module is as follows: ● The Drawing Set Organization module covers drawing units, file naming, and sheet identification. Drawing set organization establishes standard discipline designators for each discipline, such as A for Architectural, and establishes the order of presentation of these disciplines within a drawing set. CADD systems use real-world units for drafting with feet and inches, feet and tenths of feet, and meters and millimeters as appropriate for the Occupancy & Use of Completed Project 5. Post- 1. Planning & Construction Activities Predesign Activities Facility Management Documents Operations & Maintenance Documents Project Planning Documents Marketing Materials Planning & Programming Documents Building and Site Assessment Project Identification & Acquisition 4. Construction Activities 2. Design Modifications Submittal Documents Record Documents Activities Construction 3. Procurement Activities Addenda Agency Approvals Bidding/Negotiation/Purchasing FIGURE 72 The project life cycle. Sketches, Diagrams, & Schematics Working Drawings Perspectives and Renderings Project Development 110 specific drawing. File naming and sheet identification standards are described in detail later. ● The Sheet Organization module establishes standards for sheet sizes in the metric, or International System of Units (SI), and the inch measurement systems. A graphic layout divides the sheet into the drawing area, the title block area, and note area. There is also a grid system for organizing drawing information on a sheet. The title block format includes content placement locations, but allows flexibility for company design. ● The Schedules module provides standard formats for schedules used in construction documents, and has an organizational system for identifying and filing schedules. UDS schedules are described in detail in Chapter 16, and specific discipline schedules, such as electrical and plumbing, are described in their related chapters. ● The Drafting Conventions module addresses standard practices used on drawings, such as drawing orientation, layout, symbols, material indications, line types, dimensions, drawing scale, diagrams, notation, and cross-referencing. ● The Terms and Abbreviations module provides standard terms and abbreviations used in construction documents and specifications. It provides consistent spelling and terminology, standardizes abbreviations, and notes common usage. ● The Symbols module addresses commonly used standard symbols, classifications, graphic representation, and organization in creating, understanding, and fulfilling the intent of construction documents. Standard symbols ensure clear and concise communication on drawings. ● ● Architectural Drafting and Design and the various drawing features on their own layers as shown in Figure 7-3. A building model is an electronic representation of a building, with elements graphically representing the building drawn with real-world size in their real-world units. Real-world size and real-world units refer to true size and full actual units. The sheet files bring the model files together to create the composite drawing, and include the border and title block (see Figure 7-3). CADD layers are covered in detail later in this chapter. Model File Names Model file names are established in a standard format based on the project code, the discipline designator, the model file type, and the user definable code. The project code is optional and is determined by the designer or architect. The project code can have up to 20 characters that are placed before the discipline designator. The discipline designator has two characters, with the second character being a hyphen (-). The first character of the discipline designator is one of the following: Discipline Designator General G Hazardous materials H Survey/Mapping V Geotechnical B Civil C The Notations module provides guidelines for note classification, format, components, and location, and includes the use of notes, terminology, and linking drawing notes to specifications. Landscape L Structural S Architectural A Interiors I The Code Conventions module identifies types of general regulatory information that should appear on drawings, locates code-related information in a set of drawings, and provides standard graphic conventions. This module can be a tool to speed up code review by designers and plan review authorities. Equipment Q Fire protection F Plumbing P MODEL AND SHEET FILE-NAMING STANDARDS The model files contain the individual elements that make up the final drawing of the building model, such as the walls, doors, windows, dimensions, Process D Mechanical M Electrical E Telecommunications T Resources R Other disciplines X Contractor/Shop drawings Z Operations O 2 3 4 5 6 REVISION NUMBER: 7 E E DATE: INITIALS -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Architectural AutoCAD 12 6 12 6 D D C C Chapter 7: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture 1 FRONT ELEVATION B 1'-0" 1'-0" 21'-9" 17'-3" 10'-0" 4'-0" 1'-6" 1'-6" 9'-0" 21'-0" 4'-0" 1'-0" B 1'-0" 9'-0" 17'-0" 4'-0" 10'-0" 21'-9" 17'-3" 10'-0" 2'-0" 1X8 TRIM BOARD 1X6 TRIM BOARD 12 6 CEDAR SHAKE ROOF 12 6 1X8 TRIM BOARD TOP PLATE TOP PLATE 1X6 HORIZ. LAP SIDING FLOOR LINE COPYRIGHT ” 5'-9" 7'-0" 9'-1" HEADER LINE 7'-0" 9'-1" HEADER LINE WRITTEN DIMENSIONS ON THESE DRAWINGS SHALL HAVE PRECEDENCE OVER SCALED DIMENSIONS. CONTACTOR SHALL ASSUME RESPONSIBILITY FOR ALL DIMENSIONS AND CONDITIONS ON THE JOB. 3D-DZYN MUST BE NOTIFIED AND CONSENT TO ANY VARIATION FROM DIMENSIONS SET FORTH HEREIN. ALL IDEAS, DESIGNS, AND PLANS SET FORTH IN THESE DOCUMENTS ARE THE ORIGINAL WORK-PRODUCT AND PROPERTY OF, AND OWNED BY 3D-DZYN. THESE DOCUMENTS ARE FOR A SPECIFIED PROJECT OF THE PURCHASOR, ANY REUSE OR REPRODUCTION OF SAID DOCUMENTS BY OTHER THAN 3D-DZYN IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED BY LAW WITHOUT THE WRITTEN PERMISSION OF 3DDZYN. 1X4 CORNER BOARDS 2003 1X8 TRIM BOARD FLOOR LINE HOUSE EXERCISE A REAR ELEVATION LEFT-SIDE ELEVATION - A RIGHT-SIDE ELEVATION FLOOR PLANS PROJECT NUMBER: ISSUED: DRAWN BY: CHECKED BY: FILENAME: RP2003-004 30APR03 RMP RMP A-FP01.DWG A2.01 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 FIGURE 73 The sheet file brings the model files together to create the composite drawing, and includes the border and title block. 111 112 Architectural Drafting and Design The model file type characterizes the type of drawing. The following are model file types: Code Description FP Floor plan SP Site plan DP Demolition plan QP Equipment plan XP Existing plan EL Elevation SC Section DT Detail SH Schedule 3D Isometric or 3D DG Diagram The last four characters are user-definable such as F1 for floor one. If all four characters are not used, the remaining spaces are filled with Xs, for example F1XX. An example complete model file name is PR2010AFPF1XX.dwg, where: ● PR2010 is the project code. ● A- is the discipline designator. ● FP is the model file type. ● F1XX is the user-definable code. ● .dwg is the AutoCAD drawing file extension. MicroStation files use .dgn. Design Web format files use .dwf. Drawing exchange files use .dxf. Detail File Names Detail files are a specific type of model file that can include plans, elevations, sections, and details. Detail files are placed on a sheet using sheet grid coordinates (see Figure 7-5 on page 115). Sheet grid coordinates are similar to zoning, described in Chapter 4. The coordinates are a system of numbers along the top and bottom margins and letters along the left and right margins, allowing a drawing to read like a road map. Detail file names are related to the sheet file where they are located. The identification of details includes the drawing area coordinate system, the sheet identification format, and a twopart reference bubble. A reference bubble is a symbol placed below the detail or section drawing used to designate the origin of details and sections. The first five characters of a detail file name are identical to the identification of the sheet file where the detail is found. This coordinates the detail file to the specific sheet. The sixth character is the hyphen. The seventh and eighth characters are used for the detail identification number. A-201-B3.dwg is an example of a file name, where: ● A-201 is the page where the detail is found. ● B3 are the sheet grid coordinates where the detail is found. This detail is located at the intersection of coordinates B across and 3 up or down. ● .dwg is the drawing file extension. ● B3/A-201 is the two-part reference bubble for this example detail. Refer to the following sheet identification discussion to learn how the detail file names relates to the sheet. Library and Text File Names Library files contain information for more than one project, such as a commonly used detail, schedule, text, database, symbol, border, and title block files. Library file naming should be grouped by building systems, assemblies, or usage for easy search reference. CSI MasterFormat and UniFormat numbers are used for organizing library files. Refer to Chapter 8 for a detailed discussion on the CSI system. The library file naming format includes three user-defined characters after the MasterFormat or UniFormat numbers, which are followed by a dot and the file extension, such as .dgn, .dwg, or .dxf. An example is 040519XXX.dwg where: ● 040519 is the MasterFormat numbering system for masonry anchorage and reinforcing. ● XXX is a user identification. ● .dwg is the file extension. Similar to library files, text files are notes that can be used on multiple projects, such as commonly used general notes, discipline-specific notes, sheet-specific notes, and standard symbol legends. An example text file name is E-001-D.txt where: ● E is the equipment category. ● 001 is the page where the note is found. ● D is services. ● .txt is the file extension that indicates this is a text file. Chapter 7: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture the sheet sequence number. For example, in the sheet reference number A-124: Sheet File Names The purpose of a sheet file is to prepare information for sheet setup. The format of the sheet file name should be uniform with the sheet identification format. SHEET IDENTIFICATION Designator General 0 Plans 1 Elevations 2 Sections 3 Large-scale views 4 Details 5 Schedules and diagrams 7 User-defined 3D ● A- represents the architectural discipline. ● 124 indicates that 12 is the total number of sheets and 4 is the specific sheet, such as sheet 4 of 12. FILE MANAGEMENT Sheet names are similar to file names, with the first one or two characters being the discipline designator. A level-one discipline designator uses one character. The list of discipline designators is in the Model File Names section earlier in this chapter. Level-two designators use two characters for specific applications, such as AD for “Architectural Demolition.” The discipline designator is followed by a sheet-type designator, which is one of the following numbers: Sheet Type 113 Computer operating systems provide a tool that allows you to create folders that are like the traditional file folders found in the office file cabinet. The operating system is a master program that controls a computer’s basic functions and allows other programs to access the computer’s resources such as the disk drive, printer, keyboard, and screen. Folders, also known as directories, on your computer allow you to store and organize computer files. Without folders, your hard drive can have thousands of separately named files that would make it difficult or impossible to control. Drawing and other construction document files are saved in project folders and subfolders and are identified by name or number. A subfolder is a folder placed inside another folder and contains files related to the folder in which it resides. Organizing Drawings and Construction Documents 7 and 8 9 The sheet-type designator is followed by a twocharacter sheet sequence number, for example, 02-12. Three more characters can be added for user-definable content. A sample sheet name is PR2004AD102XXX.dwg, where: ● PR2004 is the project code. ● AD is the level-two discipline designator, Architectural Demolition. ● 1 is the sheet type. ● 02XXX is the sheet sequence number and userdefinable characters. ● .dwg is the AutoCAD file extension (.dgn for a MicroStation file). The sheet identifier is located in the title block and in any reference to the sheet on a drawing. Coordinating between the sheet name and the sheet identifier are the discipline designator, sheet-type designator, and Drawing and construction document files must be organized, so you or anyone else in the office can easily find a drawing or document when needed. When organizing files, create a project folder that contains subfolders for each of the projects. The subfolders can be named for the project, client, or job number. The files in each project subfolder can include drawing files, word processing documents, and spreadsheets as needed. This helps keep the entire project together, making it easier to manage. Figure 7-4 shows a file structure for organizing drawing files. SHEET ORGANIZATION The NCS Sheet Organization module provides standards for consistent sheet format and a location system for drawings on a sheet; it also establishes guidelines for sheet management, note placement, and title block content. Sheet organization standards are important, because they improve communication among industry professionals, improve drawing quality control, make data management easier, and establish consistent sheet organization appearance. 114 Architectural Drafting and Design ● Project identification block: Project name and location. ● Sheet identification block: The sheet identifier. Root Folder C: Projects Sheet Sizes .dwg files Duplex Movie Theater .dwg files .dwg files RP99-01 .dwg files RP99-02 .dwg files RP99-03 .dwg files RP99-04 Recommended ANSI and ISO sheet sizes were discussed in Chapter 4. The ANSI standard sheet sizes are generally used for inch drawings and the ISO sheet sizes are used for metric drawings. Although the NCS does not recommend specific sheet sizes, U.S. government agencies often require ANSI sheet sizes. Sheet Layout Sheets are divided into three main areas: drawing area, title block area, and production data area. The drawing area and title block area are required, but the production data area is optional. The drawing and title block areas are surrounded by border lines to outline and separate the areas. Sheet margins are the spaces between the edge of the sheet and the sheet area. The sheet margins vary depending on plotter capabilities, sheet size, and sheet area dimensions. The following are the recommended minimum sheet margins: ● .dwg files RP00-01 .dwg files RP00-02 FIGURE 74 A file structure for organizing drawing files. Sheet Sizes, Borders, and Title Blocks Sheet sizes, borders, and title blocks were discussed and shown in Chapter 4. The standard recommends that title blocks be placed vertically along the right side of the sheet and contain the following compartments: ● Designer identification block: The logo or name of the agency or company. ● Issue block: Revision area or addenda. ● Management block: Information about the designer, checker, and drafter. Top and bottom margin: 3/4 inch (20 mm). ● Left margin: 1 1/2 inch (40 mm). ● Right margin: 3/4 inch (20 mm). The Drawing Area Coordinate System The drawing area coordinate system was introduced in Chapter 4 with the discussion about zoning, and again earlier in this chapter. Sheet grid coordinates are like zoning, which is a system of numbers along the top and bottom margins, and letters along the left and right margins, allowing a drawing to read like a road map. A goal of drawing layout is to organize drawing areas in columns and rows. Columns are identified with numerical characters starting with 1 and increasing to the right. Rows are identified with alphabetical characters beginning at the bottom starting with A and increasing toward the top of the sheet. Each drawing module is identified by a letter and a number, such as A1. Each drawing module is identified based on the lower left corner location as shown in Figure 7-5. Notice in Figure 7-5 that the drawing block labeled A1 actually occupies several portions of the coordinate system, but is identified by its location in the lower left corner of the grid. A drawing can have one or more drawing area modules. Chapter 7: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture FIGURE 75 The drawing area coordinate system. Columns are identified with numerical characters starting with 1 and increasing to the right. Rows are identified with alphabetical characters beginning at the bottom starting with A and increasing toward the top of the sheet. Each drawing module is identified by a letter and a number based on the lower left corner location, such as A1. The note block is located in the far right column of the drawing area. 115 116 The Note Block The note block is the module or modules within the drawing area where keynotes, general notes, and key plans are located. The note block is reserved for sheets that have notes. The note block is located in the far right column of the drawing area. A key plan block, when used, should always be located in the lowest module of the note block (see Figure 7-5). SCHEDULES A schedule is a grouping of related features or applications. Schedules format information in rows and columns to clearly provide design information. Schedules can be developed as computer-generated databases or spreadsheets, and can then be incorporated into drawings or specifications. Schedules can also have text and symbols or diagrams as needed. The NCS recommends schedules with uniform location, format, and information content for consistency and ease of use. Chapter 16 provides detailed information about the use of schedules and shows the recommended NCS schedule format options. Additional schedule information is provided where schedules apply to specific content, such as electrical and plumbing. DRAFTING CONVENTIONS The following content provides specific information about drafting conventions not covered in detail in other chapters. The information provided throughout this textbook relates to the NCS drafting conventions where appropriate. Drafting conventions provide a standard format for graphic and text content on drawings. The NCS drafting conventions include guidelines for consistent placement of drawings, consistent orientation of dimensions related to drawings, line representations, and drawing scales. The NCS considers floor plans as the basis of drawing documentation. Elevations, sections, and details are developed from floor plans. Drawing standards provide uniform guidelines for developing a set of construction drawings of consistent quality and by avoiding duplicate information. Drafting standards cover the drawing grid, north arrow, recommended scales, line types, material representation, and notes. Information covering these standards is provided throughout this text as related to specific applications. The orientation of the main floor plan establishes the orientation of all other floors. Floor plan orientation, the north symbol, and layout practices are described in detail in Chapter 18. Architectural Drafting and Design Drawing Scales The NCS defines scale as the ratio of measuring units expressing a proportional relationship between a drawing and the full-size item it represents. CADD drawings are created at full scale and plotted at the selected scale. Proper scale selection determines the readability of the drawing. The selected scale should be large enough to allow the drawing to display its graphic, dimensional, and textual content clearly, without crowding. For example, the detail of a windowsill can be drawn at a 3" = 1'−0" (1:5 metric) scale to clearly identify the features and dimensions. Scale selection is the responsibility of the designer or drafter. The example windowsill detail can be drawn using a smaller scale, if the drawing content is still easy to read and the features are clear. Some drawings have a specifically recommended scale, such as floor plans that are typically drawn using a 1/4" = 1'−0" (1:50 metric) scale. Scale can be expressed numerically and graphically. All drawings or views should indicate the numeric scale, such as 1/4" = 1'−0" (1:50 metric). All drawings that may be reduced or enlarged should include numeric and graphic scales, because the scale of the reduced or enlarged drawing is no longer accurate. A graphic scale is like a small ruler that represents the numeric scale. The divisions on the graphic scale represent increments of measure that can be easily applied to the drawing. The numeric and graphic scale, when used, is generally placed below the drawing title as shown in Figure 7-6. Drawing scales were introduced in Chapter 3, and they will be discussed in other chapters as related to specific content. Recommended drawing scales are also discussed in chapters where they relate to the application, and may differ from the usual standard. The following combines the standard recommended scales for a variety of drawing types in inches and metric: MAIN FLOOR PLAN SCALE: 1/4" = 1'–0" NUMERIC SCALE 0 1 2 GRAPHIC SCALE FIGURE 76 A drawing title with the numeric and graphic scales provided. 5 Chapter 7: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture Drawing Type Inch Scale Metric Scale Site plans 1" = 20" 1:200 1" = 30" 1:400 1" = 40" 1:500 1" = 50" 1:600 1" = 60" 1:700 1" = 100" 1:1000 1" = 200" 1:2000 1" = 400" 1:5000 1" = 500" 1:6000 1" = 1000" 1:10000 1" = 2000" 1:20000 1/4" = 1'−0" 1:50 1/8" = 1'−0" 1:100 1/4" = 1'−0" 1:50 1/8" = 1'−0" 1:100 1/4" = 1'−0" 1:50 1/8" = 1'−0" 1:100 1/4" = 1'−0" 1:50 1/8" = 1'−0" 1:100 1/4" = 1'−0" 1:50 1/8" = 1'−0" 1:100 1/2" = 1'−0" 1:25 3/4" = 1'−0" 1:15 1" = 1'−0" 1:10 1 1/2" = 1'−0" 1:8 1" = 1'−0" 1:10 1 1/2" = 1'−0" 1:8 3" = 1'−0" 1:5 Floor plans Roof plans Exterior elevations Interior elevations Full sections Wall sections Stair details Details 117 Thus, the terms line thickness and line weight are used interchangeably in CADD. A large variety of line weights are possible, and the standard recommends the following: Line Thickness Inches Millimeters Use Extra fine Thin 0.005 0.13 Fine detail. 0.007 0.18 Material patterns, section lines, hatch patterns. 0.010 0.25 Text: 3/32" to 3/8" (2.5 to 10 mm). Dimensioning features, phantom lines, hidden lines, center lines, long break lines, schedule grid lines, background objects. Medium 0.014 0.35 Object lines, property lines, text for notes and in schedules, terminator marks, door and window elevations, schedule grid accent lines. Wide 0.020 0.50 Line Weights Using a variety of line weights, or thicknesses, helps improve drawing clarity. Certain features can be drawn with thicker lines in an effort to make them stand out. Text: 7/32" to 3/8" (6 to 10 mm). Major object lines at elevation edges, cutting-plane lines, short break lines, title text, border lines. Extra wide 0.028 0.70 Text: 1/2" to 1" (13 to 25 mm). Minor title underlines, schedule outlines, large titles, special emphasis object lines, elevation and section grade lines, sheet borders, schedule borders. 2× wide 0.040 1.00 Major title underlines, separating portions of a drawing. 3× wide 0.055 1.40 Border lines, cover sheet lines, artwork. 4× wide 0.079 2.00 Border lines, cover sheet lines. CADD GRAPHICS Architectural drafting is a graphic language made up of features such as lines, symbols, and text. The NCS standard provides recommendations for these drawing elements. Text: 5/32" to 3/8" (4 to 10 mm). Companies can use the range of NCS-recommended line weights to provide accent to their drawings as desired, or select a few of the line weights that correlate best to their desired applications. This textbook recommends the following line weights, which are provided in the architectural templates found on the Student CD: 118 Architectural Drafting and Design Line Thickness Inches Millimeters Use Thin 0.010 0.25 Dimensioning features, phantom lines, hidden lines, center lines, long break lines, schedule grid lines, background objects. Medium 0.014 0.35 Object lines, text for dimension values, notes and in schedules, terminator marks, door and window elevations, schedule grid accent lines. Wide 0.020 0.50 Major object lines at elevation edges, cuttingplane lines, short break lines, title text, minor title underlines, border lines. Extra wide 0.028 0.70 Major title underlines, schedule outlines, large titles, special emphasis object lines, elevation and section grade lines, property lines, sheet borders, schedule borders. Line Types Chapter 6 and throughout this textbook as related to specific applications. Dimensioning Floor plan dimensioning is discussed in detail in Chapter 17. The dimensioning standards and practices for other applications are covered in the chapters where they correlate to the related content. Both feet and inches and metric units are covered and related to the standard. Terms and Abbreviations The NCS provides a complete listing of terms and abbreviations used in architectural design and drafting, and in the construction industry. The proper terms and abbreviations are provided throughout this text where they apply to specific content. Abbreviations should be used to save time and drawing space. Notes on Drawings Drawing notes are introduced and covered in Chapter 17, and notes for other applications are covered in the chapters where they correlate to the related content. The types of notes recommended by the standard are: A variety of line types are included in the standard. The commonly used line types are introduced and shown in Chapter 6, with examples of their applications. Additional line type examples are provided throughout this textbook as related to specific applications. ● Text Styles and Fonts Architectural CADD Symbols Text and text fonts are introduced and discussed in Chapter 6. The NCS recommends using uppercase text that is proportional and nonstylized. The standard suggests a SanSerif or similar font. Basic uniform fonts such as RomanS or Arial are alternative font styles. These fonts are very clear and easy to read, and can eliminate the possible misunderstanding of drawing content. CADD programs have a variety of fonts that comply with NCS recommendations. Although not recommended by the NCS, CADD programs have fonts that closely duplicate the artistic architectural style preferred by some companies. Refer to Chapter 6 for more information. Recommended text heights are also covered in CADD symbols are discussed and shown where they apply to specific content throughout this textbook. The standard provides a complete range of recommended symbols for all disciplines. The following is a list of the classification of symbols by type: General notes. ● General discipline notes. ● General sheet notes. ● Keynotes. ● Reference symbols. ● Line symbols. ● Identity symbols. ● Object symbols. ● Material symbols. ● Text symbols. Chapter 7: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture 119 CADD APPLICATION Architectural CADD Symbols INTRODUCTION Many companies have a manager who is responsible for setting up the architectural CADD system and standards. This person and the staff often create custom architectural CADD menus and symbol libraries. The systems generally include a custom screen and cursor, and pull-down, icon, and tablet menus. Every time a new symbol or drawing detail is made, it can be saved for future use. In this way, it is never necessary to draw anything more than once with CADD. For example, if a designer or drafter draws a structural detail, as shown in Figure 7-7, this detail is saved for future use. A copy of the symbol or detail is kept in a symbols manual, and information about it is recorded for future reference. Although every company saves symbols for future use, many companies purchase their own core architectural programs from a software developer. These are complete architectural CADD programs that are ready to use out of the box. These software programs provide commands for the design and layout of walls, symbols, stairs, roofs, structural grids, and plot plan symbols. Specific CADD demonstrations are provided in the CADD Applications features throughout this textbook. AutoCAD, for example, has a powerful drawing information manager called DesignCenter that allows you to effectively reuse and share drawing content. Drawing content is the variety of information in the drawing, such as layers, layouts, line types, text styles, and symbols. For example, you may want to add the same common details, sections, architectural symbols, and drawing layouts to numerous drawings. DesignCenter lets you conveniently access drawing 24" CEDAR SHAKES 1Ø" EXPOSED 1 X 2 TRIM OVER 2 X 8 VERGE BOARD RAFTERS 1'- Ø" 1/2" A-C EXT. T PLLYW'D SOFFIT TYP P. WALL FRAMING TYPICAL RAKE DETAIL SCALE = 3/4" = 1'- Ø" FIGURE 77 Drawing a structural detail on CADD and saving it for future use. Courtesy Piercy & Barclay Designers, Inc., CPBD. content and drag and drop it from one drawing to another. Drag and drop is accomplished by picking an item by positioning your cursor over it, pressing down on the pick button, and holding it down. Then, still holding down the pick button, drag the item to the desired location. Finally, release the pick button to add the information to the new area. A number of sample drawing files are installed with AutoCAD, and are available in the AutoCAD sample folders. The Sample and DesignCenter folders contain numerous different files, each with its own drawing content, such as architectural symbol blocks. The content in each sample file can be accessed in DesignCenter and dragged and dropped into your drawing. Additionally, other symbol libraries can be accessed through the DesignCenter Online Web page using the DesignCenter’s DC Online tab. The DesignCenter Online Web page allows you to download drafting symbols from manufacturers and catalogs online, which gives you access to a large number of architectural symbols. Online refers to communicating with other computers or with devices such as printers or file servers through your modem or network. In addition to DesignCenter, AutoCAD allows you to insert frequently used drawing content from custom storage spaces called tool palettes. Tool palettes are tabbed areas in the Tool Palettes window used to store symbols and hatch patterns for insertion into your drawings. You can create a number of tool palettes with customized settings. For example, you can store symbols with a variety of different scale settings and object properties. Symbols can easily be added to a tool palette from DesignCenter. Most advanced software programs allow drawings to be created as 2D or 3D and switched back and forth at any time. These packages also let you render and animate 3D models. These 2D and 3D characteristics are presented in CADD Applications features throughout this textbook. Architectural software programs typically have standard layer systems based on the American Institute of Architects (AIA) format, which is described later in this chapter. DRAWING ARCHITECTURAL SYMBOLS Symbols are drawn by selecting the desired symbol from a menu. For example, if an exterior door is to be drawn on a floor plan, the door symbol is selected from a menu, the door symbol is dragged onto the screen with the crosshairs, the door location is picked at the desired insertion point with the crosshairs, and the desired 120 Architectural Drafting and Design CADD APPLICATION rotation is specified. Each symbol has an established insertion point, as shown in Figure 7-8. Figure 7-9 shows an architectural floor plan, with text and its many lines and symbols, drawn using CADD. Additional CADD symbols are provided throughout this text where they apply to specific content. The U.S. National CAD Standard provides a full range of CADD-recommended symbols. CREATING YOUR OWN CADD SYMBOLS You can create your own CADD symbols if a customized architectural menu is not available. The symbols that you can make are called blocks, wblocks, or dynamic blocks in AutoCAD. You can design an entire group of symbols for inserting into architectural drawings. As you create these symbols, prepare a symbols library or catalog, where each symbol is represented for reference. The symbol catalog should include the symbol name, the insertion point, and other important information about the symbol. Blocks are symbols that can be used within a single drawing. Symbols that can be used in multiple drawings are wblocks. Dynamic blocks are symbols to which parameters and actions are assigned. A parameter is a value that defines custom properties, such as positions, distances, and angles for objects. An action is a definition that controls how the parameters of a dynamic block act. ■ DOOR WINDOW TUB WATER CLOSET LAVATORY SHOWER DOUBLE SINK SPA THIS SYMBOL DISPLAYS THE INSERTION POINT FIGURE 78 Insertion points for several architectural symbols. Using layers increases productivity in several ways: DRAWING ON CADD LAYERS Drawings are made in layers, each perfectly aligned with the others. Each layer contains its own independent information. Layers can be reproduced individually, in combination, or together as one composite drawing. Figure 7-10 shows how layers are used to share information among drawings. ● Each layer can be assigned a different color, line type, and line weight to correspond to line standards and to help improve clarity. ● Changes can be made to a layer easily, affecting all objects drawn on the layer. Chapter 7: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture 121 CADD APPLICATIONS FIGURE 79 Architectural floor plan with lines, symbols, and text, drawn using CADD. Courtesy Piercy & Barclay Designers, Inc., CPBD. ● Selected layers can be turned off or frozen to decrease the amount of information displayed on the screen or to speed screen regeneration. ● Each layer can be plotted, or printed, in a different color, line type, or line weight, or set not to plot at all. ● Specific information can be grouped on separate layers. For example, a floor plan can be drawn using specific floor plan layers, the electrical plan on electrical layers, and the plumbing plan on plumbing layers. ● Several plot sheets can be created from the same drawing file by controlling layer visibility to separate or combine drawing information. For example, a floor plan and electrical plan can be reproduced together and sent to an electrical contractor for a 122 Architectural Drafting and Design Floor Plan Drawing Consolidated CADD File Reflected Clg. Plan Drawing Three word phrase Labels Labels L to be is used used Label Three word phrase Labels L to be is used used Label Drawing Plans Drawing Plans 12" No measure lft. to rt. 7 ft. 48" 24" Company name Address of the local arch. office No measure to rt. 7 ft. 12" A–Z No measure to rt. 5 ft. Reflected Clg. Plan Walls Walls Walls Doors Doors Labels L to be is used used Label Three word phrase Labels Label Labels L to be is used used Drawing Plans No measure to rt. 7 ft. Label Label Drawing Plans No measure lft. to rt. 7 ft. 48" 24" Company name Address of the local arch. office 12" A–Z Floor Plan Notes, Dimensions 24" Company name Address of the local arch. office No measure lft. to rt. 7 ft. 48" No measure to rt. 7 ft. A–Z Floor Plan Notes, Dimensions Three word phrase Three word phrase Labels L to be is used used Labels L to be is used used Drawing Plans 12" No reason to measure this part 24" A–Z Ceiling Grid Three word phrase Labels Someones name No measure lft. to rt. 5 ft. 48" Floor Plan Ceiling Grid 12" No reason to measure this part 24" Someones name Drawing Plans No measure lft. to rt. 5 ft. 48" No measure to rt. 5 ft. 12" A–Z Clg. Plan Notes, Dimensions No reason to measure this part 24" Someones name No measure lft. to rt. 5 ft. 48" No measure to rt. 5 ft. A–Z Clg. Plan Notes, Dimensions FIGURE 710 An example of using layers to share information. bid. The floor plan and plumbing plan can be reproduced together and sent to a plumbing contractor. CADD Layer Names AIA recommends the use of layer names that contain two to four parts. Refer to the AIA Standard, CAD Layer Guidelines, or the U.S. National CAD Standard for complete information. The layer name format is organized as a series of ordered groupings. This organization allows you to select from a variety of options for naming layers according to the desired level of detailed information you want to provide. Layer names consist of separate groups of information, each separated by dashes (–). The AIA CAD Layer Guidelines and the NCS provide detailed lists of abbreviations, and codes for use in layer names. Layer abbreviations and codes are designed to be easily recognized and remembered as the intended application. Because the NCS allows you to select from a variety of format options for creating layer names, it is recommended that you select the desired options for a project, and then apply it consistently for all layer names on that project. The NCS-recommended layering system has a discipline designator, a major group, a minor group, and a status field of information in the layer names. The Discipline Designator The discipline designator is a two-character field identified by two letters followed by a hyphen. The first letter is called the level-one discipline designator, and the second letter is an optional modifier called the level-two discipline designator. There are many Chapter 7: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture discipline designator code combinations identified in the standards. These are the common level-one discipline designator code letters: 123 There are many level-two discipline designators identified in Appendix A of the AIA CAD Layer Guidelines and the NCS. Each level-one discipline designator has a variety of level-two options. The following are the leveltwo options for the A (architectural) discipline: Discipline Description A Architectural B Geotechnical C Civil D Process E Electrical F Fire protection G General H Hazardous materials I Interiors L Landscape M Mechanical O Operations The Major and Minor Groups P Plumbing Q Equipment R Resource S Structural T Telecommunications V Survey and mapping X Other disciplines Z Contractor and shop drawings The major group is a four-character field that identifies a major building system such as doors, windows, walls, ceilings, furniture, or equipment. In the recommended format, the major group is followed by a hyphen, and then the minor group is used. An optional four-character minor group field is used to further define the major groups. A minor group can be added to the layer name for further definition. Layers might have minor groups such as NOTE, SYMB for symbols, DIMS for dimensions, or TITLB for title block information. An example is AWALL-FULL, which refers to Architectural (A), Wall, Full-height (FULL). A second minor group can be used for further layer description. An example using a second minor group is, A-WALL-FULL TEXT, where the features mean Architectural (A), Wall, Full-height (FULL), Text. Minor group code abbreviations are logically grouped in the standard with specific major groups. However, any minor group can be used with any major group, but the definition of the minor group must remain unchanged. This provides you with flexibility, because any reasonable combination of the major and minor groups is permitted. The use of discipline designators can depend on the office where the drawings are created. For example, if an architectural office creates all of the drawings for a complete set of working drawings, then the A discipline designator can be used to indicate the origin of all drawings as architectural. A more likely example is where the architectural office creates the base drawings, such as the floor plan designs, and then sends the base drawings to consultants who create the discipline-specific drawings such as electrical, plumbing, and mechanical. The consulting offices then use the discipline designators that relate to their drawing disciplines, such as E for electrical, P for plumbing, and M for mechanical. This practice can also be used in the architectural office that creates all the drawings for the complete set of working drawings. In this case the office correlates each layer name with the discipline that the layer identifies, such as E for electrical, P for plumbing, and M for mechanical. The layer names identified throughout this textbook are coordinated by discipline as in the last two examples. Designator Description AD Architectural Demolition AE Architectural Elements AF Architectural Finishes AG Architectural Graphics AI Architectural Interiors AJ User-Defined AK User-Defined AS Architectural Site The Status Field The status field is an optional single-character field that identifies the information on the layer according to the status of the work or the construction phase of the project. These status entries are for special project requirements that relate to new and existing construction in remodeling projects. The following are the status field codes: 124 Architectural Drafting and Design Code Description Discipline Designator D Existing to demolish E Existing to remain F Future work M Items to be moved N New work T Temporary work X Not in contract 1–9 Phase numbers Major Group A A - W A L L Discipline Designator – Level 1 Discipline Designator – Level 2 Major Group B A D - W A L L FIGURE 711 Examples of the U.S. National CAD Standard layer name format. (A) The required discipline designator and major group fields. (B) The required level-one discipline designator and major group fields, with the optional level-two discipline designator. Combining the Layer Name Elements Figure 7-11 shows examples of the U.S. National CAD Standard layer name format with the discipline designator and major group. Figure 7-12 shows examples of the U.S. National CAD Standard layer name format from discipline designator to status code. The recommended NCS layer names are too numerous to display in this textbook. However, each chapter provides recommended NCS layer names that relate to the layers used in the chapter content. architect often creates the building design and has others design the electrical, plumbing, and mechanical systems. The mechanical system encompasses heating, ventilating, and air conditioning. To make this system work effectively, the architect prepares a base drawing, which represents the floor plan and its bearing walls and partitions as shown in Figure 7-13. The file is sent to the interior design department or consultant to create the layers containing the nonbearing facility layout, which can include the room layout with fixtures and appliances as shown in Figure 7-14. The CADD drawing files then go to the plumbing, electrical, and mechanical contractors Using CADD Layers A big advantage of CADD is the ability to send drawing files on disk or through the Internet or an intranet to different subcontractors involved in a project. This is important in commercial applications because the Discipline Designator Major Group Minor Group A A - W A L L - F U L L Discipline Designator Major Group B A - W A L L - Minor Group F U Discipline Designator – Level 2 Major Group C A - W A L L - F L L - Second Minor Group T E Minor Group U L L - X T Second Minor Group Status Code T E X T - N FIGURE 712 Examples of the U.S. National CAD Standard layer name format. (A) The discipline designator, major group, and minor group fields. (B) The discipline designator, major group, minor group, and second minor group fields. (C) The discipline designator, major group, minor group, second minor group, and the status code. Chapter 7: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture 125 FIGURE 713 Base layer sheet for exterior and support structure is unchanged through the project. Courtesy Structureform. for design of their related construction drawings. Figure 7-15 shows the plumbing layer for the building used in this example. A composite drawing of all layers is shown in Figure 7-16. Each layer is set up in its own color and is displayed in color on the computer screen. CADD PLOTTING GUIDELINES A drawing created in CADD exists in two forms: soft copy and hard copy. Soft copy is the computer software version of the drawing that you see on the computer screen, or the actual data file. Hard copy, as introduced earlier, is a physical drawing produced on paper or some other medium by a printer or plotter. Scale Factors A scale factor is a numeric value that is used in the proper scaling of text, and dimension objects, such as dimension text and arrowheads or slashes, and the size of the model limits. When drawing in CADD, the objects FIGURE 714 Interior design of nonbearing partitions may be changed as desired using layers. Courtesy Structureform. 126 Architectural Drafting and Design co 3/4"␾ 10 GAL ELEC W.H. co 1/2" co 1/2" 1/2" 2"␾ 1/2"␾ 3"␾ 1/2" co 2"vent 1/2"␾ 2"␾ 1/2"␾ 1/2"␾ 1/2"␾ w w s w s s s 1/2"␾ 1/2"␾ w co 2"␾ w 3"␾ 1"␾ 2"␾ co 1/2" 3/4"␾ 1/4" 1/2"␾ 10 GAL ELEC W.H. s 3"␾ 3/4"␾ co 1/4"␾ 2"␾ 1/2" 1/2"␾ co 1/2"␾ 1/2" = EXIST. 4"␾ C.I. SEWER LINE s w = NEW C.I. SEWER LINE = EXIST. 1"␾ WATER LINE w = NEW WATER LINE = NEW 10 GALLON ELECTRIC WATER HEATER OVER RESTROOM ON PLATFORM. WATER HEATER TO BE AMERICAN APPLIANCE 4 GSM 10 OR EQUAL AS LISTED IN THE DIRECTORY OF CERTIFIED WATER HEATERS BY THE CALIFORNIA ENERGY COMMISSION (NOTE: PROVIDE 3/4" + COPPER P+T VALVE DISCHARGE LINE TO OUTSIDE FOR EACH WATER HEATER). FIGURE 715 Plumbing layer. Courtesy Structureform. co 3/4"f w 10 GAL ELEC W.H. co 2"vent 1/2"f 1/2" co 2"f 1/2"f 3"f 1/2" co 1/2"f 2"f 1/2"f 1/2"f s w w s s 1/2"f w co s 1/2"f 3"f 3/4"f 3"f 1"f 2"f co 1/2" 3/4"f 10 GAL ELEC W.H. 1/2"f co 1/2"f 1/2" w co w 1/4" s 2"f 1/4"f 2"f 1/2" 1/2"f = EXIST. 4"f C.I. SEWER LINE w = NEW C.I. SEWER LINE = EXIST. 1"f WATER LINE = NEW WATER LINE 1/2" 1/2" s FIGURE 716 Composite of base layer, interior design layer, and overlays. Courtesy Structureform. = NEW 10 GALLON ELECTRIC WATER HEATER OVER RESTROOM ON PLATFORM. WATER HEATER TO BE AMERICAN APPLIANCE 4 GSM 10 OR EQUAL AS LISTED IN THE DIRECTORY OF CERTIFIED WATER HEATERS BY THE CALIFORNIA ENERGY COMMISSION (NOTE: PROVIDE 3/4" + COPPER P+T VALVE DISCHARGE LINE TO OUTSIDE FOR EACH WATER HEATER). Chapter 7: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture are always full scale. For example, a 50'−0" × 30'−0" (15,240 × 9,144 mm) building is drawn 50' × 30'. After the building is drawn, the notes and other text are added. If you use standard text height, then the text needs to be plotted 1/8" (3 mm) high on the drawing. If 1/8" text is placed on the 50' × 30' building, the text on the computer screen and on the plot is too small to read. This is where the scale factor becomes important. The scale factor of a drawing is something that you need to plan in advance and is part of your CADD template. As discussed earlier, a template is a file containing standard settings such as layer names, dimension and text styles, and line types applied to the drawing. To make the text readable on the plotted paper, the desired plotted text height of 1/8" is multiplied by the scale factor, to determine the height of the text when in the drawing. The scale factor is also used to scale dimension features. To determine the scale factor, first decide on the drawing scale for the plotted drawing. The scale factor is then determined by dividing the plotted units into the drawing units. The following formula demonstrates this concept: Plotted Units = Drawing Units Plotted Units Drawing Units = Scale Factor An architectural drawing to be plotted at 1/4" = 1'−0" has a scale factor calculated like this: 1/4" = 1'−0" .25" = 12" 12/.25" = 48" The scale factor is 48. Once the scale factor has been determined, calculate the actual text height to be used in the CADD program. If the desired text height is 1/8", multiply the plotted text height by the scale factor. So, for the 1/4" = 1'−0" scale drawing, the text height is: 1/8" × 48" = 6" 1/8" high text on the 1/4" = 1'−0" scale plotted drawing is drawn at 6" high Model and Sheet Layout Earlier in the standards discussion, you learned that CADD files are created as models and sheets. AutoCAD, for example, refers to the place where drawing objects are created as model space, and sheet space is called layout space. Layout space is an area used to lay out the sheet of paper to be plotted. Everything you draw in CADD is drawn full scale in model space. When you enter layout (sheet) space, a real-size sheet of paper 127 is placed over the top of the model space drawing. Border lines, title blocks, and notes are also found on the real-size paper layout space. The model space drawings and the layout space sheet are put together for plotting. In Figure 7-17, the drawing in model space is combined with the layout space sheet. When setting up the drawing to be plotted, multiple models can be arranged on the layout space sheet. For example, a foundation sheet can have the foundation plan at one scale and separate details at another scale as shown in Figure 7-18. Getting Ready to Plot When the layout is prepared as desired, the sheet can be set up for plotting. During this process you can select plotter settings, pen settings, and paper size. Each layout can have a unique sheet setup. For example, you can create two layouts for a floor plan. One layout can be assigned a 36 × 24" sheet size and another can be assigned an 8 1/2 × 11" sheet size. This allows you to maximize the plotting possibilities with the same drawing. Your CADD program has a sheet or page setup dialog box or menu where plotter configurations can be selected. Plotters are displayed on the list of devices if you use the Microsoft Windows operating system where printers and plotters are configured. After the plotter is selected, you can specify the desired pen settings. To do this, a plot style table can be assigned to the layout. A plot style table is a pen configuration that allows you to have complete control over how your drawing appears when plotted. Two common plot style tables are the color table and the style table. Color tables assign different pen values to the colors in the CADD program. For example, if the color red is assigned a heavyweight pen that plots with a black color, then any objects with a red color are plotted with heavy black lines. Style tables are names with pen settings that can be assigned to layers or objects. For example, a style table can include a named style called Walls, which has been assigned a heavy black line. The Walls pen style can then be assigned to the Wall layer in the drawing. Anything that is drawn on the Wall layer then plots with a heavy black line. After the desired plot style table is set up, you are ready to send the drawing to the plotter. Standard applications of line weights and colors were discussed earlier in this chapter. Line weights are also covered in Chapter 6 and throughout this book where they apply to specific drawing features. Additionally, the NCS provides information and settings for black, white, and gray plotting, line weight plotting, and color plotting. There are likely more settings required for your specific CADD program, such as AutoCAD 128 Architectural Drafting and Design MODEL SPACE DRAWING SCALED IN LAYOUT SPACE VIEWPORT VIEWPORT CUT INTO PAPER DRAWING IN MODEL SPACE (FULL SCALE) REAL-SIZE PAPER IN LAYOUT SPACE FIGURE 717 The drawing in model space being combined with the layout space sheet. FIGURE 718 A foundation sheet with the foundation plan at one scale and separate details at another scale ready to be plotted. Chapter 7: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture or MicroStation. Carefully review the users’ guide, Help files, or an in-depth textbook correlated to your CADD software for detailed information. Plotting to a File It is also possible to plot your drawing to an electronic file. This is often done to allow your drawing to be published to the Internet and viewed through a Web browser. The file type for this application is DWF, which stands for drawing Web format. One advantage of plotting files to a DWF format is that the drawings 129 can be shared by another person who does not physically have the CADD program to view the drawings. For others to view your CADD drawings in this manner, they need a DWF Viewer program. This is a free viewer available from the Autodesk Web site. No major programs, such as Microsoft Word, can open a DWF file. Other advantages are that drawings cannot be edited, and this provides a great means for archiving projects, because the actual drawing files do not have to be opened and viewed from the CADD program. The DWF files are also considerably smaller in size and can be easily sent through e-mail. CADD APPLICATIONS This Is What the Future Looks Like: Web-Based Architectural Collaboration Architecture is beginning to see the development of technologies that allow teamwork over the World Wide Web (WWW). This technology has major implications for the evolution of the practice. Architecture is a cooperative process involving multiple disciplines such as structural, mechanical, and electrical engineering; interior design; and facility management. One of the most time-consuming and risky aspects of the practice is document management. Hundreds of drawings and documents can be issued during the design process. All of these documents can be in various states of completion. The coordination of this information is a big task. Web-based coordination uses the power of advanced database management systems together with the Internet to simplify and streamline document management and team communications. These products allow architects, designers, drafters, product suppliers, building contractors, and owners to communicate and coordinate throughout the entire project regardless of where each team member is located. This changing technology also has applications for the way design projects are produced. Web-based coordination allows for the increased use of outsourcing. Outsourcing means sending parts of a project out to subcontractors for completion. Outsourcing to multiple resources requires consistency in procedure and similarity in tools. This interactive teamwork of the future requires clear measurement of progress. The collaboration tools now being developed give architects a higher level of communication and control over the production process. E-mail allows tracking throughout the project. The outsourcing model of the future is based on defined tasks rather than hours worked. These separate tasks are based on interrelated logical steps rather than drawing sheets. Drawings move forward on the basis of their relationship to other drawings and the available information. The development of drawings and documents is treated as stepped tasks or slices of time. Outsource personnel are independent contractors responsible for managing their own time rather than punching a clock. These professional subcontractors are found all over the world, and they are connected through the Web. Through this huge network of potential workers, it is possible to find professionals who produce high-quality drawings economically and on schedule. Web-based collaboration also affects the relationship of the architect and the client. Because the work product is visible on the Internet, the owner can view progress at any time. Progress on the documents is obvious, and the owner can involve more people in reviewing the work. This model of practice improves the owner’s involvement in the process and increases the sense of overall teamwork. ■ 130 GOING GREEN Sustainable Design Opportunity INTRODUCTION According to the U.S. Green Building Council (http:// www.documents.dgs.ca.gov/dgs/pio/facts/LA%20 workshop/climate.pdf), buildings alone account for a sizable amount of global greenhouse gas emissions, representing 39% of CO2 emissions in the United States. This is primarily due to energy use, as buildings consume 76% of all power plant–generated electricity, according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (http:// www.architecture2030.org/current_situation/building_ sector.html). Increasingly, voluntary goals, such as the AIA 2030 Challenge to achieve carbon-neutral buildings by 2030, are becoming regulatory requirements like the U.S. federal law that requires a 55% fossil fuel reduction by 2010 and carbon neutrality by 2030 for all new federal buildings. Improving building energy performance by employing sustainable design principles presents an enormous opportunity for innovative Architectural, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) practices. Building professionals can dramatically reduce the negative environmental impact of new and renovated buildings. SUSTAINABLE DESIGN IN PRACTICE The world is changing, the economy is changing, and architectural practice is changing. Designing and delivering more sustainable projects can be complex. It requires close coordination across different project stages, from design through construction and operation. Many firms are looking for the best way to integrate building information modeling (BIM) technology with sustainable design and analysis tools. BIM is an integrated workflow built on coordinated, reliable information about a project from design through construction and into operations. With BIM, the information required for sustainable design analysis, code compliance, and certification becomes available as a by-product of the standard design process, making the sustainable design process inherently more efficient and cost effective. ANALYSIS FOR SUSTAINABLE DESIGN Everything in the built environment is sustained by energy, water, and materials. Design decisions made early in the process can deliver significant results when it comes to the efficient use of these vital resources. Analysis tools for sustainable design enable significant impact on the efficient use of energy, water, and materials in a building design. These tools: • Empower users to be experts quickly. • Consider the whole building system. • Deliver powerful analysis from immense stores of data. • Interpret results in a meaningful way. • Enable iteration for improvement. Sustainable Energy Use Buildings consume energy throughout their life cycle— from the energy used to create the building materials, to the heating, cooling, lighting, and ventilation systems used during building operation, and the equipment used by the occupants for movement, such as elevators; and various processes, such as business equipment. From a sustainable building perspective, once a project is complete it should remain in use for a very long time. Think centuries. Given this time frame, the operational energy of most buildings will be many times greater than that required for the initial construction or renovations. Therefore, to achieve sustainable energy use, a building’s total operating energy must first be minimized and then rely on renewable forms of energy to meet its total operating requirements. Sustainable Water Use Similar to energy, a building’s initial construction and renovations use a much smaller portion of water compared to its operational use over its life. The water uses in the building include requirements for occupant potable and nonpotable needs, heat, ventilation, airconditioning (HVAC) systems, and other processes. To achieve sustainable water use in a building, its use must first be minimized, then seek reclaimed and renewable sources. The primary renewable source for water is rainwater catchment, either natural as in surface water or groundwater or human collected using cisterns. Sustainable Material Use The construction of a building or other structure requires a significant amount of raw and manufactured materials, such as wood, metal, plastics and minerals for the structure and finishes, wiring, duct work, and other system components, including fittings, finishes, equipment, various adhesives, gypsum board, glass, concrete, and masonry products. The vast majority of the materials used are nonrenewable, so from the start, the project design should have a very long life in mind. The next step is to select materials that are appropriate for the development and benefit its energy and water use minimization goals. If reliable data are available, identify sources for materials that have low manufacture, supply, and transportation energy and emissions requirements, and minimum toxic by-products. Architects and engineers can use digital design information to analyze and understand how their projects perform before they are built. Developing and evaluating multiple alternatives at the same time GOING GREEN 131 Sustainable Design Opportunity (Continued) allows easy comparison and informs better sustainable design decisions. BIM is core to Autodesk’s sustainable design approach for building performance analysis and simulation. For example, with Autodesk Green Building Studio Web service, architects and designers can easily perform wholebuilding energy, water, and carbon-emission analysis, and evaluate the energy profiles and carbon footprints of various building designs. Autodesk Ecotect software measures how the environment will affect building performance. The 3D conceptual analysis tools within Ecotect allow architects and engineers to simulate and analyze, in the conceptual and design phases, how factors such as solar, shading, lighting, and airflow will affect how a building design will operate and perform. Figure 7-19 shows shading analysis at work, and Figure 7-20 shows the result of airflow analysis. For most building projects, decisions made in the first few weeks of the design end up having the greatest impact on a building’s performance. The location of the building on the site, its basic form and orientation, its internal layout and external materials selection, its exterior openings—all of these factors are set very early in the design process. As soon as the layout of a building’s walls, windows, roofs, floors, and interior partitions (elements that define a building’s thermal zones) are established, a model is ready for whole-building analyses. A computable Autodesk Revit design model is a great fit for the analyses needed. ANALYZING A BUILDING DESIGN The Autodesk Green Building Studio Web service delivers the ability to exchange and use information between building designs and advanced energy analysis software programs such as DOE-2, allowing analyses of a building model to be performed by architects, from within their own design environment, directly over the Internet. DOE-2 is an energy modeling program that provides different approaches for defining the building geometry. This streamlines the entire analysis process and allows architects to get immediate feedback on their design alternatives—making green design more efficient and cost effective. FIGURE 719 An example of shading analysis at work. Courtesy Autodesk, Inc. 132 GOING GREEN Sustainable Design Opportunity (Continued) FIGURE 720 The result of airflow analysis. Courtesy Autodesk, Inc. Based on the building’s size, type, and location, which drive electricity and water usage costs, the Green Building Studio Web service determines the appropriate material, construction, system, and equipment defaults by using regional building standards and codes to make intelligent assumptions. Using simple drop-down menus, shown in Figure 7-21, architects can quickly change any of these settings to define specific aspects of their design: a different building orientation, a lower U-value window glazing, or a 4-pipe fan coil HVAC system, for example. The Web service uses precise hourly weather data, as well as historical rain data, that are accurate to within 9 miles of any given building site. It also uses emission data for every electric power plant in the United States and includes the broad range of variables needed to assess carbon neutrality. The software determines a building’s carbon emissions and the architect views the output in a Web browser, including the estimated energy and cost summaries as well as the building’s carbon-neutral potential. Architects can then explore design alternatives by updating the settings used by the Web service and rerunning the analysis, and/or revising the building model itself in Revit and then rerunning the analysis. The output also: • • • • • Summarizes water usage and costs. Summarizes electricity and fuel costs. Calculates an Energy Star score. Estimates photovoltaic and wind energy potential. Calculates points toward Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) daylighting credit. • Estimates natural ventilation potential. The Autodesk Green Building Studio report is very easy to understand, giving architects the actionable information they need to make greener design decisions. Autodesk Ecotect software, built specifically by architects that focuses on the building design process, is an analysis tool that allows designers to simulate a wide array of environmental factors—such as shadows, shading, solar, lighting, thermal, ventilation, and acoustics—with a highly visual and interactive display GOING GREEN 133 Sustainable Design Opportunity (Continued) FIGURE 721 Using the Green Building Studio drop-down menus, architects can quickly change any of these settings to define specific aspects of their design: a different building orientation, a lower U-value window glazing, or a 4-pipe fan coil HVAC system. Courtesy Autodesk, Inc. that presents analytical results directly within the context of the building model. This visual feedback allows the software to communicate complex concepts and extensive datasets, and helps designers engage with comprehensive performance issues early in the schematic phase when designs can be changed easily. Revit-based design models can be imported directly into Autodesk Ecotect for analysis throughout the design process. At the start of the design process, early-stage massing models can be used in combination with the site analysis functionality to determine the optimal location, shape, and orientation of a building design based on fundamental environmental factors such as daylight, overshadowing, solar access, and visual impact. As the conceptual design evolves, whole-building energy solutions, such as Green Building Studio, can be used to benchmark its energy use and recommend areas of potential savings. Once these fundamental design parameters have been established, Ecotect can be used again to rearrange rooms and zones, to size and shape individual openings, to design custom shading devices or to choose specific materials based on environmental factors such as daylight availability, glare protection, outside views, and acoustic comfort. Autodesk Ecotect provides the ability to act on feedback to the designer in the form of visual and interactive displays, which are more than just charts and graphs. The analysis results are presented directly within the context of the model display: shadow animations resulting from shadow casting analysis, surface mapped information such as incident solar radiation, and spatial volume-related renderings such as daylight or thermal comfort distribution in a room. Surface mapped information is data, such as lighting levels, shading, or shadowing, mapped over building surfaces. Incident solar radiation is the amount of energy falling on a flat surface. It is not affected in any way by the surface properties of materials or by any internal refractive effects; it is concerned only with the radiation actually striking the surface. Spatial volume-related renderings are 3D visualizations that help to identify the spatial relationships between different zones. Figure 7-22 shows incident solar radiation analysis at work. This type of visual feedback lets designers more easily understand and interact with analysis data, often in real time. For instance, a designer can rotate a view of solar radiation looking for variations over each surface, or watch an animated sequence of solar rays to see how sunlight interacts with a specially designed light-shelf at different times of the year, as shown in Figure 7-23. During conceptual design, Autodesk Ecotect can be used for a variety of early analyses. For example, the designer can perform overshadowing, solar access, and wind-flow analyses to repeat on a form and orientation that maximizes building performance without infringing on the rights-to-light of neighboring structures. As the design progresses and the elements that define a building’s thermal zones are established (the layout of the walls, windows, roofs, floors, and interior partitions), the model can be used for room-based calculations such as average daylight factors, reverberation times, and portions of the floor area with direct views outside. 134 GOING GREEN Sustainable Design Opportunity (Continued) FIGURE 722 Incident solar radiation analysis at work. Courtesy Autodesk, Inc. FIGURE 723 An animated sequence of solar rays to see how sunlight interacts with a specially designed light-shelf at different times of the year. Courtesy Autodesk, Inc. 135 GOING GREEN Sustainable Design Opportunity (Continued) SUMMARY The consistent, computable data that come from a BIM workflow, combined with the breadth of performance analysis and meaningful feedback of Autodesk Green Building Studio and Autodesk ADDITIONAL RESOURCES See CD for more information The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you find information related to computer-aided design and drafting and keep current with trends in the industry. Address www.aia.org www.autodesk.com www.bentley.com www.digitalcanal.com www.graphisoft.com www.sketchup.com Ecotect, provide a complete approach that architects can use to simulate and analyze designs. This feedback, especially during early conceptual design, is critical for architects to optimize the performance of their building designs. Company, Product, or Service American Institute of Architects Architectural software Architectural software Architectural software Architectural software Architectural software www.softplan.com www.csinet.org www.nahb.org Architectural software Construction Specifications Institute National Association of Home Builders www.buildingsmartalliance.org/ncs National Institute of Building Sciences Initiative https://cadbim.usace.army.mil Order a CD of the A/E/C CADD Standard from the CADD/GIS Technology Center www.nationalcadstandard.org U.S. National CAD Standard ordering information Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture Test See CD for more information QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 7 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines. Question 7–4 Describe how drawing layers can be prepared on a computer graphics system. Question 7–5 Describe three ways architectural design functions are improved with a CADD system. Question 7–6 Describe three potential disadvantages of CADD. Question 7–7 What does WWW stand for? Question 7–8 Define outsourcing. Question 7–1 What does the abbreviation CADD mean? Question 7–9 Define virtual reality. Question 7–2 Identify three factors that influence an increase in productivity with CADD. Question 7–10 Explain the difference between an intranet and the Internet. Question 7–3 Identify five tasks, not related to drafting, that can be performed by a computer. Question 7–11 Discuss the similarities and difference between walk-through and fly-through. 136 Architectural Drafting and Design Question 7–12 What is a scale factor? r. Windows Question 7–13 Give a sample U.S. National CAD Standard file name and label its parts. s. Attribute Question 7–14 Give a sample U.S. National CAD Standard sheet name and label its parts. u. Optical mouse Question 7–15 Define template. Question 7–16 Calculate the scale factor for an architectural drawing to be plotted at 1/4" = 1'−0", and determine the height of 1/8" plotted text at this scale. Question 7–17 Define model space and layout space. t. Font v. Facsimile w. Resolution x. Text y. Layers z. Backup Question 7–18 Give a sample U.S. National CAD Standard layer name, providing the maximum number of fields, and label its parts. Question CD7–5 Name the most common type of injury that can develop at a poorly designed workstation. Question 7–19 Define drawing content. Question CD7–6 Identify at least three factors related to positive work habits that can contribute to a healthy environment. Question 7–20 Define sheet grid coordinate. OPTIONAL QUESTIONS Question CD7–7 Explain the difference between a cursor and cross hairs. Refer to the student CD: The CADD Workstation to answer the following questions: Question CD7–8 Briefly discuss each of the following data storage devices: Question CD7–1 Define microcomputer in general terms. Question CD7–2 Define ergonomics. Question CD7–3 Describe the following components of a computer-aided drafting workstation: a. Disk b. Hard drive c. Optical disk d. High-capacity disk drive a. Computer b. Monitor PROBLEMS c. Digitizer d. Plotter Question CD7–4 Define the following CADD terms: a. Hardware b. Software c. Program d. Commands e. Soft copy f. Default value DIRECTIONS: Write a report of approximately 250 words on one or more of the following topics. Use illustrations to accompany your report or reports. Problem 7–1 Productivity. Problem 7–2 Ergonomics. Problem 7–3 CADD workstation. Problem 7–4 Customizing your own architectural symbols. g. Disk drive Problem 7–5 Architectural program by a software developer. h. Storage Problem 7–6 CADD layers. i. Floppy disk Problem 7–7 Digitizing existing drawings. j. Menu Problem 7–8 Scanning existing drawings. k. Hard copy Problem 7–9 Virtual building. l. File Problem 7–10 Virtual reality. m. Network Problem 7–11 Repetitive strain injury. n. PC Problem 7–12 Ergonomic workstation. o. Puck Problem 7–13 Positive work habits. p. Mouse Problem 7–14 Data storage devices. q. Stylus Problem 7–15 Computer networks. Chapter 7: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture Problem 7–16 Mobile computers. Problem 7–17 Design coordination. Problem 7–18 Web-based architectural collaboration. Problem 7–19 The U.S. National CAD Standard. 137 Problem 7–22 U.S. National CAD Standard: Drawing set organization. Problem 7–23 U.S. National CAD Standard: Sheet organization. Problem 7–20 Plotting a drawing. Problem 7–24 U.S. National CAD Standard: Drafting conventions. Problem 7–21 U.S. National CAD Standard: AIA CAD Layer naming guidelines. Problem 7–25 U.S. National CAD Standard: Symbols. This page intentionally left blank www.kevinmillerphoto.com SECTION 2 Residential Design This page intentionally left blank CHAPTER 8 Construction Specifications I N T R O D U C T I O N Building plans, including all of the elements that make up a complete set of residential or commercial drawings, contain general and specific information about construction. It is often very difficult to provide all of the required information on a set of plans. Schedules, as discussed in detail in Chapter 16, provide specific information about items and applications such as doors, windows, appliances, fixtures, hardware, finishes, and structural components. Information that cannot be provided clearly or completely on the drawing or in schedules is provided in construction specifications. Specifications are an integral part of any set of plans. Specifications are part of the construction and contract documents consisting of written technical descriptions of materials, equipment, construction systems, standards, and work quality. Construction specifications often follow the guidelines of the individual architect or engineering firm where the architectural design and drawings are created. Specifications can be as basic as a description of materials created for a construction loan, or can be as indepth as MasterFormat, a detailed specifications format published by the Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) and Construction Specifications Canada (CSC). RESIDENTIAL DESCRIPTION OF MATERIALS Most lenders have a format for providing residential construction specifications. The Federal Housing Administration (FHA) and the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (FHLMC) have a specification format titled Description of Materials. This specifications form is used widely, as is or with revisions, by most residential construction lenders. The same form is used by the Farm Home Administration (FmHA) and by the Veterans Administration (VA). A completed FHA Description of Materials form for a typical structure is found on the Student CD and shown in Figure 8-1. The sample completed form is for the model home used in the step-by-step instructions found throughout this textbook. A blank FHA Description of Materials form is also found on the Student CD. You can also access this form online by doing an Internet search using the words FHA Description of Materials. The plans, construction specifications, and building contract together become the legal documents for the construction project. These documents should be prepared very carefully in cooperation with the architect, client, and contractor. Any variation from these documents should be approved by all three parties. When brand names are used, a clause specifying “or equivalent” can be added. This means that another brand that is equivalent in value and quality to the one specified can be substituted with the client or construction supervisor’s approval. GENERAL CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS Specifications are written documents that describe in detail the requirements for products, materials, and workmanship upon which the construction project is based. A specification is an exact statement describing the characteristics of a particular aspect of the project. Specifications communicate information about required products to be used in construction, as a basis for competitive construction bidding, and to measure compliance with contracts. Proprietary product specifications, method specifications, and endresult specifications are types of performance specifications commonly used in the construction industry. Proprietary product specifications provide specific product names and models for desired applications. When this type of specification is used, a named product can be followed by “or equivalent,” which allows for equal alternatives and helps promote competition in providing the product. Proprietary product specifications can limit competition, increase cost, and decrease flexibility. Method specifications outline material selection and the construction operation process to be followed in providing construction materials and practices. Method specifications provide the final desired structure, such as the concrete thickness and strength, or the lumber dimensions, spacing, species, 141 142 Architectural Drafting and Design FIGURE 81 Completed FHA Description of Materials form for the model home used throughout this textbook. Chapter 8: Construction Specifications FIGURE 81 Continued 143 144 Architectural Drafting and Design FIGURE 81 Continued Chapter 8: Construction Specifications FIGURE 81 Continued 145 146 Architectural Drafting and Design and grade. Method specifications allow for more flexibility, but the owner is responsible for the performance. End-result specifications describe the final characteristics of the products and methods used in construction, and the contractor can use a desired method for meeting the requirements. End-result specifications often provide minimum and maximum as a range of acceptable completion. For example, slab gravel under concrete might be specified between 4" and 8" thick with specific compaction given. End-result specifications can use statistical methods to estimate overall material quality based on a limited number of random samples. End-result specifications place construction quality on the contractor, by defining the desired final product. This gives the contractor freedom in achieving that final product, which can lead to innovation, efficiency, and lower costs. SPECIFICATIONS FOR RESIDENTIAL DESIGN Minimum construction specifications, as established by local building officials, vary from one location to the next, and their contents are dependent on specific local requirements, climate, codes used, and the extent of coverage. You should verify the requirements for a construction project in your location, because they can be different from those given in this discussion. Refer to Chapter 9 for specific information related to national building codes. For more information about the general classifications of construction specifications, see the Student CD, TYPICAL MINIMUM CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS FOR RESIDENTIAL DESIGN. SPECIFICATIONS FOR COMMERCIAL CONSTRUCTION Specifications for commercial construction projects are often more complex and comprehensive than the documents for residential construction. Commercial project specifications can provide very detailed instructions for each phase of construction. Specifications can establish time schedules for the completion of the project. Also, in certain situations, the specifications include inspections in conjunction with or in addition to those required by a local jurisdiction. Construction specifications often follow the guidelines of the individual architect or engineering firm, although a common format has been established. Published by CSI and CSC, the common format is called MasterFormat: Master List of Numbers and Titles for the Construction Industry. The information used in this textbook is from MasterFormat and UniFormat and is published by CSI and CSC; it is used with permission from CSI, 2008. For more information on organizations involved with construction specifications, please contact: Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) 99 Canal Center Plaza, Suite 300 Alexandria, VA 22314 800-689-2900; 703-684-0300 Web site: www.csinet.org Construction Specifications Canada (CSC) Web site: www.csc-dcc.ca The MasterFormat: Master List of Numbers and Titles for the Construction Industry is a master list of numbers and subject titles for organizing information about construction work results, requirements, products, and activities into a standard sequence. Construction projects use many different delivery methods, products, and installation methods. Successful completion of projects requires effective communication among the people involved. Information retrieval is nearly impossible without a standard filing system familiar to each user. Using MasterFormat numbers and titles facilitates standard filing and retrieval schemes throughout the construction industry. MasterFormat numbers and titles are suitable for use in project manuals, for organizing cost data, for referencing keynotes on drawings, for filing product information and other technical data, for identifying drawing objects, and for presenting construction market data. Each MasterFormat number and title defines a “section,” arranged in “levels” depending on the depth of coverage. The broadest collections of related construction products and activities are level-one titles, otherwise known as “divisions.” Each division in the MasterFormat 2004 Edition: Numbers and Titles is made up of level-two, level-three, and occasionally level-four numbers and titles assigned by MasterFormat, each of which defines a gradually more detailed area of work results to be specified. Work results are traditional construction practices that typically result from an application of skills to construction products or resources. The MasterFormat 2004 Edition numbers are established using a six-digit system. The following is an example showing how the list of numbers and titles is used: Division 04 Masonry The first two numbers, 04 in this example, represent the division and are also called level one. The complete list of divisions is given in the next section of this textbook. Chapter 8: Construction Specifications 147 SPECIFICATIONS GROUP 04 05 19.26 Division / Level one—Masonry Level two—Common Work Results for Masonry Level three—Masonry Anchorage and Reinforcing Level four—Masonry Reinforcing Bars GENERAL REQUIREMENTS SUBGROUP Division 01 General Requirements FACILITY CONSTRUCTION SUBGROUP Division 02 Existing Conditions FIGURE 82 Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) MasterFormat titles and numbering system. Division 03 Concrete Division 04 Masonry Division 05 Metals 04 05 Common Work Results for Masonry The second pair of numbers, 05 in this example, is referred to as level two. In this case, Common Work Results for Masonry is a subcategory of Masonry. 04 05 19 Masonry Anchorage and Reinforcing The third pair of numbers, 19 in this example, is called level three. In this case, Masonry Anchorage and Reinforcing is a subcategory of Common Work Results for Masonry. 04 05 19.26 Masonry Reinforcing Bars Occasionally, level-four numbers are provided, such as .26 in this example. When level-four numbers are used, they follow level-three numbers and are separated from level-three numbers with a dot. Levelfour numbers are used when the amount of detail requires an additional level of classification. In this case, Masonry Reinforcing Bars is a subcategory of Masonry Anchorage and Reinforcing. An example of the six-digit numbering system with levels one through four is shown in Figure 8-2. Division 06 Wood, Plastics, and Composites Division 07 Thermal and Moisture Protection Division 08 Openings Division 09 Finishes Division 10 Specialties Division 11 Equipment Division 12 Furnishings Division 13 Special Construction Division 14 Conveying Equipment Divisions 15 through 19 Reserved FACILITY SERVICES SUBGROUP Division 20 Reserved Division 21 Fire Suppression Division 22 Plumbing Division 23 Heating, Ventilating, and AirConditioning (HVAC) Division 24 Reserved Division 25 Integrated Automation MasterFormat Division Numbers and Titles The MasterFormat has two main groups: (1) Procurement and Contracting Requirements, and (2) Specifications. Procurement and Contracting Requirements are referred to as series zero because they begin with a 00 level-one numbering system prefix. These documents are not specifications. They establish relationships, processes, and responsibilities for projects. The Specifications group contains the construction specifications subgroups and their related divisions. Some divisions are identified as reserved for future additions or specific user applications. The following is an outline of the divisions found in the two groups: PROCUREMENT AND CONTRACTING REQUIREMENTS GROUP Division 00 Procurement and Contracting Requirements Division 26 Electrical Division 27 Communications Division 28 Electronic Safety and Security Division 29 Reserved SITE AND INFRASTRUCTURE SUBGROUP Division 30 Reserved Division 31 Earthwork Division 32 Exterior Improvements Division 33 Utilities Division 34 Transportation Division 35 Waterway and Marine Construction Divisions 36 through 39 Reserved PROCESS EQUIPMENT SUBGROUP Division 40 Process Integration Division 41 Material Processing and Handling Equipment 148 GOING GREEN GreenFormat The Construction Specifications Institute has established GreenFormat: The Construction Product Sustainability Information Reporting Guide. GreenFormat is a new CSI format allowing manufacturers to accurately report the sustainability measuring properties of their products, and providing designers, contractors, and building operators with basic information to help meet “green” requirements. When using GreenFormat, construction product manufacturers complete an online GreenFormat reporting questionnaire that collects the sustainable information about their product. Data from the questionnaires are displayed in a standardized style designed to ease sustainable design decision making. Access to the GreenFormat report and the resulting data is provided through http://www.greenformat.com. Those using the Web site can print reports on specific products based on their questions within the database. Sustainable information reported in GreenFormat is grouped into categories, each containing individual topics and questions about product sustainability. The categories are organized with topics more likely to be important to design decisions first. This flexible structure can adapt to anticipated changes in the industry. As sustainability issues evolve, new topics and questions are added in the appropriate category, and existing topics and questions that become obsolete or change are dropped if necessary. The structure can be applied to all construction products and product categories. Refer to www.greenformat.com to see the categories and their contents and to view additional information about GreenFormat. Division 42 Process Heating, Cooling, and Drying Equipment Division 43 Process Gas and Liquid Handling, Purification, and Storage Equipment Division 44 Pollution Control Equipment Division 45 Industry-Specific Manufacturing Equipment Divisions 46 and 47 Reserved Division 48 Electrical Power Generation Division 49 Reserved commissioning, operation, and decommissioning. The purpose of UniFormat is to achieve consistency in economic evaluation of projects; enhance reporting of design program information; and promote consistency in filing information for facility management, drawing details, and construction market data. UniFormat classifies information into nine level-one categories, which can be used to arrange brief project descriptions and preliminary cost information. The first level-one category is Project Description, which includes information about the project, through cost estimating and funding. The last eight level-one categories are referred to as Construction Systems and Assemblies, which include construction applications and practices, such as foundation, roofing, exteriors, electrical, and plumbing. Each of the Construction Systems and Assembly categories is identified with a letter and title as follows: The UniFormat Uniform Classification System UniFormat is a uniform classification system for organizing preliminary construction information into a standard order or sequence on the basis of functional elements. Functional elements, also referred to as systems or assemblies, are common major components in buildings that perform a known function regardless of the design specification, construction method, or materials used. The use of UniFormat can provide consistent comparable data across an entire building life cycle. Building life cycle refers to the observation and examination of a building over the course of its entire life. The life cycle of a building considers everything about the building from design, A—Substructure B—Shell C—Interiors D—Services E—Equipment and Finishings F—Special Construction and Demolition G—Building Site Work Z—General Chapter 8: Construction Specifications UniFormat has a numbering system that divides each level-one category into level-two, level-three, level-four, and level-five titles with set alphanumeric labels. The following is an example showing the first three levels of the UniFormat alphanumeric system for a specific category: Level 1: D Services Level 2: D20 Plumbing Level 3: D2010 Plumbing Fixtures CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS Documents is a general term that refers to all drawings and written information related to a project. Construction documents are drawings and written specifications prepared and assembled by architects and engineers for communicating the design of the project and administering the construction contract. The two major groups of construction documents are bidding requirements and contract documents. Bidding requirements are used to attract bidders and explain the procedures to be used for submitting bids. Bidding requirements are the construction documents issued to bidders for the purpose of providing construction bids. Contract documents are the legal requirements that become part of the construction contract. The construction drawings and specifications are found within the contract documents. Construction Drawings As you learn concepts and develop skills covered throughout this textbook, you will be creating construction drawings. Drawings show lines and text for the purpose of providing information about the project. These drawings are a principal part of the set of construction documents. The individual drawings needed depend on the specific requirements of the construction project. The drawings for a small residential addition might fit on one or two pages, while the drawings for a commercial building might be on a hundred or more pages. Drawings vary in how much information they show, depending on the use, the project phase, and the desired representation. In addition to plan views, elevations, sections and details, drawings can have schedules that have a detailed list of components, items, or parts to be furnished in the project. You will create all of these drawings and features as you progress through this textbook. 149 Coordinating Drawings and Specifications A complete set of construction documents contains drawings and specifications. These combined drawings and specifications are often referred to as plans. One person or a unified team of people should coordinate drawings and specifications. The elements used in the drawings and specifications, such as symbols, abbreviations, and terminology, should be standardized to prevent confusion. After the construction documents are prepared in a professional manner, the construction coordination must be conducted with effective communication. The drawings should locate and identify materials and should include the assembly of components, dimensions, details, and diagrams. The drawings have notes, but notes should be used only to identify, not to describe, a material or part. Overly detailed notes can obscure the drawing. Detailed written information should be placed in the specifications. Symbols used in the set of drawings should be represented as an approved standard and should be shown and labeled in a legend for reference purposes. Drawings do not need to be cross-referenced to the specifications. Drawings and specifications are combined to become the complete set of construction documents, which means that you do not have to provide notes that refer to the specifications when identifying an item on the drawings. The specifications are used to define the specific quality and type of material, equipment, and installation. The drawings provide quantity, capacity, location, and general written information in the form of notes, whereas the specifications clearly define items such as minimum requirements, physical properties, chemical composition, and installation procedures. Schedules are used on drawings to help simplify communication by providing certain items in a table format. The schedules can be placed on the drawings or in the specifications. The information found in schedules or on the drawings should not repeat the information found in the specifications. The drawings, schedules, and specifications must be carefully coordinated so the information is consistent. The MasterFormat divisions and sublevels can be used as a checklist to ensure that every required specification is included. MasterFormat is an effective system for indexing specifications for large projects, and can be used for light commercial or residential construction. 150 Architectural Drafting and Design ADDITIONAL RESOURCES See CD for more information The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you find information related to construction specification procedures and keep current with trends in the industry. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address www.csc-dcc.ca www.csinet.org www.greenformat.com www.nahb.org www.hud.gov GreenFormat report and the resulting data National Association of Home Builders U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development Company, Product, or Service Construction Specifications Canada Construction Specifications Institute See CD for more information Construction Specifications Test QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 8 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines. Question 8–1 Give a general definition of construction specifications. Question 8–2 Identify the basic differences between residential and commercial specifications. Question 8–3 List four factors that influence the specific requirements of minimum residential construction specifications established by local building officials. Question 8–4 Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference, TYPICAL MINIMUM CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS FOR RESIDENTIAL DESIGN. Using general terms, list the typical minimum construction requirements for the following categories: f. Roof g. Chimney and fireplace h. Thermal insulation and heating i. Fire warning system A partial example would be as follows: 4. d. Framing 1. lumber grades 2. beams bearing area Question 8–5 Briefly describe the format established by the Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) for construction specifications. Question 8–6 Define work results. Question 8–7 Define functional elements. Question 8–8 Define systems or assemblies. Question 8–9 Define building life cycle. Question 8–10 Define construction documents. Question 8–11 Define bidding requirements. Question 8–12 Define contract documents. a. Room dimensions b. Light and ventilation c. Foundation d. Framing e. Stairways PROBLEMS Problem 8–1 Obtain a blank copy of the FHA Description of Materials form from your instructor, from the Student CD, or by doing an Internet search Chapter 8: Construction Specifications using the words FHA Description of Materials. Make a copy or print of the Description of Materials form and keep it in a notebook or folder for reference. Alternately, if you access the Description of Materials form from the Internet, you can save a copy in a file with the same name on your computer. As you progress through this textbook, problems are assigned that allow you to complete a set of residential working drawings. Access and complete the Description of Materials form as you complete each drawing in the set of architectural plans for the residence you select or are assigned as a continuing problem. If you create more than one set of plans, fill out a separate Description of Materials form for each set of working drawings. Problem 8–2 Use a word processor to write an approximately 150-word report covering the difference 151 between proprietary product specifications, method specifications, and end-result specifications. Problem 8–3 Use a word processor to write an approximately 500-word report covering the Construction Specifications Institute and Construction Specifications Canada MasterFormat: Master List of Numbers and Titles for the Construction Industry. Include detailed information about the purpose and function of this specifications format. Explain and show an example of the numbering system. List the MasterFormat division numbers and titles. Problem 8–4 Use a word processor to write an approximately 250-word report covering construction documents, construction drawings, and coordinating drawings and specifications. CHAPTER 9 Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design I N T R O D U C T I O N Architects and designers must deal with a multitude of guidelines and required codes that will affect home design. Guidelines have traditionally come from home-owner associations, but many designers and builders are now attempting to follow green building guidelines established by the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) and the National Green Building Standard (NGBS) published by the National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) and the International Code Council (ICC). For most municipalities, these guidelines are just that, but some areas have adopted these guidelines into law. Building codes are required laws that are intended to protect the public by establishing minimum standards of safety. Although landowners often assume that they can build whatever they want because they own the property, building codes are intended to protect everyone, including the neighbors, visitors and potential future owners. Consider the stories you have seen in the national news media about structures that have been damaged by high winds, raging floodwaters, hurricanes, tornadoes, mudslides, earthquakes, and fire. Although they do not make the national news, hundreds of other structures become uninhabitable because of inadequate foundation design, failed members from poor design, mold, rot, or termite infestation. Building codes are designed to protect consumers by providing minimum guidelines for construction and inspection of a structure to prevent fire, structural collapse, and general deterioration. Many other aspects of building construction, such as electrical wiring, heating equipment, and sanitary facilities, represent a potential hazard to occupants if not designed and constructed or installed properly. Building codes are enforced as a safeguard against these risks. the home in Figure 9-1 are designed to meet certain objectives such as protecting the health of the occupants; using energy, water, and other resources more efficiently; and reducing the overall impact to the environment. The biggest leaders in residential green building are LEED and the NGBS-ICC 700. NOTE: Although both groups have produced “guidelines,” many municipalities are starting to move beyond the recommendation stage and are incorporating portions of these guidelines into their design and building requirements. It is expected that with the 2012 edition of the ICC codes, the NGBS-ICC 700 will move from guidelines to law. Verify with the municipality that will govern each specific building project to determine if specific aspects of a green guideline are required. The ICC is also planning to develop a green building code for buildings that are not covered by the NGBS-ICC 700. This code will most likely be the International Green Construction Code (IGCC). GREEN BUILDING GUIDELINES Green building is the incorporation of environmental considerations and resources into every step of the construction process. A green or environmentally friendly building is a structure that is designed, built, operated, renovated, and recycled in an ecological and resource-efficient manner. Green buildings similar to 152 FIGURE 91 An environmentally friendly home is designed to blend with its environment; protect the health of the occupants; use energy, water, and other resources efficiently; and reduce the overall impact to the environment. This sunroom provides a comfortable living area while serving as a passive solar collector. Courtesy BOWA Builders, Inc. Greg Hadley, photographer. Chapter 9: Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design LEED Green Building Guidelines The LEED Green Building Rating System is a leader in environmentally friendly design and construction. Incorporating the MasterFormat numbering system introduced in Chapter 1 and discussed in detail in Chapter 8, the guidelines are designed to help improve the quality of buildings and to minimize their impact on the environment. The rating system, developed by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), is intended to blend the structure with the environment, reduce operating costs, and aid in marketing the structure for resale. LEED certification requires that the project meet the fundamentals, and score a minimum number of points in a LEED rating system. LEED certification acknowledges four levels of certification, including: 153 7. Landscape and exterior design to reduce heat islands—see divisions 6, 7, 10, and 32. 8. Light pollution reduction—see divisions 1 and 26. Water Efficiency Three credits are available related to the use, and reduction of the use of water in the structure and at the building site. Chapter 20 of this text will explore the use of water in a residence. LEED credits for water efficiency include: ● Water-efficient landscaping—see divisions 7, 22, 32, 33, and 44. ● Innovative wastewater technologies—see divisions 22, 32, 33, and 34. ● Water use reduction—see divisions 11, 22, and 23. 1. Certified: 26–32 points. Indoor Environmental Quality 2. Silver: 33–38 points. Eight credits are available related to the interior air quality of the structure. Chapter 12 and Chapter 21 will address these areas of home design. LEED credits for indoor environmental quality include: 3. Gold: 39–51 points. 4. Platinum: 52 points or more. Key areas of the construction process and their corresponding Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) MasterFormat 2004 division number (see Chapter 8 for a listing of CSI divisions) are covered by the LEED rating system. These areas include sustainable sites, water efficiency, indoor environmental quality, energy and atmosphere, material and resources, and innovation and the design process. Sustainable Sites This area of the credits is applied to efficient design and construction as it relates to the construction site. Although the standard is intended for residential design, many credits in this area are best applied to multifamily design. Section 3 of this text will further explore environmental considerations of site design. Eight credits are available related to sustainable sites, including: 1. Site selection—see CSI division 32. 2. Urban redevelopment—no CSI divisions are currently available for this area. 3. Brownfield redevelopment—no CSI divisions are currently available for this area. 4. Alternative transportation—see division 12. 5. Reduced site disturbance—see divisions 31 and 32. 6. Stormwater management—see divisions 7, 10, 22, 31, 32, and 33. 1. Carbon dioxide monitoring—see divisions 1, 23, and 28. 2. Increase ventilation effectiveness—see divisions 9, 11, 12, and 23. 3. Construction interior air quality management plan— see divisions 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 12, 23, and 28. 4. Low-emitting materials—see divisions 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, and 23. 5. Indoor chemical and pollutant source control—see divisions 4, 7, 10, 12, 14, 22, and 23. 6. Controllability of systems—see divisions 8, 23, and 26. 7. Thermal comforts—see divisions 8, 23, and 28. 8. Daylight and views—see divisions 7, 8, 10, 12, and 26. Energy and Atmosphere Six credits are available related to the use of energy to control the atmosphere within a residence. Chapter 12 and Chapter 21 will address this area of home design. LEED credits for energy and atmosphere include: 1. Optimize energy performance—see divisions 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 22, 23, 26, 28, 33, 35, 42, and 44. 2. Renewable energy—see divisions 1, 7, 8, 22, 23, and 26. 154 3. Additional commissioning—see divisions 1, 23, and 26. 4. Elimination of hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and halons—see divisions 13, 22, 23, and 26. 5. Measurement and verification—see divisions 1, 23, 26, and 27. 6. Green power—no CSI divisions are currently available for this area. Material and Resources Seven credits are available that are related to the materials and products used to build and sustain a structure. Sections 6, 7, 8, and 9 will address these areas of home design. LEED credits include: 1. Building reuse—see divisions 3 and 9. 2. Construction waste management—see divisions 2, 9, and 26. 3. Resource reuse—see divisions 1, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, and 32. 4. Recycle content—see divisions 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 23, 32, 33, 34, and 35. 5. Local and regional materials—no CSI divisions are currently specified for this area. 6. Rapidly renewable materials—see divisions 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 23, 31, and 32. 7. Certified wood—see divisions 1, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 12. Innovation and the Design Process Two credits are available that are related to the design phase of a residence. Section 1 addresses these areas of home design. LEED credits for innovation and design include: Architectural Drafting and Design lot design, preparation, and development; resource efficiency; energy efficiency; water efficiency; indoor environmental quality; operation, maintenance, and building owner education. Site Design and Development This area of the guidelines describes considerations for resource efficient site design and development practices that can improve the energy efficiency of a structure. Section 3 of this textbook will further explore environmental considerations of site design. Lot Design, Preparation, and Development This area of the standards describes considerations for lot selection, lot design, lot construction, and innovative practices that can be incorporated in the design of the driveway and parking areas, and heat island mitigation. Section 3 of this textbook will further explore environmental considerations of lot design. Resource Efficiency Creating resource efficiency includes the consideration of materials to build and furnish the home to maximize the function and optimize the use of natural resources. Areas covered include: quality of construction materials and waste, enhanced durability and reduced maintenance, reduced and salvaged materials, recycled-content building materials, recycled construction waste, renewable materials, resource-efficient materials, indigenous materials, life-cycle analysis, and innovative practices. Sections 6, 7, 8, and 9 of this text will further address the use of energy-efficient materials like those in Figure 9-2 for residential projects. 1. Innovation in design—no CSI divisions are currently specified for this area. 2. About LEED—no CSI divisions are currently specified for this area. National Green Building Standards-ICC 700 In collaboration with the NAHB, the ICC has developed the National Green Building Standard ICC 700. The guidelines allow the designer to use a wholehouse systems approach throughout the design process to increase the home’s performance and efficiency. Seven key sections are included in the NGBSICC 700 guidelines: Site design and development; FIGURE 92 The use of energy-efficient materials such as insulated concrete forms, structurally insulated panels (SIPs), and engineered products can increase the energy efficiency of a home. Courtesy PolySteel Insulating Concrete Forms. Chapter 9: Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design Energy Efficiency This area of the standard describes considerations for helping the residents of the home reduce their dependence on fossil-fuel energy sources. Attention is not only given to the operation of the home, but credits are also earned throughout the construction of the home, and for the materials that are used to construct the home. Major elements of the standard include minimum energy efficiency requirements, performance path, prescriptive path, additional practices, and innovative practices. Sections 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 of this text book will further address the use of energy-efficient materials. Water Efficiency This portion of the standard is aimed at reducing water consumption both inside and outside the home as well as the incorporation of innovative practices. The plumbing products and appliances that are specified can help reduce water use inside the home. The selection of native and drought-resistant landscaping, the collection of rainwater for irrigation, as well as the reuse of gray water from the house can reduce or eliminate water use outside the home. Chapter 20 of this textbook will explore the use of water in a residence. Indoor Environmental Quality According to NAHB research, the indoor air quality of a home is often the number one green consideration of home buyers. Inside air quality is affected by the mechanical equipment used to heat and cool the home and by the materials that are used to construct and furnish the home. The NGBS-ICC 700 awards points for the categories of pollutant source control, pollutant control, moisture management, and innovative practices. Chapter 12 and Chapter 21 of this text will address these areas of home design. Operation, Maintenance, and Building Owner Education Designing or building an energy-efficient home is futile if you can not convince the home owner to invest in the home, or to maintain key features of the home once it is constructed. This credit is earned by providing the building owners with the operation and maintenance manuals as well as the construction, operation, and maintenance manuals to properly operate their home. Levels of Certification Similar to the LEED system that allows credits to be accumulated based on the areas of the guidelines that are used, the NGBS-ICC 700 provides for four levels of performance to be achieved, based on 155 how the green building categories are incorporated into the plan. The basic level of achievement is the Bronze level. A Bronze designation indicates that the home features items that demonstrate that the design pays attention to a project’s environmental impact. The Silver, Gold, and Emerald levels of certification include additional criteria that place increasingly greater emphasis on green practices. NATIONAL BUILDING CODES The regulation of buildings can be traced through recorded history for more than 4000 years. In early America, George Washington and Thomas Jefferson encouraged building regulations as minimum standards for health and safety. Building codes are now used throughout most of the United States to regulate issues related to fire, structural ability, health, security, and energy conservation. Architects, engineers, interior designers, and contractors also rely on building codes to help regulate the use of new materials and technology. Model code organizations oversee accredited laboratories and testing facilities in order to develop safe, cost-effective, timely construction methods. In addition to the testing facilities of each major code, several major material suppliers have their own testing facilities. A list of Web sites for several major testing labs, quality assurance, and inspection agencies is available at the end of the chapter in the Additional Resources section. Although most areas of the country understand the benefits of regulating construction, each city, county, or state has the authority to adopt building codes in accordance with their state laws. While some areas do not have adopted codes, most areas do. This system of codes is based on the government system of the United States where regulation at the state and local level is considered very important. Accordingly, many jurisdictions that adopt building codes, adopt them with local amendments. As a result, even though the majority of the United States uses the same base model building code, the users should be aware of local variations because of the local amendments to the base code. National Code Options Most states have adopted the building codes published by the International Code Council (ICC), but a small number of jurisdictions might still be using one of the legacy codes of the ICC. The current editions of the ICC codes are the 2009 editions of which the IRC could possibly incorporate 30% more energy efficiency in its 2012 156 edition which is slated for publication in late 2011. The ICC legacy codes consist of: ● Building Officials and Code Administrators International, Inc. The 1999 BOCA National Building Code was the last edition published. ● Southern Building Code Congress International, Inc. The 1999 SBC (Standard Building Code) was the last edition published. ● International Conference of Building Officials. The 1997 UBC (Uniform Building Code) was the last edition published. It is important to remember that each municipality and state has the right to adopt all, or a portion, of the indicated code. Although all of the legacy code organizations of BOCA, ICBO and SBCCI have merged to form the ICC and one code, the IRC and other family of its codes, the legacy codes, NBC, SBC and UBC, are still available and could be used by some municipalities. International Code Family In 1972, in order to serve designers better, BOCA, SBCCI, and ICBO joined forces to form the Council of American Building Officials (CABO) to create a national residential code. While some jurisdictions adopted this code, most decided to continue their prior codes of NBC, SBC and UBC and not adopt the CABO One and Two Family Dwelling Code. In 1994, in another attempt to create a national code, the International Code Council (ICC) was formed. The goal of the ICC is to develop a single set of comprehensive, coordinated national codes that would eliminate disparities among the previous three major legacy codes. The ICC has published the 2009 editions of the International Building Code (IBC) and the International Residential Code (IRC). These codes are referred to as the model codes. The IBC in general covers all buildings except detached single family, two-family and townhouses three stories or less in height. The IRC covers detached single family, two-family and townhouses three stories or less in height to ensure quality residential construction. Each of these codes has combined certain features, best or most consistent requirements, of the BOCA, NBC, SBC, and the UBC into one base code. Most municipalities are now using these codes, or their amended version of this code, to govern residential construction. The ICC also published the International Energy Conservation Code with portions that apply to both residential and commercial construction. Verify the building code that governs your area with your local building department prior to starting construction drawings. Architectural Drafting and Design NOTE: Information in this text is based on the 2009 International Residential Code (IRC) for One- and TwoFamily Dwellings published by the ICC. Listings of metric sizes in this chapter are shown as soft metric conversions in order to be consistent with the IRC listings. Visit the International Code Council Web site to verify the release of the codes that govern your area. You will need to verify with your local building department to determine if the new edition has been adopted. In addition to these national codes, the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), the Federal Housing Authority (FHA), and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) each publish guidelines for minimum property standards for accessibility for the disabled some provisions of which might apply to certain residential construction. Choosing the Right Code The architect and engineer are responsible for checking with the local jurisdictions and determining which code will be used during the design process and for ensuring that the structure complies with all required codes. Although the drafter is not expected to make decisions regarding the codes as they affect the design, drafters are expected to know the content of the codes and how they affect construction. Each of the major codes is divided into similar sections that specify regulations covering these areas: ● Fire and Life Safety Structural ● Mechanical ● Electrical ● Plumbing ● The Fire and Life Safety and Structural codes have the largest effect on the design and construction of a residence. The effect of the codes on residential construction will be discussed throughout this textbook. Chapter 42 examines the effects of the IBC on commercial construction. BASIC DESIGN CRITERIA FOR BUILDING PLANNING Building codes influence both the design and construction methods. The influence of codes on construction methods will be discussed later in this chapter and throughout Sections 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 of this textbook. Drafters and designers need to be familiar with several areas in order to meet minimum design standards, Chapter 9: Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design including basic design criteria. Areas of the code such as climatic and geographical design criteria will affect the materials used to resist forces such as wind, snow, and earthquakes. These forces and how they affect a residence will be discussed in Chapter 29. Keep in mind that the following discussion is only an introduction to building codes. As a professional drafter or designer you will need to become familiar with, and constantly use, the building code that governs your area. It’s also important as you start to explore building codes that you understand the common markings that are used by the ICC to identify items in the text including: ● Black text represents information that has remained the same from the previous edition of the code. ● Black text with a bold vertical line in the margin beside the text represents information that is new or has been revised from the last edition to the current edition. ● A bold black arrow placed in the margin between lines of text, or between paragraphs, represents where information has been removed from the current code. Another key element to remember as you start to explore building codes is that this textbook is based on the International Residential Code. Many municipalities will take a base code such as the 2009 IRC, amend it to meet specific local issues, and then publish the state version of the code in the following year. Although the ICC is making efforts to include more options in the base codes, read the title of your code carefully to verify you’re working with the correct code. Habitable and Nonhabitable Space The space within a home or dwelling unit is subdivided into habitable and nonhabitable space. A room is considered habitable space when it is used for sleeping, living, cooking, or dining purposes. Nonhabitable spaces include closets, pantries, bath or toilet rooms, hallways, utility rooms, storage spaces, garages, darkrooms, and other similar spaces. Location on the Property For building code purposes, the exterior walls of residential building cannot be located within 5' (1524 mm) of the property lines unless special provisions are met. Keep in mind that zoning regulations may further restrict the location of the structure to the property lines. Typically, an exterior wall that is built within 5' (1524 mm) of the property line must be 157 made from materials that will resist a fire for 1-hour wall tested in accordance with American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) E119 or UL 263. This is known as a 1-hour fire rating. Although only 1/2" (12.7 mm) gypsum board is required on each side of the wall in certain wall assemblies, using 5/8" (16 mm) type X gypsum board on each side of the wall is a common method of achieving a 1-hour wall. Many municipalities require any walls built into the minimum side yard to be of 1-hour construction. Openings such as doors or windows are not allowed in a wall with a fire separation distance less than 36" (914 mm). Projections such as a roof or chimney cannot project more than 24" (610 mm) from the line used to determine the fire separation distance. The one exception to this rule is that detached garages located within 24" (610 mm) of the property line may have a 4" (102 mm) eave projection. Egress and Accessibility Requirements for a Residence The major subjects to be considered for egress are the path of egress, egress doors, stairs and emergency escape. Accessibility for the disabled is not required for buildings constructed under the IRC unless there are four or more dwelling units in a single structure, in which case chapter 11 of the International Building Code (IBC) for R-3 Occupancies must be complied with. Means of Egress Residential projects are required to provide a continuous and unobstructed path of vertical and horizontal egress travel from all portions of the dwelling to the exterior of the dwelling at the required egress door without requiring travel through a garage. Egress Doors. Each dwelling unit, as a residence is referred to in the codes, must have a minimum of one door that is at least 32" (813 mm) wide measured between the face of the door when open 90° (1.57 rad) and the stop. The minimum clear height of the door opening must be 78" (1981 mm) from the top of the threshold to the bottom of the stop. The designer can determine all other door sizes based on personal preferences or the client’s needs. NOTE: The IRC may only require the main entry door to be 32" (813 mm) wide, but common practice is to provide a 36" (900 mm) or larger door to provide an inviting entrance. Remember building codes dictate minimum sizes, not desirable or practical sizes. Chapter 16 provides guidelines for determining door sizes throughout a residence. 158 Architectural Drafting and Design A floor or landing must be provided on each side of an exterior door. The IRC requires the landing to be a maximum distance of 1 1/2" (38 mm) from the top of door threshold for required egress doors. The landing for an exterior door can be within 7 3/4" (196 mm) from the top of the door threshold provided that the door does not swing over the landing. The minimum landing width must be equal to or greater than the width of the door at the landing, and the landing length must be a minimum of 36" (914 mm) measured in the direction of travel. The landing is required on each side of the required egress door. Interior landings are to be level. Exterior landings may have a maximum slope of 1/4" / 12" (2% slope). This often becomes a design problem when trying to place a door near a stairway. Figure 9-3 shows some common door and landing problems and their solutions. DOOR MAY NOT SWING OVER STAIR DN DN DN DN Emergency Egress Openings. The term egress is used in the IRC to specify areas of access or exits. It is used in reference to doors, windows, and hallways. Windows are a major consideration in designing exits. Emergency egress is required in basements, habitable attics, and every sleeping room. For basements that contain more than one sleeping room, emergency egress and rescue openings are required to be in each sleeping room. Escape may be made through a door or window that opens directly into a public street, alley, yard, or exit court. The emergency escape must be operable from the inside without the use of any keys or tools. The sill of all emergency escape bedroom windows must be within 44" (1118 mm) of the floor. Windows used for emergency egress must have a minimum net clear area of 5.7 sq ft (0.530 m2). Grade floor opening size can be reduced to 5.0 sq ft (0.465 m2). The net clear opening area must have a minimum width of 20" (508 mm) and a minimum height of 24" (610 mm). All net clear openings must be obtainable during normal operation of the window. This opening gives occupants in each sleeping area a method of escape in case of a fire (see Figure 9-4). Emergency escape windows with a finished sill height below the surrounding ground elevation must have a window well that allows the window to be fully opened. The window well is required to have a clear opening of 9 sq ft (0.9 m2) with a minimum horizontal projection and width of 36" (914 mm) when the window is fully open. If the window well has a depth of more than 44" (1118 mm), the well must have an approved permanently fixed ladder or stair that can be accessed when the window is fully opened. The ladder or stair cannot encroach more than 6" (152 mm) into the required well dimensions and must have rungs that have a minimum inside width of 12" (305 mm). THIS LANDING MUST BE AS LONG AS THE STAIR IS WIDE STEPS AT A DOORWAY MUST BE WITHIN 7 3/4" OF FLOOR FIGURE 93 Placement of doors near stairs. Landings by doors in group R-3 occupancies must be within 1 1/2" (38 mm) of the door threshold. When the door does not swing over the landing, the landing can be a maximum of 7 3/4" (197 mm) below the threshold. The rungs must be a minimum of 3" (76 mm) from the wall and must be spaced at a maximum distance of 18" (457 mm) on center (O.C.) vertically for the full height of the window well. Emergency escape windows are allowed to be installed under decks provided the emergency escape window can be fully opened and provides a path not less than 36" (914 mm) in height to a yard or court. Halls Hallways must be a minimum of 36" (914 mm) wide. This is very rarely a design consideration because hallways are often laid out to be 42" (1067 mm) wide or Chapter 9: Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design 159 20 " O CLE MIN PE A . R NI NG RUN 10" (254 mm) RISE 7 3/4" (196 mm) RUN 11" (279 mm) RISE 7 3/4" (196 mm) RUN 10 1/2" (265 mm) RISE 7 1/2" (191 mm) 24" (610 mm) CLEAR OPENING SILL HEIGHT 44" (1118 mm) MAX. 6'-8" (2030 mm) TYPICAL AREA OF ESCAPE MUST EQUAL 5.7 SQ FT (0.53 mm3) CLEAR OPENING MIN. 20" MIN. (508 mm) CLEAR MIN. WHEN OPEN. FINISHED FLOOR FIGURE 94 Minimum emergency escape window opening sizes. A means of escape is required for all sleeping units including those located in a basement or habitable attic. wider at the main and service entries to create an open feeling and to enhance accessibility from room to room. Stairs Stairs often can dictate the layout of an entire structure. Because of their importance in the design process, stairs must be considered early in the design stage. For a complete description of stair construction see Chapter 39. Minimum code requirements for stairs can be seen in Figure 9-5. Following the minimum standards would result in stairs that are extremely steep, very narrow, and have very little room for foot INTERNATIONAL RESIDENTIAL CODE MINIMUM STAIR GUIDELINES Width (minimum) *36" *914 mm Rise (maximum) 7 3/4" 196 mm Tread (minimum) 10" 254 mm *Minimum clear width above the permitted handrail and below the required headroom height. Below the handrail, 31.5" (787 mm) minimum width with handrail on one side, 27" (698 mm) minimum width with handrail on each side. FIGURE 95 Basic design values for stairs. FIGURE 96 Stair layouts comparing minimum run and maximum rise based on common practice. placement. Good design practice would provide stairs with a width of 36" to 42" (914 to 1067 mm) for ease of movement. A common tread depth is 10" to 10 1/2" (254 to 267 mm) with a rise of about 7 1/2" (191 mm). Figure 9-6 shows the difference between the minimum stair layout and some common alternatives. Within any flight of stairs, the largest step run cannot exceed the smallest step by 3/8" (9.5 mm). The difference between the largest and smallest rise cannot exceed 3/8" (9.5 mm). Headroom over stairs must also be considered as the residence is being designed. Stairs are required to have 6'–8" (2032 mm) minimum headroom. Headroom of 6'–6" (1981 mm) is allowed for spiral stairs. This headroom can have a great effect on wall placement on the upper floor over the stairwell. Figure 9–7 shows some alternatives in wall placement around stairs. Winding stairs may be used if a minimum width of 10" (254 mm) is provided at a point not more than 12" (305 mm) from the side of the treads. The narrowest portion of a winding stairway may not be less than 6" (152 mm) wide at any point. When a spiral stair is the only stair serving an upper floor area, it can be difficult to move furniture from one floor to another. Spiral stair treads must provide a clear walking width of 26" (660 mm) measured from the outer edge of the support column to the inner edge of the handrail. A tread depth of 7 1/2" (190 mm) must be provided within 12" (305 mm) of the narrowest part of the tread. The rise for a spiral stair must be sufficient to provide 6'−6" (1981 mm) headroom, but no riser may exceed 9 1/2" (241 mm), and all risers must be equal. Circular stairways must have a minimum tread run of 11" (279 mm) measured at a point not more than 12" (305 mm) from the narrow edge. At no point can the run be less than 6" (152 mm). 160 Architectural Drafting and Design LINE OF STAIRS BELOW FLOOR MAY NOT EXTEND INTO THE AREA REQUIRED FOR MINIMUM HEADROOM 6'-8" MIN (2032 mm) DN 14 R 6'-8" MIN (2032 mm) DN 14 R FIGURE 97 Wall and floor placement over stairs. Handrails and Guardrails. All stairways with four or more risers are required to have at least one smooth handrail that extends the entire length of the stair. The rail must be placed on the open side of the stairs and must be 34" to 38" (864 to 965 mm) above the front edge of the stair. The height is allowed to exceed the maximum height as the handrail transitions into the guardrail. The following types of handrails are allowed by the IRC: Type I–Circular. Handrails with a circular cross section must have a minimum outside diameter of 1 1/4" (32 mm) and not exceeding 2" (51 mm). Type I—Noncircular. The rail must have a minimum perimeter dimension of 4" (102 mm) and not exceeding 6 1/4" (160 mm) with a maximum cross section of 2 1/4" (57 mm). Type II. Rails with a perimeter greater than 6 1/4" (160 mm) must have a graspable finger recess area on both sides of the profile. Handrails are required to be 1 1/2" (38 mm) from the wall but may not extend into the required stair width by more than 4 1/2" (114 mm). A guardrail must be provided at changes in floor or ground elevation that exceed 30" (762 mm). Guardrails are required to be 36" (914 mm) high except on the open side of the stairs the railing can be reduced to 34" (864 mm) when measured vertically from a line extending from the leading edges of the treads. Railings must be constructed so that a 4" (102 mm) diameter sphere cannot pass through any opening in the rail. The triangular opening formed by the bottom of the rail and the stairs must be constructed so that a 6" (152 mm) sphere cannot pass through the opening. Horizontal rails or other ornamental designs that form a ladder effect cannot be used. Room Dimensions Room dimension requirements affect the size and ceiling height of rooms. Every dwelling unit is required to have at least one room with a minimum of 120 sq ft (11.2 m2) of total floor area. Other habitable rooms except kitchens are required to have a minimum of 70 sq ft (6.5 m2) and shall not be less than 7' (2134 mm) in any horizontal direction. These code requirements rarely affect home design. One major code requirement affecting room size governs the space allowed for a toilet, which is typically referred to as a water closet. A space 30" (762 mm) wide must be provided for water closets. A distance of 21" (533 mm) is required in front of a toilet to any obstruction. A minimum clearance of 21" (533 mm) is also required in front of a bathroom sink to any obstruction, and a minimum distance HEADROOM 7'-0" MIN (2134 mm) 5'-0" (1520 mm) Chapter 9: Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design FLOOR SPACE WITH LESS THAN 5'-0" (1524 mm) OF CEILING HEIGHT CANNOT BE COUNTED AS USABLE FLOOR SPACE FIGURE 98 Minimum ceiling heights for habitable rooms. of 24" (610 mm) is required in front of a shower. These sizes can often affect the layout of a small bathroom, but are rarely a problem in a custom home. Chapter 16 will provide additional information related to the layout of the bathroom plumbing fixtures. Ceiling Heights Habitable rooms, hallways, corridors, bathrooms, toilet rooms, laundry rooms, and basements must have a minimum ceiling height of 7'−0" (2134 mm). The bathroom ceiling can be reduced over a counter or plumbing fixture to 6'−8" (2032 mm). This lowered ceiling can often be used for lighting or for heating ducts. Beams that are spaced at a maximum distance of 48" (1219 mm) O.C. are allowed to extend 6" (152 mm) below the required ceiling height. A shower or tub equipped with a shower head must also have a minimum ceiling height of 6'−8" (2032 mm) above a minimum area of 30" × 30" (762 × 762 mm) at the shower head. In rooms that have a sloping ceiling, the minimum ceiling must be maintained in at least half of the room. The balance of the room height may slope to 5' (1524 mm) minimum. Any part of a room that has a sloping ceiling less than 5' (1524 mm) high, or 7'−0" (2134 mm) for furred ceilings, may not be included as habitable square footage (see Figure 9-8). Portions of basements that do not contain habitable space, hallways, bathrooms, toilet rooms, and laundry rooms shall have a minimum ceiling height of 6'−8" (2032 mm). Beams, ducts, or other obstructions may project to within 6'−4" (1931 mm) of the finished floor. Light, Ventilation, Heating, and Sanitation Requirements The light and ventilation requirements of building codes have a major effect on window size and placement. The heating and sanitation requirements are so minimal that 161 they rarely affect the design process. The codes covering light and ventilation have a broad impact on the design of the house. Many preliminary designs often show entire walls of glass to take advantage of beautiful surroundings. At the other extreme, some houses have very little glass and thus no view but very little heat loss. Building codes affect both types of designs. Providing Natural Light The IRC requires that all habitable rooms must have natural light provided by windows. Kitchens are habitable rooms but are not required to meet the light and ventilation requirements. Windows for other habitable rooms are required to open directly into a street, public alley, or yard on the same building site. Windows may open into an enclosed structure such as a porch as long as the area is at least 65% open. Required glazed openings may face into the area under a balcony, bay, deck, or floor cantilever provided a clear vertical space at least 36" (914 mm) in height is provided. Required glazing is also permitted to open into a sunroom or covered patio that abuts a street, yard, or court if more than 40% of the exterior sunroom walls are open, or enclosed only by insect screening and the ceiling height of the sunroom is not less than 7'–0" (2134 mm). Required areas for light and ventilation may be provided by skylights. All habitable rooms must have a glazing area equal to 8% of the room’s floor area, and that one-half of the area used to provide light also be openable to provide ventilation. A bedroom that is 9' × 10' (2743 × 3048 mm) is required to have a window with a glass area of 7.2 sq ft (0.66 m2) to meet minimum standards. Another limit to the amount of glass area would be in locations that are subject to strong winds or earthquakes. These restrictions will be explored later in this chapter as climatic and geographic design criteria are discussed. Alternative Methods of Providing Light and Ventilation Two alternatives to the light and ventilation requirements are allowed in all habitable rooms. Mechanical ventilation and lighting equipment can be used in place of openable windows in habitable rooms except bedrooms. Glazing can be eliminated except when required for emergency egress when artificial light capable of producing 6 footcandles (6.46 lux) over the area of the room at a height of 30" (762 mm) above the floor is provided. Ventilation can be eliminated when an approved mechanical ventilation system capable of producing 0.35 air changes per hour is provided for the room. Ventilation is also waived if a whole-house mechanical ventilation system capable of producing 15 cfm 162 (7.08 L /s) per occupant is provided. Occupancy is based on two per the first bedroom and one for each additional bedroom. The second method of providing lighting and ventilation allows floor areas of two adjoining rooms to be considered as one if 50% of the area of the common wall is open and unobstructed. This opening must also be equal to 10% of the floor area of the interior room or 25 sq ft (2.3 m2), whichever is greater. Openings required for light and ventilation may be allowed to open into a thermally isolated sunroom or covered patio. To use this ventilation option, the openable area between the adjoining rooms must be equal to 10% of the floor area of the interior room, but cannot be less than 20 sq ft (2 m2). Although considered nonhabitable, bathrooms and laundry rooms must be provided with an openable window. The window must be a minimum of 3 sq ft (0.3 m2), of which one-half must open. A fan that provides 50 cfm (24 L/s) for intermittent ventilation or 10 cfm (10 L/s) for continuous ventilation can be used instead of a window. These fans must be vented to outside air. If mechanical ventilation is to be used, careful consideration must be given to the type and placement of the intake and exhaust vents. Exterior vents are required to be protected from local weather conditions. They must also be covered with corrosionresistant grills, louvers, or screens that have a 1/4" (6.4 mm) minimum and a 1/2" (12.7 mm) maximum opening. Intake openings must be located a minimum of 10' (3048 mm) from hazardous or noxious contaminants, and from any plumbing vents, chimneys, alleys, parking lots, or loading docks. The minimum distance can be reduced if the intake vent is placed a 2' (610 mm) minimum below the contaminant source. Heating The heating requirements for a residence are very minimal. IRC requires a heating unit to be installed in any residence built in an area where the winter design temperature is below 60°F (16°C). So unless you’re building in Hawaii, plan for a heating unit capable of producing and maintaining a room temperature of 68°F, or 20°C at a point 3' (914 mm) above the floor and 2' (610 mm) from exterior walls for all habitable rooms. Portable space heaters can no longer be used to meet compliance with the current codes. Chapter 21 provides information on sizing heating units. Sanitation Code requirements for sanitation rarely affect the design of a structure. Each residence is required to have a toilet, a sink, and a tub or shower. A sink is required to be provided in the kitchen. All plumbing fixtures Architectural Drafting and Design must be connected to an approved water supply, and kitchen sinks, lavatories bathtubs, showers, bidets, laundry sinks, and washing machines are required to have hot and cold water. All plumbing fixtures must be connected to a sanitary sewer or an approved private sewage disposal system. The room containing the toilet must be separated from the food preparation area by a tight-fitting door. Chapter 16 provides further information regarding the layout of each fixture, and Chapter 20 provides information regarding plumbing plans. Safety Equipment Major considerations of required safety equipment include automatic fire sprinkler systems, smoke detectors, and carbon monoxide alarms. Automatic Fire Sprinkler Systems Based on the acceptance of the 2009 IRC, automatic fire sprinkler systems that meet Section P2904 of the International Plumbing Code (IPC) are required for all new townhouse construction. A sprinkler system is not required to additions or alterations made to existing townhomes. As part of the 2009 IRC, effective January 1, 2011 automatic residential fire sprinklers must be installed in all new one- and two-family dwellings. The fire sprinkler systems must be installed to meet Section P2904 of the IPC or National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 13D. Smoke Detectors Smoke detectors and alarms provide an opportunity for safe exit through early detection of fire and smoke. A smoke alarm that meets the requirements of UL 217 must be installed per NFPA72 in each sleeping room, as well as at a point centrally located in a corridor that provides access to the bedrooms. For a one-level residence, a smoke detector must be located: ● At the start of every hall that serves a bedroom. ● In each sleeping room. For multilevel homes, a smoke alarm is required on every floor, including the basement. The smoke alarm should be located over the stair leading to the upper level. In split-level homes, the smoke alarm is required only on the upper level if the lower level is less than one full story below the upper level. If a door separates the levels of a split-level home, a smoke alarm is required on each level. A smoke alarm is required on the lower level if a sleeping unit is located on that level. Smoke alarms should not be placed in or near kitchens or fireplaces because a small amount of smoke can set off a false alarm. Chapter 9: Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design Smoke alarms must be located within 12" (305 mm) of the ceiling or mounted on the ceiling. Alarms must receive their primary power from the building wiring when the power is served from a commercial source. When the primary power is interrupted, the alarm system must be connected to electrical wiring with a battery-powered backup system. Smoke alarms must be interconnected so that if one alarm is activated, all will sound. Carbon Monoxide Alarms. A carbon monoxide alarm is required in all new residential construction that contains fuel-fired appliances or has an attached garage. Alarms that meet UL 2034 must be placed outside of each separate sleeping area in the immediate vicinity of the bedrooms in dwelling units. Units must be installed in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. 163 site of the governing building department. Building codes specify how a building can be constructed to resist the forces from wind pressure, seismic activity, freezing, decay, and insects. Each of these areas will be discussed in detail in later chapters. NOTE: Because of wide variation in the weather patterns and the seismic risk across the country, most municipalities have made alterations to the national code to address local considerations. A key role of the designer is to verify local requirements, and ensure that the project exceeds those standards. In exploring the following variables, the first two can be taken directly from a table in the code or provided by the building department. The balance of factors will require information provided by the local jurisdiction. Ground Snow Load CLIMATIC AND GEOGRAPHIC DESIGN CRITERIA The major influence of the IRC on a structure has to do with structural components. Chapters covering foundations, wall construction, wall coverings, floors, roof-ceiling construction, roof coverings, and chimney and fireplace construction are provided to specify minimum construction standards. To use the information in the codes as it relates to each area of construction requires some basic climatic and geographic information about the area where the structure will be constructed. Key elements that must be known to design a safe structure include: ● Air freezing index. ● Flood hazard. ● Ground snow load. ● Mean annual temperature. ● Ice barrier underlayment. ● Seismic design category. ● Susceptibility to damage by frost line depth. ● Susceptibility to damage by termites. ● Susceptibility to damage by weathering. ● Wind design—speed. ● Wind design—topographic effects. ● Winter design—temperature. Values for each category will consist of a YES or NO, or a design value. Information for many of these categories can be obtained from a table in the IRC. Other factors need to be determined from the Web The ground snow load factor will affect the sizes of structural members. The amount of snow that can be expected will also be important in planning access to the structure when the maximum amount of snow is on the ground. The ground snow load factor can be determined using maps provided by the IRC. Figure 9-9 shows the ground snow loads for the western portion of the United States. Zones of the map are designated by the maximum ground elevation of the zone, and the snow load to be used in the design for that area. For instance, in the southeastern corner of California, the maximum elevation is 1000', and the snow load is zero. In the southwestern corner of California, the maximum elevation ranges from 1800', to 2000' and the snow load ranges from zero to five. In the northeastern corner of Washington, the snow load is listed as CS. This designation indicates that a site-specific case study must be preformed. The local building department will generally be able to provide the snow loads that should be used to determine the size of building materials as well as the ground snow that should be planned for as access to the structure is planned. Buildings designed in areas with a snow load of 70 pounds per square foot (3.35 kPa) or less can be constructed using the provisions of the IRC. In areas that exceed this, the value must be determined using accepted engineering practice. Winter Design Temperature The outdoor design temperature can be determined from Appendix D of the IPC or from the Web sites of the local jurisdiction. The winter design temperature will be important as the heating loads of the home are considered in Chapter 21. 164 Architectural Drafting and Design FIGURE 99 Maps similar to Figure R301.2.(5) can be used to determine the snow loads to be used in the selection of structural members. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright 2009, Washington D.C. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org. Chapter 9: Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design Flood Hazard It’s not just homes that are built on a riverbank, oceanfront property, or the banks of a lake that must be designed to withstand floodwaters. The risk of flood damage will vary for each region based on several factors. The amount of rain is a major consideration in flood risk, but certainly not the most important factor. Areas of the country such as the Pacific Northwest or the Gulf states that receive large amounts of rain typically have drainage systems prepared to handle the runoff. Areas of the country that are arid often have poor facilities for coping with excess runoff. Designers should verify with local municipalities which specific areas of their jurisdiction are prone to flooding, and design the foundation accordingly. The building department can provide a date that the area was placed into the National Flood Insurance Program, and the date for the adoption of the code or ordinance of management of flood hazard area. This information will help in determining the design flood elevation height of the floor. Chapter 33 will explore precautions that can be taken based on the risk of flooding. Mean Annual Temperature Based on the mean annual temperature from the National Climate Data Center, the governing jurisdiction will determine the mean annual temperature. This information will be used for planning the heating system as well as calculating the insulation requirements for the building envelope. Ice Barrier Underlayment The governing jurisdiction will determine the value of the ice barrier underlayment based on local history of damage from the effects of ice damming. For areas that are required to receive an ice barrier, a barrier must be provided that meets the requirements of Section R905.2.7.1 of the IRC. These guidelines will be covered in Chapter 22 of this textbook as roof construction is explored. Seismic Design Category The governing jurisdiction will determine the seismic design category value based on one of seven categories, including A, B, C, D0, D1, D2, and E. The IRC specifically addresses construction methods that can be used in categories C, D0, D1, and D2. Categories A and B require no special provision, and category E requires 165 construction per the IBC or design by an engineer. Construction in categories C through D2 requires designing for increasing seismic risk as the risk category progresses. The effects of the seismic category will affect the construction of roof, wall, floor and foundation assemblies, and will be addressed in Chapter 22, Chapter 27, Chapter 28, and Chapter 33. Susceptibility to Damage by Frost Line Depth The frost line depth will affect the design and construction of the foundation and will be explored in Chapter 33. Depending on the frost line depth, the governing jurisdiction will determine the required minimum depth of footings below the finish grade. Susceptibility to Damage by Termites The governing jurisdiction will determine the need for protection from termite damage based on the history of subterranean termite damage. In areas where there is potential for damage, one of the alternatives from Section R318 must be provided for controlling damage. Each method will be presented in Chapter 33 as foundation construction is explored. Susceptibility to Damage by Weathering The general risk of damage due to weathering can be determined from using the map shown in Figure 9-10. In areas of the country that have a wide variance in weather conditions, the governing jurisdiction will determine the need for weathering protection to the foundation based on local conditions. Possible weathering zones include negligible, moderate, or severe. As the risk of weathering increases, a higher strength of concrete or grade of masonry will be required to reduce the chance of damage. Concrete weathering will be explored in Chapter 33. Wind Design The effects of wind on a structure will need to be considered in terms of the wind speed and the how the topography affects the wind. Speed The general risk of wind damage can be determined using a map similar to Figure 9-11 that shows basic wind speeds. The wind speed values are 3-second gust speeds listed in miles per hour. Although this map will 166 Architectural Drafting and Design FIGURE 910 Maps similar to Figure R301.2(3) can be used to determine the risk of damage to the foundation from weathering. Based on the risk, precautions will need to be taken as the foundation is designed. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright 2009, Washington D.C. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org. Chapter 9: Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design 167 FIGURE 911 Several maps are provided in the IRC to represent wind speeds in various portions of the country. Figure R301.2.(4) can be used to determine the anticipated wind speed in the southern portion of the United States. Speeds are listed as 3-second gust speeds in miles per hour, assumed at 33' above the ground for exposure C. Based on the speed, precautions will need to be taken as the roof, wall, and foundation assemblies are designed. Chapter 22, Chapter 28, and Chapter 33 will address these assemblies. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright 2009, Washington D.C. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org. 168 Architectural Drafting and Design FIGURE 912 When a structure is built on the upper half of a hill, the assumed wind speed must be increased. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright 2009, Washington D.C. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org. provide general design guidelines, the governing jurisdiction will determine the actual wind speed based on local ground conditions referred to as exposures. The IRC defines four basic exposures including: ● Exposure A—Large city centers where at least 50% of the buildings have a height in excess of 70' (21336 mm). ● Exposure B—Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, or other terrain with numerous closely spaced obstructions having the size of a single-family dwelling or larger. ● Exposure C—Open terrain with scattered obstructions including surface undulations or other irregularities, having heights generally less than 30' (9144 mm), extending more than 1500' (457 m) from the building site in any quadrant. ● Exposure D—Flat, unobstructed areas exposed to wind flowing over open water (excluding shorelines in hurricane-prone regions) for a distance of at least 1 mile (1.61 km). Once the speed and exposure zones are known, the structure can be designed to resist the lateral stress resulting from the wind. Methods of protecting the structure from wind-borne debris must also be considered. Chapter 32 and Chapter 33 will explore ways to resist wind loads and protect the structure. Topographic Effects The governing jurisdiction will determine the risk of wind damage based on local historical data documenting structural damage caused by topographic wind speed-up effects at isolated hills, ridges, and escarpments that are abrupt changes from the general topography of the area. If a structure is located in the top half of one of the designated areas, the basic wind speed must be adjusted upward based on the values in Figure 9-12. Chapter 9: Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design 169 FIGURE 913 The International Energy Conservation Code divides the United States into three major regions and eight climate zones. These zones are further divided by the expected humidity to be encountered in each zone. Once the climate zone of the building site is determined, the required insulation and fenestration efficiency can be determined. Courtesy 2009 International Energy Conservation Code, Copyright 2009, Washington, D.C., International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org. INTERNATIONAL ENERGY CONSERVATION CODE Determining the Required Building Envelope The 2009 International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) is published by the International Code Council and is updated every three years to conform with the other international codes. The purpose of the IECC is to regulate the design and construction of the exterior envelope and selection of heating, ventilation, and airconditioning (HVAC), water heating, electrical distribution and illuminating systems, and equipment required for effective use of energy in buildings. The exterior envelope is made up of the elements of a building that enclose conditioned (heated and cooled) spaces through which thermal energy transfers to or from the exterior. This chapter will address the basic IECC requirements for the building envelope. These requirements can also be found in Chapter 11 of the IRC. Section 5 of this text will address methods for improving the environment inside the building envelope. The exterior envelope of a residence comprises the exterior walls, the ceiling, the openings in the walls and ceiling, and the floor. The IECC refers to the openings in the envelope as fenestration. How the envelope is constructed will depend on the climate zone where the home is to be located. The IECC divides the United States into three major regions and eight climate zones that can be seen in Figure 9-13. The climate zones are based on the wet-bulb temperature of the area. The wet-bulb temperature is a measurement of the environment that reflects the physical properties of the surrounding air. The measurement is based on the use of a thermometer that has its bulb wrapped in cloth that draws moisture from the surrounding air. These zones are further divided by the expected humidity to be encountered in each zone 170 Architectural Drafting and Design FIGURE 914 Table 402.1.1 of the IECC defines the minimum insulation and fenestration requirements. Courtesy 2009 International Energy Conservation Code, Copyright 2009, Washington, D.C., International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org. and include A—moist; B—dry; and C—marine. Zones that do not have a moisture designation are areas where moisture is deemed irrelevant. Although this map provides guidelines for the designer, it’s also important to consult Table 301.1 of the IECC (a very lengthy list of zones by state and county) or to contact the governing building department to verify specific climate requirements. General Requirements for Building the Envelope The IRC governs the actual construction of the walls, floor, and ceiling assemblies that will form the building envelope. The IECC and Chapter 11 of the IRC govern the insulation and fenestration to be used in completing the envelope. General requirements for these two areas of construction are specified in IECC Table 402.1.1 shown in Figure 9-14. A comparison of envelope components for a home built in Houston, Texas, in a warm, humid area in climate zone 2A; Walla Walla, Washington, in a marine zone 5A; and Grand Forks, North Dakota, in a moist zone 7 can be seen below. Envelope Component Walla Houston Walla Grand Forks Fenestration U-factor 0.65 0.35 0.35 Skylight U-factor 0.75 0.60 0.60 Glazed fenestration 0.30 NR NR Ceiling R-value 30 38 49 Wood-framed wall R-value 13 20 or 13 +5 21 Mass wall R-value 13/17 4/6 19/21 Floor R-value 13 30 38 Basement wall R-value 0 10/13 15/19 Slab R-value and depth 0 10, 2' 10, 4' Crawl space wall R-value 0 10/13 10/13 The IECC allows the envelope to be described in U-factor in lieu of using R-values. U-values can be determined in the IECC and will not be addressed in this chapter. Chapter 9: Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design IN UNFINISHED ATTIC SPACES, INSULATE BETWEEN THE FLOOR JOISTS. 171 INSULATE BETWEEN CEILING JOISTS. INSULATE BETWEEN STUDS AND THE RAFTERS. INSULATE WALLS BETWEEN LIVING SPACES AND UNHEATED GARAGES OR STORAGE AREAS. INSULATE BETWEEN VAULTED RAFTERS. EXTEND INSULATION INTO JOIST SPACE TO REDUCE AIRFLOWS. INSULATE BETWEEN THE STUDS OF “KNEE” WALLS. INSULATE EXTERIOR WALLS ABOVE GROUND AREA. INSULATE BETWEEN JOISTS ADJACENT TO UNHEATED SPACE. INSULATE ANY PORTION OF THE FLOOR IN A ROOM THAT IS CANTILEVERED BEYOND THE EXTERIOR WALL BELOW. INSULATE ALL EXTERIOR WALLS. EXTEND INSULATION INTO JOIST SPACE TO REDUCE AIRFLOWS. CAULK AND SEAL AROUND ALL WINDOWS AND DOORS. INSULATE FOUNDATION WALLS OF CRAWL SPACES AND PERIMETER PLATES. INSULATE FOUNDATION WALLS ABOVE GROUND AREA. INSULATE FOUNDATION WALLS IN HEATED BASEMENTS INSIDE OR RIGID INSULATION OUTSIDE. INSULATE SLAB FLOORS BUILT DIRECTLY ON THE GROUND. GROUND. INSULATE FOUNDATION WALLS IN HEATED BASEMENTS. GROUND. FIGURE 915 Locations where insulation is required to be installed. Insulation Insulation is material used to restrict the flow of heat, cold, or sound, in the building envelope keeping the home warmer in winter and cooler in summer. It saves energy costs, and when properly installed it helps maintain a uniform temperature throughout the house. Various types of insulation are available and will be discussed in Chapter 12. Figure 9-15 shows the locations where insulation is required. Insulation reduces the amount of heat lost through walls, ceilings, and floors during the winter and helps keep heat from entering the residence during the summer. The ability of materials to slow heat transfer is called thermal resistance. The R-value of a material is a measure of thermal resistance to heat flow. The higher the R-value assigned to a material, the greater the insulating ability. Insulation is critical in helping reduce heat loss, but it must be combined with proper caulking and construction methods. How much insulation a home should have depends on local and national codes, climate, energy costs, budget, and personal preference. The IRC and IECC give minimum required insulation levels and the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) provides recommended insulation levels, by zip codes, for walls, ceilings, floors, and foundations. Recommended R-values in the ceiling range from R-30 to R-60 depending on the type of heating to be provided and the climate zone of the home. Vaulted ceilings can vary from R-22 to R-60. R-13 to R-30 insulation is recommended for use in floors, although homes built in some warm climates do not require floor insulation. Wall insulation levels vary from R-13 to R-21 depending on the climate. Always confirm the minimum insulation required by the codes governing your area. In general, better energy efficiency can be gained by using more insulation. Fenestration The listing for glazed fenestration in Figure 9-14 shows the letters SHGC in the column heading and footnotes. These letters are to represent the phrase solar heat gain coefficient. SHGC is a ratio of the solar heat gain entering the space inside the envelope through the fenestration to the incident solar radiation. Solar heat gain includes solar heat that is transmitted through the fenestration and energy that is absorbed radiation. 172 The prescriptive method of installing insulation according to IECC Section 402.1.1 allows some some listed ceiling values to be reduced. Ceilings requiring insulation values of R-38 can be reduced to R-30 if the uncompressed height of the insulation extends over the top plate of the exterior walls. If the same conditions are met, R-49 insulation can be replaced by R-38 insulation. Ceilings with No Attic Storage When insulation values greater than R-30 are required by Section 402.1.1 of the IECC, the value of insulation can be reduced to R-30 if the roof/ceiling assembly does not allow for the the required insulation height. This reduction in insulation R-value is limited to 500 sq ft (46 m2) or 20% of the total insulated ceiling area, whichever is less. Mass Walls The listing for mass walls in IECC Table 402.1.1 refers to concrete block, poured concrete, insulated concrete form (ICF), masonry cavity, brick, adobe, earth block, rammed earth, and solid timber logs. Masonry veneer is excluded from this category. The requirements for mass walls apply if at least 50% of the required insulation R-value is part of the wall or on the exterior side of the wall. Walls that do not meet this requirement can be insulated to meet the standards for wood frame walls. ● The insulation must extend from the floor to the line of the finish grade. From the grade, the insulation must extend an additional 24" (610 mm) vertically along the wall, or along the grade in the crawl space. When placed horizontally along the soil in the crawl space, the insulation must be laid over a continuous vapor retarder. Other requirements for placing the vapor retarder will be covered in Chapter 28 and Chapter 33. Basement Walls The walls of basements that are part of the building envelope must be insulated from the top of the wall to the basement floor. Basement walls that surround unconditioned air do not need to be insulated if the floor supported by the wall is insulated. If the floor is uninsulated, the basement wall must be insulated to the same standards as walls surrounding rooms with conditioned air. Slab-on-Grade Floors The edge of concrete slabs that are at, or within 12" (305 mm) of the grade must be insulated. The insulation can be placed on the inside or outside face of the concrete wall. Insulation extending away from the slab must be protected by a minimum of 10" (254 mm) of soil similar to the footing in Figure 9-16A and Figure 9-16B. C SILL SEAL FLASHING PROTECTION BOARD RIGID INSULATION C 12" MIN. Ceilings with Attic Storage The insulation must be permanently attached to the stem wall. 12" MAX. The IECC/IRC provides specifi criteria to supplement the general information provided in Figure 9-14. The specific requirements are divided by ceilings with attics, ceilings without attics, walls, floors, and fenestration. ● 10" Specific Requirements for Building the Envelope Architectural Drafting and Design FOUNDATION PERIMETER B Floor/Crawl Space Walls Typical floor insulation methods place the insulation so that it will be in permanent contact with the underside of the floor decking. The IECC allows the floor to be uninsulated, and the walls of the crawl space to be insulated. To use this insulation method, the crawl space can not be vented to outside air, and the insulation is required to meet the following placement guidelines: 4" SCREENED AND WASHED GRAVEL OR CRUSHED STONE A INSULATION DETAIL HORIZONTAL INSULATION PLAN FIGURE 916A Insulation placement for frost-protected footings. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright 2009, Washington, D.C., International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org. 173 GOING GREEN Green Codes Building codes address how the environment affects a structure. Stresses resulting from gravity, wind, snow, water, and seismic activity have always been a major concern of the model codes. The National Green Building Standard ICC 700 now addresses how the building affects the environment. The ICC and the NAHB have jointly developed the National Green Building Standard that provides a common national benchmark for designers. Although primarily aimed at residential construction, the standard does apply to multifamily construction. The standard requires designers and builders to address: • Energy conservation. • Indoor and outdoor air quality. In addition to the Green Building Standard, the ICC and the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) have signed a Memorandum of Understanding between the two organizations in order to further green building practices. Because green code development is such a fluid area, it is imperative that you constantly monitor the Web sites of the ICC, USGBC, and NAHB for the most current information on green building and developing codes. Another great source of green building information can be found at the joint Cengage-ICC portal titled The Green Destination: Essential Information for Green Building. The address for each site is listed at the end of this chapter. • Land conservation. • Water conservation. • Material resource conservation. MINIMUM INSULATION REQUIREMENTS FOR FROST-PROTECTED FOOTINGS IN HEATED BUILDINGSa HORIZONTAL INSULATION R R-VALU Ec,e HORIZONTAL INSULATION DIMENSIONS PER FIGURE R403.3(1) (INCHES) AIR FREEZING INDEX (°F-DAYS)b VERTICAL INSULATI A ON R-VALUE c,d ALONG WALLS AT CORNERS A B C 1500 or less 4.5 NR NR NR NR NR 2000 5.6 NR NR NR NR NR 2500 6.7 1 .7 4.9 12 24 40 3000 7.8 6 .5 8.6 12 24 40 3500 9.0 8 .0 11.2 24 30 60 4000 10.1 10.5 13.1 24 36 60 For SI: 1 inch ⫽ 25.4 mm,°C ⫽ [( °F)-32]/1.8. a. Insulation requirements are for protection against frost damage in heated buildings. Greater values may be required to meet energy conservation standards. Interpolation between values is permissible. b. See Figure R403.3(2) for Air Freezing Index values. c. Insulation materials shall provide the stated minimum R-values under long-term exposure to moist, below-ground conditions in freezing climates. The following R-values shall be used to determine insulation thicknesses required for this application: Type II expanded polystyrene—2.4R per inch; Type IV extruded polystyrene—4.5R per inch; Type VI extruded polystyrene—4.5R per inch; Type IX expanded polystyrene—3.2R per inch; Type X extruded polystyrene—4.5R per inch. NR indicates that insulation is not required. d. Vertical insulation shall be expanded polystyrene insulation or extruded polystyrene insulation. e. Horizontal insulation shall be extruded polystyrene insulation. FIGURE 916B Minimum insulation requirements for a concrete slab. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright 2009, Washington, D.C., International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org. 174 Architectural Drafting and Design ADDITIONAL RESOURCES See CD for more information The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you keep current with changes in floor plan related materials. Major Building Code Organizations Company, Product, Address or Service www.afanda.org www.thegreendestination.com www.steel.org www.iccsafe.org Cengage/ICC -essential information for green building. The International Code Council (ICC)—The 2009 IRC is their current code; the 2012 codes are coming in the spring of 2012. United States and Federal Agencies Related to Construction Address www.access-board.gov www.ada.gov www.eren.doe.gov www.epa.gov www.nara.gov/fedreg www.nist.gov www.osha.gov Company, Product, or Service The Access Board—U.S. Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board Americans with Disabilities Act DOE—Department of Energy’s Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Network EPA—U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Federal Register— Government Printing Office NIST—National Institute of Standards and Technology OSHA—Occupational Safety & Health Administration The following sites are listed in the IBC and IRC for their reference standards that the codes are based on. See the IRC for additional references. Address www.aamanet.org www.aci-int.org Company, Product, or Service American Architectural Manufacturers Association American Concrete Institute www.aisc.org www.aitc-glulam.org www.ansi.org www.asce.org www.asme.org www.astm.org www.aws.org www.awpa.org www.apawood.org www.pwgsc.gc.ca.cgsb www.cedarbureau.org www.gypsum.org www.iso.org www.masonrysociety.org www.naamm.org www.nahb.org www.ncma.org www.nfpa.org www.post-tensioning.org www.pci.org www.spri.org www.steeljoist.org www.seinstitute.org www.tpinst.org American Forest & Paper Association American Institute of Steel Construction American Institute of Timber Construction American Iron and Steel Institute American National Standards Institute American Society of Civil Engineers American Society of Mechanical Engineers American Society of Testing Materials—International American Welding Society American Wood-Preservers Association APA—Engineered Wood Association Canadian General Standards Board Cedar Shake and Shingle Bureau Gypsum Association International Standards Organization The Masonry Society National Association of Architectural Metal Manufacturers National Association of Home Builders National Concrete Masonry Association National Fire Protection Association Post-Tensioning Institute Precast Prestressed Concrete Institute Single-Ply Roofing Institute Steel Joist Institute Structural Engineers Institute Truss Plate Institute Chapter 9: Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design www.ul.com www.usgbc.org www.wdma.com Underwriters Laboratories U.S. Green Building Council Window and Door Manufacturers Association www.wirereinforcementinstitute.org 175 www.approvals.org www.asfconline.org www.mbinet.org Wire Reinforcement, Inc. Construction-related organizations that ensure the quality of materials include: Address www.csa.ca Company, Product, or Service Canadian Standards Association www.nibs.org www.nmhc.org www.wwpa.org International Approval Services, Inc. International Association of Fire Chiefs (IAFC) Modular Building Institute (MBI) National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) National Multi-Housing Council (NMHC) Western Wood Products Association Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction Test See CD for more information QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. Question 9–9 Are bathrooms in a single-family residence required to be handicapped accessible? 1. Letter your name, Chapter 9 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it. 3. Answers should be based on the code that governs your area, unless otherwise noted. Question 9–11 What are the minimum size requirements of spiral stairs? Question 9–12 For a bedroom that is 10' × 12', what area is required to provide the minimum ventilation requirements? Question 9–1 What is the minimum required size for an entry door? Question 9–14 For a sloping ceiling, what is the lowest height allowed for usable floor area? Question 9–2 List the five major building codes used throughout the United States that govern residential construction, starting with the code that governs your area. Question 9–15 What is the minimum size opening for an emergency egress? Question 9–3 All habitable rooms must have what percent of floor area in glass for natural light? Question 9–17 Visit the Web site of the building department that governs residential construction in your area. Determine the following current design criteria: Question 9–4 What is the required width for hallways? Question 9–5 What is the minimum width for residential stairs? Question 9–6 What is the minimum ceiling height for a kitchen? Question 9–7 What is the maximum height that bedroom windowsills can be above the finish floor? Question 9–8 Toilets must have a space how many inches wide? Question 9–10 List three sanitation requirements for a residence. Question 9–13 List the minimum square footage required for habitable rooms. Question 9–16 What is the minimum required size for an exterior door? a. Roof live loads b. Wind pressure c. Risk of weathering d. Frost line depth e. Snow loads f. Seismic design category g. Risk of termites 176 Question 9–18 Determine the climate zone of the area where your school is located. Question 9–19 What wind and seismic factors will influence window placement in the initial home design? Question 9–20 How does the IECC define fenestration? Question 9–21 What components comprise the exterior envelope of a home? Question 9–22 List the required R-value for the building components of the envelope for your climate zone. Architectural Drafting and Design Question 9–23 Visit the Web site of the agency that regulates your state’s building code. List and describe any code changes currently under consideration. Question 9–24 Visit the Web site of one of the testing labs and obtain information related to a class drawing project. Question 9–25 Visit the Web site of one of the regulatory agencies that influence construction in your area and describe your findings. CHAPTER 10 Room Relationships and Sizes I N T R O D U C T I O N Architecture probably has more amateur experts than any other field. Wide exposure to houses causes many people to feel that they can design their own house. Wide media exposure to home design programs on Home and Garden Television (HGTV) and the availability of home improvement retail stores such as Lowe’s and Home Depot that offer in-store seminars and product demonstrations, have produced educated consumers with an increased sensitivity to design. Because they know what they like, many people attempt to draw their own plans, only to have them rejected by building departments. Designing can be done by almost anyone. Designing a home to meet a variety of family needs takes more knowledge. THE FLOOR PLAN As a home is designed for a family, the floor plan is usually the first drawing that is started. The floor plan must be designed to harmonize with the site and the inhabitants. Planning for the site is introduced in Chapter 13 through Chapter 15. The balance of this chapter will introduce both the design process and basic requirements for a home. Clients typically provide the designer with many pictures collected from years of planning, which can be very helpful in planning for the family’s needs and lifestyle. Many architectural firms have a written questionnaire to provide insight into how the structure will be used. Important design considerations include the following factors: ● The number of inhabitants. ● The ages and gender of children. ● Future plans to add onto the dwelling. ● A list of general family activities to be done in the home. ● Entertainment habits. ● Desired number of bedrooms and bathrooms. ● Kitchen appliances desired. ● Planned length of stay in the residence. ● Live-in guests or requirements for people with disabilities. ● The budget for the home. ● The style of the home. ● Neighborhood covenants, conditions, and restrictions (CC&R). It is helpful to have clients write out a specific list of requirements including minimum number of rooms, minimum size of each room, and a listing of how each room is to be furnished. The written list is an excellent way to have the clients agree on the design criteria before the design team spends hours pursuing unwanted features. Providing minimum room sizes is also much more helpful than allowing a client to request “three big bedrooms.” An understanding of how the room is to be furnished will also help the designer be sure that the owner has realistic expectations for the size of the room. It is also helpful to have clients provide a “wish list” of items for their residence. These items can be eliminated if the budget is exceeded, but it may be possible to provide them. Once this information has been provided, the design process described in Chapter 1 can be started. The bubble drawings and preliminary sketches will need to integrate the living, sleeping, and service areas, as well as movement among these areas. Consideration must also be given to the style of the home. Single-level and multilevel homes pose different design challenges. This chapter will explore the challenges of placing the living, sleeping, and service areas in various styles of homes. LIVING AREA The living area consists of the living, dining, family, den, and nook areas. These are the rooms or areas of a house where family and friends will spend most of their leisure time. The rooms of the living area should be clustered together near the entry to allow easy access for guests. 177 178 Architectural Drafting and Design Entries Entries serve as a transition point between areas of the home. A well-planned home will have at least two points of entry—the main entry, to draw guests into the home, and a service entry that is used by the family for access between the garage, yards, and service areas. Main Entry The main entry, as in Figure 10-1, provides an outside focal point to draw guests to the front door and serves as a hub for traffic to the living areas. A raised entry is a common method of accenting the front door. Figure 10-2 shows an example of a simple but inviting entry that clearly draws guests to the home. Both examples clearly define access to the front door. The entry should be kept proportional to the entire structure and should be made of compatible materials. The size of the entry will be influenced by the number of entry doors and their size. Single entry doors are generally 3' (900 mm) wide. Larger homes may have doors that are 42" (1050 mm) or 48" (1200 mm) wide. Double doors are typically 5' (1500 mm) or 6' (1800 mm) wide, and one or both panels can be operable. Single and double doors are usually 6'–8" (2000 mm) high but are also available in 8' (2400 mm) and custom heights. NOTE: Review Chapter 9 for code requirements for egress doors located on the egress path. A second major consideration in planning the entry is providing protection from the weather. Depending on your area of the country, this might include direct sunlight (in arid climates), rain, snow, and wind. A wellplanned entry will provide a covered access into the FIGURE 101 The main entry should provide a focal point from the outside of the home to draw guests to the front door. Courtesy Janice Jefferis. FIGURE 102 A simple but inviting entry can clearly draw guests to the home. Courtesy Paul Helus. home as well as a windbreak. The windbreak can often be achieved by recessing the entry area similar to the home in Figure 10-3. The depth of the recess should be kept proportional to the width and height of the entry. FIGURE 103 This recessed, covered entry provides protection from the weather and blends well with the balance of the home. Once inside the foyer, guests should have direct access to other living areas of the home, and have close access to a coat closet. Courtesy Mike Jefferis. Chapter 10: Room Relationships and Sizes 179 GREAT RM. REFR. DN. 3 RISERS MAST. SUITE LINEN SKYLIGHT STUDY KITCHEN several people at a time. The size will be based on the client’s needs and personal preferences, as well as the size and cost of the home. In a small home, a foyer 48" (1200 mm) wide may be tolerable, although 6' × 6' (1800 × 1800 mm) is still considered small. In a larger home, a room 8' to 12' (2400 to 3600 mm) wide would be more appropriate. The height of the foyer should be considered as the size is determined. A small foyer with a tall ceiling will create a feeling of being in an elevator shaft. Remember, the goal of the foyer is to create a warm, inviting feeling and to enhance traffic flow throughout the home (see Figure 10-4). Service Entry FOYER DINING RM. COVERED PORCH BRICK COLUMN The service entry similar to Figure 10-5 links the garage, kitchen, utility room, bathrooms, and patios or decks. In many homes, although guests typically use the main entry, the family’s main access is through the service entry. Depending on the size and location of the home, the service entry may serve as a mudroom. The service entry will be discussed later in this chapter as utility rooms are explored. 36" HIGH PLANTER FIGURE 104 The foyer should create a warm, inviting feeling and enhance traffic flow throughout the house. Courtesy Tereasa Stark Designs. Foyer The foyer is typically the first access to the residence for guests. In cold climates, many homes have an enclosure that leads to the foyer, to prevent heat loss. The ideal entry will open to a foyer rather than directly into one of the living areas. The foyer serves as a place for welcoming guests or saying final good-byes. The foyer also provides access to the living areas, the sleeping area, and the service areas of the house. This might include a hall leading to the sleeping area and a stair way leading to an upper or lower floor. A closet should be provided near the front door for storage of outdoor coats and sweaters, space for guests’ coats, as well as room for seasonal clothing. Provide access to the closet that will not be blocked by opening the front door. The area must provide ample room to open the entry door completely and allow it to swing out of the way of people entering the home. The foyer should be proportional to the rest of the home, but it should also be of sufficient size to hold FIGURE 105 The service entry is used to link the service areas to the exterior. Courtesy David Jefferis. 180 Living Room The purpose of the living room will vary, depending on the size of the home and the preferences of the home owner. Points to consider in planning the living room include how the room will be used, how many people will use it, how often it will be used, and the type and size of furniture that will be placed in it. Some families use the living room as a place for quiet conversation and depend on other living areas for noisier activities. In homes designed to appeal to a wide variety of interests, the formal living room has given way to a large multipurpose room. If both a living room and a family room are provided, the living room is typically used to entertain guests or for quiet conversations. Figure 10-6 shows a formal living room. If the home has no family room, the living room will also need to provide room for recreation, hobbies, and relaxation. The size of the living room should be determined by the number of people who will use it, the furniture intended for it (see Figure 10-7A), and the budget for the entire construction project. Rectangular rooms are typically easier to plan for furniture arrangements. The closer a room is to being square, the harder furniture placement becomes. The minimum width needed for common activities is 12' to 14' (3600 to 4200 mm). A room 13' × 18' (3900 × 5400 mm) works well for most furniture arrangements and allows for moving furniture easily. Figure 10-7B lists common sizes of living room furniture. Architectural Drafting and Design Within the room, an area approximately 9' (2700 mm) in diameter should be provided for the primary seating area. This area is often arranged to take advantage of a view or centered on a fireplace. In smaller homes, the living room can be made to seem larger if it is attached to other living areas as in Figure 10-8A. In larger residences similar to Figure 10-8B, the living room is often set apart from other living areas to give it a more formal effect. The living room is usually placed near the entry so that guests may enter it without having to pass through the rest of the house. The living room should also be placed so that the rest of the home can be accessed without having to pass through it. Many designers place the living room one or more steps below the level of the balance of the home, as in Figure 10-9, to enhance a feeling of separation and to discourage through traffic. The location of the room should also take energy efficiency into consideration. If the room is used primarily in the evening, it should be placed on the west side of the residence so it will have natural light at that time. In cooler climates, a southwestern orientation will provide the most hours of sunlight; in warmer climates a northwestern orientation will help the room take advantage of evening light while offering some protection from the low summer sun. The overhang of roofs, wall projections, type and amount of glazing, and landscaping can all be used to control the effects on the structure. Figure 10-10 shows a casual living room that is open to both the rest of the home and to the yard. Family Room FIGURE 106 A formal living room provides an area for quiet conversation away from the noise of other living areas. In larger homes, the living room is often set apart from the rest of the living areas to create a formal area. Courtesy Piercy & Barclay Designers, Inc., CPBD. The family room is probably the most used area of a house. A multipurpose area, it is used for such activities as watching television, informal entertaining, sorting laundry, playing pool, or eating. With such a wide variety of possible uses, planning the family room can be quite difficult. The room needs to be separated from the living room but still be close enough to have easy access from the living, dining, and kitchen areas for entertaining. Figure 10-11 shows a possible layout of living areas providing close but separate rooms. The family room needs to be near the kitchen because it is often used as an eating area. Placing the family room adjacent to the kitchen combines the two most used rooms into one area called a country kitchen. It is also common to have the family room near the service areas of the residence. Chapter 10: Room Relationships and Sizes 181 LIVING / FAMILY ROOM SOFA DESK & CHAIR COMPUTER WORKSTATION END TABLE OVAL END TABLE LOVE SEAT ENTERTAINMENT CENTER COMPONENTS TELEVISION END TABLE COFFEE TABLE RECLINER GRANDFATHER CLOCK END TABLE CORNER TABLE W/ LAMP SHELF UNIT HALL TREE STEREO CABINET STUFFED CHAIR OTTOMAN FLOOR LAMP SECRETARY POOL TABLE PING-PONG TABLE FOOSBALL TABLE GRAND PIANO PIANO DINING ROOM DINING ROOM TABLES SERVING CART CHINA HUTCH BUFFET CURIO DINING CHAIR BEDROOM DRESSER BUREAU CRIB BUNK TWIN DOUBLE FIGURE 107A Furniture typically found in living areas. QUEEN KING NIGHTSTAND 182 Architectural Drafting and Design COMMON FURNITURE SIZES (INCHES) LIVING ROOM AND FAMILY ROOM Sofas 34 ⫻ 78 End 34 ⫻ 90 34 ⫻ 96 Tables 34 ⫻ 102 18 ⫻ 18 Armchairs 18 ⫻ 21 18 ⫻ 24 18 ⫻ 30 18 ⫻ 24 22 ⫻ 24 18 ⫻ 36 28 ⫻ 32 24 ⫻ 24 32 ⫻ 34 Sectional 26 ⫻ 30 26 ⫻ 26 Pieces 26 ⫻ 53 26 ⫻ 62 24 hex 26 hex Recliners to 66 24 ⫻ 56 Piano Love Seats 32 ⫻ 50 Coffee 30 ⫻ 66 Tables 30 ⫻ 29 18 ⫻ 36 20 ⫻ 52 Grand 20 ⫻ 60 Piano 58 ⫻ 75 FIGURE 108A If the living room is open to other living areas, a casual feeling is created. Courtesy Aaron Jefferis. the family room, the room should be large enough to allow for the heat from the stove. Often in an enclosed room where air does not circulate well, the area around a stove or fireplace is too warm to sit near comfortably. 20 ⫻ 75 DINING ROOM Oval Tables 54 ⫻ 76 Hutch 18 ⫻ 36 ⫻ 72 Round Tables 30 Chairs 18 ⫻ 18 18 ⫻ 20 32 36 42 48 Rectangular Tables Tea Cart 16 ⫻ 24 18 ⫻ 33 30 ⫻ 34 36 ⫻ 44 to 108 42 ⫻ 48 to 108 BEDROOM Dressers 18 ⫻ 30 to 82 Desks 24 ⫻ 30 24 ⫻ 35 Beds: Crib 30 ⫻ 54 Bunk 30 ⫻ 75 Twin 39 ⫻ 75 24 ⫻ 42 32 ⫻ 42 Double 54 ⫻ 75 32 ⫻ 48 32 ⫻ 60 Queen 60 ⫻ 80 King 76 ⫻ 84 Nightstands 12 ⫻ 15 15 ⫻ 15 to 21 FIGURE 107B Common furniture sizes. Sizes can vary greatly depending on the design criteria for the residence. When the family room is designed for a specific family, its size can be planned to meet their needs. When the room is being designed for a house where the owners are unknown, it must be of sufficient size to meet a variety of needs. An area of about 13' × 16' (3900 × 4800 mm) should be the minimum. This is a small room but would provide sufficient area for most activities. If a wood-burning stove or fireplace is in FIGURE 108B In addition to being open, this area creates an elegant room in which to entertain. Courtesy Eric S. Brown Design Group, Inc. Photo by Oscar Thomson. Chapter 10: Room Relationships and Sizes 183 Dining Room FIGURE 109 Many designers place the living room one or more steps below the level of the rest of the home to enhance a feeling of separation and to discourage through traffic. Courtesy Sara Jefferis. For most families, space should be provided for an entertainment center storing the television, the stereo system, and related equipment. Figure 10-12 shows a pleasing arrangement of a fireplace, a television, and entertainment units. Dining areas, depending on the size and atmosphere of the residence, can be treated in several ways. The dining area is often part of, or adjoining, the living area, as in Figure 10-13. For a more formal eating environment, the dining area will be near but separate from the living room area. See Figure 10-14A and Figure 10-14B. The two areas are usually adjoining so that guests may go easily from one to the other without passing through other areas of the house. The dining room should also be near the kitchen for easy serving of meals but without providing a direct view into the work areas of the kitchen. Because of the need to be by the living room and kitchen, the dining room is often placed between these two areas or in a corner between the two rooms, as in Figure 10-15. A casual dining room can be as small as 9' × 11' (2700 × 3300 mm) if it is open to another area. This size would allow for a table seating four to six people and a small storage hutch. A formal dining room should be about 11' × 14' (3300 × 4200 mm). This allows room for a hutch or china cabinet as well as the table and chairs. Allow for a minimum of 32" (800 mm) from the table edge to any wall or furniture for placement of chairs and a minimal passage area. A space of approximately 42" (1050 mm) will allow room for walking around a chair when it is occupied. Nook When space and finances will allow, a nook or breakfast area is often included in the design. This is where the family will eat most meals and snacks (Figure 10-16). The dining room then becomes an area for formal eating only. Both the dining room and the nook need to be near the kitchen. If possible, the nook should also be near the family room. Where space is at a premium, these areas are often placed together in one room called a grand or great room (Figure 10-17). In larger homes a patio or deck may be enclosed to provide a solarium (Figure 10-18). Den/Study/Office FIGURE 1010 A casual living room that draws the outside in. Living areas of this residence are close to each other for easy entertaining, but separated for noise control. Courtesy Eric S. Brown Design Group, Inc. Photo by Lawrence Taylor. Although the name may vary, many families plan for a room for quiet reading and study, as in Figure 10-19. This room is typically located off the entry and near the living room. The den often serves as a buffer between the living and sleeping areas of a residence. In many tract houses, the den is used as a spare bedroom or guest room. 184 Architectural Drafting and Design PATIO NOOK 9/0 X 11/0 LIVING AREA SH EL VE S WALK IN CLOSET LINEN LAUNDRY 11/3 X 6/2 FURN D SHOWER PANTRY BO O K W.H. M. BATH LIVING 13/4 X 17/4 WOOD STOVE W MASTER BEDRM 18/0 X 16/8 KITCHEN 10/0 X 12/0 FAM. RM. 15/0 X 17/4 WOOD STORAGE SPA TUB COFFERED CLG. LIVING AREAS TUB/SHR BATH LIN. STORAGE CLO. DINE 11/6 X14/0 ENTRY BEDRM 2 10/8 X 12/2 BEDRM 3 11/6 X 12/2 WINDOW SEATS W/ STORAGE 3 CAR GARAGE 43/0 X 27/0 PLANTER FIGURE 1011 Living areas of this residence are close to each other for entertaining, but separated for noise control. Courtesy Wally Griener, SunRidge Designs, CPBD. FIGURE 1012 A pleasing arrangement of fireplace, television, and display and storage units should be part of every family room. Courtesy Jordan Jefferis. FIGURE 1013 The dining area can be combined with other living areas to create a spacious environment. Courtesy Piercy & Barclay Designers, Inc., CPBD. Chapter 10: Room Relationships and Sizes 185 DN. 3 RISERS GREAT RM. KITCHEN PANTRY ENTRY DINING RM. 11'-10" x 15'-3" CURIO CAB. BUILT-IN CHINA HUTCH 9'-0" CEIL GARAGE 12'-0" HIGH CEILING FIGURE 1014A Separating the dining room from the other living areas creates a more formal eating area. Courtesy Tereasa Stark Designs. If the room is to be a true office within the home, the entrance should be directly off the entry. An entry separate from the residence is ideal. Entry to the office can be provided from a covered porch but should be distinctive enough so that clients will know where to enter. The size of the office depends on the equipment to be used and the number of clients to be accommodated. It should have room for a desk, computer work space, storage areas for books and files, and a separate area for phones, fax, and photocopying machines. Home Theaters Although not included in most tract homes, personal theaters or media rooms are becoming popular in many custom homes. What used to be unfinished space, or a bonus room above a garage, can be made into a home theater. Home theaters are customdesigned rooms created, as the name implies, for high-quality viewing of movies. The home designer will work closely with media consultants to meet the needs of the family and to help plan the locations of sound equipment. Figure 10-20 shows four common room layouts for home theaters with surround sound. FIGURE 1014B Although open to other rooms, a formal atmosphere is created by enclosing the dining area with columns and arches. Courtesy Eric S. Brown Design Group, Inc. Photo by Lawrence Taylor. Points to consider will be the size and type of the television, the number of viewers, and the type of seating. A wall-mounted digital or plasma television will require far less room than a projection television or even a big-screen television. While most home theaters are designed for eight to twelve people similar to Figure 10-21, larger capacity rooms are occasionally found. Sofas, recliners, and easy chairs make for casual, comfortable seating. Theater-type seating is also available. For larger seating groups, an inclined or stepped floor should be part of the design. No matter how small the room, space should be provided for snack preparation. Items that may be included are a popcorn machine, a counter with a microwave, and a small refrigerator or wet bar. SLEEPING AREA The age, gender, and number of children will determine how many bedrooms will be required. Preteens can share a bedroom if space is limited. Teens of the same gender have even been known to survive sharing 186 Architectural Drafting and Design LIVING AREA LIVING RM. PATIO MASTER BEDRM 14/0 X 16/0 14/8 X 13/0 DINING RM. 12/0 X 14/6 SPA M. BATH TUB PANTRY WALK IN CLOSET KITCHEN 11/0 X 12/6 TU D BATH B/ SH R LINEN SHOWER BEDRM 2 11/0 X 11/0 FIGURE 1017 A grand or great room is a combination of a living, dining, and family room. Courtesy Marvin Windows and Doors. W FUR W.H. ENTRY DEN/BEDRM 2 CAR GARAGE 13/6 X 11/4 20/0 X 22/0 FIGURE 1015 Combining the dining and living areas provides ample space for entertaining. Courtesy Wally Griener, SunRidge Designs, CPBD. a room together, although this situation often results in distinctive markings of territory during tense times. The ideal situation is to provide a separate bedroom for each child. Each room should have space for sleeping, relaxation, study, storage, and dressing. FIGURE 1016 A nook is a casual area for family dining. Courtesy Megan Jefferis FIGURE 1018 A sunroom or solarium can provide added square footage at a relatively low construction cost. Courtesy American PolySteel. FIGURE 1019 Many homes provide a room that can be used as an office, study, or guest bedroom. Courtesy Eric S. Brown Design Group, Inc. Photo by Lawrence Taylor. Chapter 10: Room Relationships and Sizes 187 CENTER DIPOLAR LISTENING AREA FRONT MONOPOLAR REAR SUBWOOFER LARGE LISTENING AREA FIGURE 1021 Many custom homes include a personal theater as part of the design. Courtesy BOWA Builders, Inc. Greg Hadley, photographer. LISTENING AREA L-SHAPED ROOM LISTENING AREA ELONGATED ROOM LISTENING AREA SMALL LISTENING AREA FIGURE 1020 Four common room layouts for a home theater. Bedrooms The sleeping area consists of the bedrooms. These rooms should be placed away from the noise of the living and service areas and out of the normal traffic patterns. The number of bedrooms will vary depending on the size of the family and the ages of the children. Even in a family with no children, a minimum of two rooms should be provided. A second bedroom can be used as an office, craft room, or guest room and greatly increases the value of the home for resale. Most homes have a minimum of three bedrooms; and four bedrooms and a den are a common option for many subdivision homes. Many custom homes plan for a space about the size of a bedroom to be used as a multipurpose room. An exercise or equipment room, a game room, and a darkroom are common types of multipurpose rooms located near the bedrooms. The arrangement of bedrooms will vary greatly depending on the needs of the family. Common arrangements include placing all the bedrooms together, or placing the master bedroom separate from the bedrooms for children. It is also common in custom homes to plan a bedroom–living unit for long-term care of a live-in relative. Bedrooms are generally located with access from a hallway for privacy from living areas and to be near bathrooms, as in Figure 10-22. Care must be taken to keep the bathroom plumbing away from bedroom walls. One way to accomplish this is to place a closet between the bedroom and the bath. If plumbing must be placed in a bedroom wall, use insulation to help control noise. Bedrooms function best on the southeast side of the house. This location will bring morning sunlight to the rooms. When a two-level layout is used, bedrooms are often placed on the upper level, away from the living areas. Not only does this arrangement provide a quiet sleeping area, but bedrooms can often be heated by the natural convection of heat rising from the living area. Another option is placing the bedrooms 188 Architectural Drafting and Design SEW / BED 4 11'-0" X 12'-6" BED 3 13'-2" X 11'-0" FOLD-DN. IRON'G BD. TUB. & S. NOOK 11'-0" X 13'-4" DESK COVERED PATIO LINEN BED 2 16'-5" X 11'-0" SHOWER FIGURE 1022 Bedrooms should be located with access from a hallway, for privacy from the living areas, and be near bathrooms. Courtesy Tereasa Stark Designs. in a daylight basement. An advantage of a bedroom in a daylight basement is the cool sleeping environment that the basement provides. Care must be taken in basement bedrooms to provide direct emergency exits to the outside. Sizes of bedrooms vary greatly depending on the size of the home, the age of the occupants, and the furniture to be placed in a bedroom. The International Residential Code (IRC) requires a minimum of 70 sq ft (6.5 m2). Homes financed by Federal Housing Authority (FHA) loans are required to provide a minimum of 100 sq ft (9.3 m2). Spare or children’s bedrooms are often as small as 9' × 10' (2700 × 3000 mm). This might be adequate for a sleeping area, but not if the room is also to be used as a study or play area. Each bedroom should have enough space for a single bed, a small bedside table, and a dresser. Clients often specify enough space for a twin or double bed. Plan for a minimum of 24" (600 mm) on each side of a bed, where space to walk is required. A space of approximately 36" (900 mm) should be provided between dressers and any obstruction to allow for opening of drawers or doors. This requires a space of about 12' × 14' (3600 × 4200 mm) plus closet areas. Minimum closet space will be covered in the next section. FIGURE 1023 A well-designed master suite provides spacious room for a queen- or king-sized bed, a fireplace, a sitting area, direct access to the wardrobe and bathing areas, and access to a private deck or balcony. Courtesy Zachary Jefferis. area, and bathing area. A well-designed master suite, as in Figure 10-23, provides spacious room for a queen- or king-sized bed, plus room for a fireplace, sitting area, direct access to the wardrobe and bathing areas, and access to a private deck or balcony. The master bedroom should be at least 12' × 14' (3600 × 4200 mm) plus closet areas. An area of 13' × 16' (3900 × 4800 mm) will make a spacious bedroom suite, although additional room is required for a sitting or reading area (Figure 10-24). A window seat Master Suites More than just a room for sleeping, the master bedroom in many custom homes is a retreat from the day’s troubles. The master suite serves as a bedroom, sitting FIGURE 1024 A master suite often includes a sitting area for quiet reading or conversation. Courtesy Marvin Windows and Doors. Chapter 10: Room Relationships and Sizes can often be used to provide sitting room without greatly increasing the square footage of the room. Try to arrange bedrooms so that at least two walls can be used for bed placement. This is especially important in the master bedroom to allow for periodic furniture movement. Window planning is very important in a bedroom. Although morning sun is desirable, space should be planned so that sunlight will not shine directly on the bed. Especially important in planning windows for a bedroom is to allow for emergency egress from the bedroom. Review Chapter 9 for a summary of emergency egress requirements for bedrooms. For upper-level bedrooms, try to provide a roof, porch, or balcony as an escape route from a window for young children. A flexible escape ladder can be used for older children. Closets Building codes do not require bedroom closets. FHA recommends a length of 48" (1200 mm) of closet space for males and 72" (1800 mm) for females. Six feet (1800 mm) should be considered the practical minimum for resale if a traditional shelf-and-pole storage system is to be used for storage. Space can be reduced if closet organizers are used. Minimum closet depth is typically considered to be 24" (600 mm). A depth of 30" (750 mm) is adequate to keep clothing from becoming wrinkled. If a closet must be small, a double-pole system can be used to double the storage space or a premanufactured closet organizer can be used to provide storage. Closets can often be used as a noise buffer between rooms or located in what would be considered wasted space in areas with sloping ceilings. Space must also be provided near the bedrooms for linen storage. A space 2' (610 mm) wide and 18" (457 mm) deep would be minimal. 189 FIGURE 1025 An area containing shelves, baskets, and drawers increases storage without increasing square footage. Courtesy Matthew Jefferis. equipment and fold-down ironing boards are provided in the closet similar to Figure 10-26. Figure 10-27 shows a well-planned wardrobe area for a master suite. Many clients request space for a freestanding armoire to provide additional storage. Walk-In Closets Master bedrooms, as well as the other bedrooms of a custom home, often will have a walk-in closet. It should be a minimum of 6' × 6' (1800 × 1800 mm) to provide adequate space for clothes storage. A closet of 6' × 8' (1800 × 2400 mm) provides much better access to all clothes. Providing multiple rods for hanging pants, shirts, skirts, and blouses can increase storage. A single pole should be provided for hanging dresses and seasonal coats. An area containing shelves, baskets, and drawers, as in Figure 10-25, is also desirable if space permits. In large closets, a seating area should be provided, and in some cases, laundry FIGURE 1026 In large closets of a custom home, laundry equipment and fold-down ironing boards are provided in the master bedroom closet. Courtesy Tom Worcester. 190 Architectural Drafting and Design 36" HIGH COUNTER W/ DRAWERS BELOW S& P S & DBL. P 3 SHELVES W/ GLASS DOORS OVER COUNTER LINEN FULL MIRROR SEAT SHOE SHELVES BUILT-IN IRON S & DBL.P LINEN KNEE SPACE BED. 1 21'–6" X 17'–0" FIGURE 1027 A well-planned wardrobe provides ample storage space for hanging and folded clothes and easy access to the bedrooms and bathrooms. SERVICE AREAS The bathrooms, kitchen, utility rooms, and the garage are each considered part of the service area. Notice that three of the four areas have plumbing. Because of the plumbing and the services that each provides, an attempt should be made to keep the service areas together. Another consideration in placing the service area is noise. Each of these four areas tends to have noises that will interrupt activities of the living and sleeping areas. Bathrooms FIGURE 1028A A bathroom suite typically includes the features of a full bath with a separate shower. Courtesy Janet Helus. Although many adults prefer only a shower, families with younger children often require a tub unit. A bathroom suite typically includes the features of a full bath with a separate tub and shower similar to Figure 10-28A. The tub is often an enlarged tub or spa similar to Figure 10-28B. If the tub is to be raised, skid-proof steps should be provided. If windows are To provide privacy, bathrooms are often reached by a short hallway, apart from living areas. A house with only one bathroom to serve the living area and the kid’s bedrooms must have it located for easy access from both the living and sleeping areas. Access to the bathroom should not require having to pass through the living or sleeping areas. Types of Bathrooms Options for bathrooms include half-bath, three-quarter bath, full bath, and bathroom suite. A half-bath has a lavatory and a water closet (a toilet). A half-bath is usually provided near the living area to serve guests. A three-quarter bath combines a shower with a toilet and a lavatory. Three-quarter baths are often used near bedrooms for older children. A full bath has a lavatory, a toilet, and a tub or a combination tub-and-shower unit. FIGURE 1028B A bathroom suite typically includes a spa or a large soaking tub separate from the shower. Courtesy Lee Gleason. Chapter 10: Room Relationships and Sizes 191 LINE OF LOWER FLOOR U.L. APP'D METAL CHIMNEY 6' X 4' CER. TILE SPA AND SURROUND MAKE-UP COUNTER COVERED DECK SEAT S&P OPEN SHELVES GLASS BLOCK BED. 2 OPEN SHELVES LIN WARDROBE W/ CLOSET ORGANIZER LIN 3 GU 6" H AR IGH DR AIL FIGURE 1029 Master bath suite. placed around a tub or spa, the glass is required to be tempered. Glass blocks are a common alternative to tempered glass. The wardrobe, dressing area, and a sitting area are also usually part of, or adjoining, the bathroom suite. Figure 10-29 shows a plan view for a master suite. Many custom homes feature a full bath with an adjoining exercise room, sauna, or steam room. Bathroom Locations The style of the house affects the number and locations of bathrooms. A single-story residence may have one bathroom for the master bedroom and a second to serve the living areas and the other bedrooms. A twostory house typically has two full bathrooms upstairs, with a minimum of a half-bath downstairs. Multilevel homes should have a bath on each level containing bedrooms or a half-bath on each level with any type of living area. When a residence has two or more baths, they are often placed back-to-back or above each other to reduce plumbing costs. A full bath is typically provided near the master bedroom, with a separate bathroom to serve the balance of the bedrooms. If space and budget allow, a bathroom for each bedroom is desirable. For families with young children, a tub is usually a must. Many bathrooms that are designed to be shared place the sinks in one room, and the toilet and tub in an adjoining room similar to Figure 10-30A and Figure 10-30B. For homes designed to appeal to a wide variety of families, a combination of a tub and shower is often used. Homes designed for outside activities often have a three-quarter bath near the utility room or combine the laundry facilities with a bathroom to create what is often called a mudroom. SEAT 10'–6" X 10'–4" OPEN STORAGE IN ATTIC SPACE BED.1 48" X 60" C.T. SHW. W/ SEAT & 2 HDS. S&P BED. 3 10'–6" X 10'–0" AR CH SEAT 60" F.G. TUB & S. DN. 14 R. 34" HIGH RAIL 36" HIGH RAIL LINEN S&P 22 X 30 MIN. ATTIC ACCESS FIGURE 1030A Many bedrooms share a bathroom. When the lavatories are separated from the bathing area, two people can use the room at once. Kitchen A kitchen is used through most of a family’s waking hours. It not only serves for meal preparation but often includes areas for eating, working, and laundry (see Figure 10-31). It needs to be located close to the dining areas so that serving meals does not require extra steps. The kitchen should also be near the family room. This will allow those preparing meals to be part of family activities. When possible, avoid placing the kitchen in the southwest corner of the home. This location will receive the greatest amount of natural sunlight, which could easily cause the kitchen to overheat. Because the kitchen creates its own heat, try to place it in a cooler area of the house unless venting and shading precautions are taken. One advantage of a FIGURE 1030B By placing the lavatory in each bedroom, a room containing the toilet and shower can be placed between two adjoining bedrooms. 192 Architectural Drafting and Design Kitchen Work Areas The space within the kitchen also demands great consideration. Perhaps the greatest challenge facing the designer is to create a workable layout in a small kitchen. The National Kitchen & Bath Association (NKBA) considers any kitchen with less than 150 sq ft (13.9 m2) as a small kitchen and a kitchen with greater than 150 sq ft (13.9 m2) as a large kitchen. Layout within the kitchen includes the relationship of the appliances to the work areas. The main work areas of a kitchen are those for storage, preparation, and cleaning. Each can be seen in the plan in Figure 10-33. FIGURE 1031 The kitchen is used for meal preparation and is often a place for eating and a social hub at family gatherings and parties. Courtesy Eric S. Brown Design Group, Inc. Photo by Lawrence Taylor. western placement is the natural sunlight available in the late evening. In a house for a family with young children, a kitchen with a view of indoor and outdoor play areas is a valuable asset. This will allow for the supervision of playtimes and control of traffic in and out of the house. The kitchen is often closely related to the utility area. Because these are the two major workstations in the home, a kitchen close to the utility room can save valuable time and energy as daily chores are done. It is also helpful to place the kitchen near the garage or carport. A location similar to the layout in Figure 10-32 will allow groceries to be unloaded easily. VAULTED CLG. PATIO NOOK 11/0 X 8/7 KITCHEN DINING RM. CARPET HARD FAMILY RM. WOOD 16/6 X 15/2 REC. ROOM 19/6 X 16/2 12/6 X 16/2 ARCH ENTERTAINMENT CENTER DESK FREEZER W.H. FURN ALLISON EASY SWING LINE OF FLOOR ABOVE ENTRY UTIL. 3 CAR GARAGE 31/0 X 25/9 PANTRY W UP16 RI SE RS STORAGE COFFERED CLG. 34'' HIGH HANDRAIL VAULTED CLNG LIVING RM. 14/6 X 17/6 D FIGURE 1032 For efficient living, the kitchen must be near the dining, living, family, and utility areas and the service entry. If traffic must flow through the kitchen, it should not pass through the work triangle. Courtesy Wally Griener, SunRidge Designs, CPBD. Storage Areas. The storage areas consist of the refrigerator, the freezer, and cabinet space for food and utensils. Most families prefer to have a refrigerator in the kitchen, with a separate freezer in the mudroom, laundry, or garage. Storage for cans and dried foods is typically in base cabinets 24" (600 mm) wide or in a pantry unit, similar to Figure 10-34A and Figure 10-34B. Upper units 12" (30 mm) deep are also typically used for dishes and nonperishable foods. A minimum counter surface 18" (450 mm) wide should be provided next to the refrigerator to facilitate access to it (see Figure 10-35). This area can also be useful for preparing snacks if the width is increased to approximately 36" (900 mm). As the size is increased, this counter can also be used to store appliances, such as mixers and blenders in an appliance garage similar to the one shown in Figure 10-36. This is a useful area for a breadboard and a drawer for silverware storage. Additional drawer space could be used for mixing bowls, baking pans, and other cooking utensils. Enclosed cabinet space should also be provided for storage of cookbooks, writing supplies, and telephone books, similar to Figure 10-37. The NKBA recommends that the main storage area include at least five of the following items located 15" to 48" (375 to 1200 mm) above the finished floor. The items useful for storage include lowered wall cabinets (see Figure 10-34B), raised base cabinets, tall cabinets (see the center of Figure 10-37), appliance garage (see Figure 10-36), bins (see Figure 10-38A), racks, swing-out pantry closets, interior vertical dividers, specialized drawers, and pullout shelves. Preparation Areas. The main components of the preparation areas are the sink, cooking units, and a clear counter work space. Clear counter work space should be placed near the storage areas, sink, and cooking areas with a minimum of one counter that provides approximately 48" (1200 mm) of work space. This length should be increased to 72" (1800 mm) if two or more people will be involved in preparing a meal. Chapter 10: Room Relationships and Sizes 193 TRASH COMP. APPL. GARAGE SINK & G.D. W/ GARBAGE DISP. DOWNDRAFT STOVE OPEN SHELVES BUILT-IN MICRO. DISHWASHER 36" HUTCH APPLIANCE GARAGE REFR. EXISTING WALL TO BE REMOVED OPEN SHELVES FREESTANDING ANTIQUE REFR. LINE OF 9' CEILING OPEN SHVS TILE FLOOR S&P DRY BRM. BOOK WASH '0' CLEARANCE KIT WOOD COOK STOVE 36 X 18 X 14" HIGH SEAT W/ WOOD BOX FIGURE 1033 A well-planned kitchen will provide preparation areas, storage areas, and cleaning areas separated by adequate counter space. These areas are generally not specified on the floor plan except to denote specific appliances required for each area. Related information is specified on the interior elevations (Chapter 26). Figure 10-34 through Figure 10-39 show features of this kitchen. FIGURE 1034A A pantry should be located in or near the kitchen to provide storage for dry and canned goods. This walk-in closet, located between the kitchen and garage, uses shelves, bins, and pullout drawers for long-term storage. Courtesy Janice Jefferis. FIGURE 1034B Storage cabinet located in the kitchen. The cabinet has pullout shelves and drawers for storage of foods for daily use. Because the cabinet is located just to the left of the baking center, the lower drawers provide convenient storage for large pans and other baking utensils. Courtesy Norm Holtzer. 194 FIGURE 1035 The refrigerator is used for the short-term cold storage of food. A counter 18” (457 mm) wide should be provided next to the refrigerator. Courtesy Janice Jefferis. FIGURE 1036 An appliance garage can be placed between the countertop and the upper cabinet to store small appliances that are used on a regular basis. Courtesy Janice Jefferis. FIGURE 1037 Cookbooks can be stored and antique kitchen tins can be displayed in this storage cabinet. Courtesy Leonard Conklin. Architectural Drafting and Design FIGURE 1038A The cooking center of this home includes a downdraft stove, a microwave, and preparation areas on each side of the stove. Storage includes open upper cabinets for spices, hanging storage for common utensils, and enclosed upper cabinets for cooking supplies. The counter provides space for storage of baking supplies. Lower cabinets feature breadboards on each side of the stove, and drawers and doors for storage. The drawers on the right side of the stove have false fronts for the display of dry food items such as lentils, beans, and corn. Courtesy Janice Jefferis. The preparation center can be placed between the primary sink and the cooking unit, between the refrigerator and the primary sink, near a secondary sink, or in an island. Each work area should have a counter at least 18" (450 mm) wide. Specific requirements will be introduced as each appliance is discussed. Large kitchens often have a small vegetable sink in the preparation area and a larger sink for cleaning utensils. A minimum size for a vegetable sink is 16" × 16" (400 × 400 mm). The cooking appliances are usually a stove that includes both an oven and surface heating units or separate appliances for baking and cooking and a microwave oven. Custom kitchens similar to Figure 10-38B often include warming drawers for maintaining foods at the desired temperature during meal preparation or for warming bread. The microwave oven can be part of a built-in oven, mounted below the upper cabinets, placed on the counter, or placed below the counter. A minimum counter space of 18" (450 mm) should be placed on each side of a stove or oven unit to prevent burns and provide temporary storage while cooking. Figure 10-38A shows a cooking center; Figure 10-38B shows a cooking center using a double oven. Cleaning Center. The cleaning center typically includes the sink, garbage disposal, and dishwasher, as in the arrangement shown in Figure 10-39. The sink and the surrounding cabinets and counter space Chapter 10: Room Relationships and Sizes 195 FIGURE 1039 The kitchen sink is the hub of the cleaning center. Located near windows providing a view of the outside entertainment areas, the sink is flanked by a trash compactor on the left and a dishwasher on the right. Storage for dishes is provided above the dishwasher. The drawers provide storage for eating utensils and other basic kitchen supplies. Courtesy Janice Jefferis. FIGURE 1038B A double oven is a popular choice for the main cooking unit. It can include two standard ovens, a standard oven and a convection oven, or a microwave over either a standard or convection oven. A microwave and a warming drawer complete this cooking center. Courtesy Barbara Conklin. are the most heavily used work area of the kitchen, so this area should be centrally located. Most clients prefer a double sink rather than a single sink. A typical double sink is 32" × 21" (800 × 525 mm), but 36" (900 mm) and 42" (1050 mm) wide units are also available. Double sinks are also available, at 90 degrees to each other for use in a corner. If the sink is connected to a public sewer, a garbage disposal can be installed to one side of the sink to eliminate wet garbage. A garbage disposal should not be used on sinks connected to septic tanks. The NKBA recommends that if a kitchen contains only one sink, the sink should be located across from the cooking surface, preparation center, or the refrigerator, or between these items. It also recommends that a clear floor space of 30" × 48" (750 × 1200 mm) be provided in front of the sink and the dishwasher. A minimum area 36" (900 mm) wide should be provided on one side of the sink for stacking dirty dishes, and about 24" to 30" (600 to 750 mm) on the other side for clean dishes. The dishwasher can be placed on either side of the sink, depending on the client’s wishes. The dishwasher should be placed within 36" (900 mm) of the edge of the sink. A minimum of 21" (525 mm) of clear floor space should be allowed between the edge of the dishwasher and cabinets or appliances that are placed at right angles to the dishwasher to allow loading and unloading. An upper cabinet should be provided near the dishwasher to store dishes. The Work Triangle The mere fact that a kitchen is big and has all the latest appliances does not make it efficient. Designing a functional kitchen requires careful consideration of the relationship between the work areas. This relationship, referred to as the work triangle, is a key aspect of kitchen ergonomics. The work triangle is formed by drawing lines from the centers of the storage, preparation, and cleaning areas similar the kitchen drawing in Figure 10-33. This triangle outlines the main traffic area required to prepare a meal. Food will be taken from the refrigerator, cleaned at the sink, and cooked at the microwave or stove, and then leftovers will be returned to the refrigerator. Using this work pattern and considering the work triangle, good design places the work centers at approximately equally spaced points of the triangle connected by counters. General rules for efficient kitchen design include: ● Always place work space between each workstation of the triangle. ● No side of the work triangle should be less than 4' (1200 mm) or greater than 7' (2100 mm). 196 ● ● Architectural Drafting and Design The sum of the sides of the work triangle should be at least 15' (4500 mm) but not more than 22' (6600 mm). Avoid kitchen arrangements that cause traffic to flow through the work triangle. Keep in mind that these are only guidelines—a large kitchen consists of more than just three appliances or workstations. The triangle may need to be modified to accommodate doors or to preserve a view. Appliances such as convection ovens, grills, microwave ovens, multiple sinks, and even multiple refrigerators will all affect the arrangement of work areas and appliances. In addition to traffic within the kitchen, the relationship of the kitchen to other rooms also needs to be considered. If care is not taken in the design process, the kitchen can become a hallway. The kitchen needs to be in a central location, but traffic must flow around the kitchen, not through it. Figure 10-40 shows the traffic pattern in three different kitchens. DW REFR PAN REFR PAN STRAIGHT (ONE-WALL) DW FOOD BAR PENINSULA REFR DW DW FOOD BAR DESK BRM REFR DESK PAN ISLAND PAN CORRIDOR PAN REFR DW REFR DW L-SHAPED U-SHAPED FAMILY REFR REFR DW DW PAN FIGURE 1041 The sum of the three sides of the work triangle must be between 15" to 22" (4500 to 6600 mm) for an efficient work pattern. Common Counter Arrangements PAN FAMILY A. NO THROUGH TRAFFIC DINING B.THROUGH TRAFFIC WITH MINOR INTERRUPTIONS FAMILY REFR DESK DW PAN DINING C.THROUGH TRAFFIC WITH MAJOR INTERRUPTIONS FIGURE 1040 Traffic flow should never disrupt the working area of a kitchen; plan A accomplishes this. Plan B allows traffic through the kitchen, but it will not disrupt work. Plan C shows traffic that will be very disruptive. Designers typically use one of six common counter arrangements to define the work triangle: straight (one wall), corridor, L-shape, U-shape, peninsula, and island (see Figure 10-41). Each arrangement presents its own design challenges. Straight. The straight-line or one-wall kitchen layout is ideal when appliances must be placed in a very small space. This type of layout is often used in a small apartment, a mother-in-law unit, or a recreation room that is on a different floor from the main kitchen. Although this arrangement requires few steps to move between appliances, it also provides a very limited amount of cabinet space and work areas. This arrangement can be improved, however, by using a movable cart or cutting block to expand the work triangle. Corridor or Galley. The corridor or galley arrangement places all of the cabinets on two parallel walls. This arrangement is a great improvement over a straight-line kitchen because it allows convenient storage, provides ample counter space in a small area, and minimizes Chapter 10: Room Relationships and Sizes 197 walking distance in the triangle. The distance between the cabinet faces should be a minimum of 48" (1200 mm). A width of 54" to 64" (1350 to 1600 mm) will allow two or more cooks to use the kitchen simultaneously. A galley kitchen is usually placed between two living areas. This arrangement is appropriate for a small home but should not be used in larger homes because of the possibility of poor traffic flow. Unless an alternative route is provided, the galley kitchen will become a thoroughfare for room-to-room traffic. L-Shape. An L-shaped cabinet arrangement is suitable for both small and large kitchens, but it loses efficiency as the size of the kitchen increases. Cabinets are placed on two adjacent walls with two workstations placed along one wall and the third workstation placed on the remaining wall. The L-shape enables efficient travel between workstations that are located close to the right angle, but the arrangement loses its effectiveness as the legs of the L become longer. This type of cabinet arrangement eliminates traffic through the work area and is well suited to kitchens that are adjacent to great rooms. U-Shape. The U-shaped cabinet arrangement provides an efficient layout with easy access between workstations. It also eliminates through traffic unless a door is placed in one of the walls. Many designers consider the U-shape ideal for a large kitchen, but it can result in hard-to-reach storage areas in the corners. The U arrangement may also seem confining in a small kitchen. A minimum space of 60" (1500 mm) should be used between cabinet faces. As the distance increases, an island or peninsula can be added to improve the cabinet arrangement. Peninsula. A peninsula arrangement provides ample cabinet and work space by adding one additional leg to an L-shaped or U-shaped kitchen. The peninsula can be used as work space, as the location for a work center, as a food bar, or as a combination of these features. Island. An island similar to Figure 10-42 can be added to any of the other five cabinet arrangements. The island can be used to provide added counter space or work space. A range or cooktop, or a small sink, is often placed in the island. A minimum of 42" (1050 mm) should be provided between the island and other counters to allow for traffic flow around the island. If the island contains an appliance such as a range, 48" (1200 mm) should be the minimum distance provided between counters, to allow for traffic flow when the oven door is open. FIGURE 1042 An island can be used to increase work areas. This island also includes a lowered food bar. Courtesy Tereasa Jefferis. Counter and Cabinet Sizes The standard kitchen counter is 36" (900 mm) high. The NKBA recommends that at least two different counter heights be provided in the kitchen with one work area ranging from 28" to 36" (700 to 900 mm) and a second area ranging from 36" to 45" (914 to 1143 mm) above the finish floor. For custom homes, the height may be adjusted to meet the physical needs of the owners, but it is important to remember that radical changes from the norm may greatly limit resale value. Common cabinet dimensions are listed in Table 10-1. If a food bar is provided in a peninsula or island, consideration must be given to the height and width of the eating counter. Common heights include 30", 36", and 42" (750, 900, and 1050 mm). Widths range from 12" to 18" (300 to 450 mm). For a 30" (750 mm) high counter, allow a space 30" wide × 18" deep (750 × 450 mm) for each person seated at the counter. When the food bar is level with the main countertop, allow at least a 15" (375 mm) deep clear space for the counter. When the food bar is above the main counter height, allow at least a 12" (300 mm) deep clear space for the food bar. Figure 10-43 shows an example of each type 198 Architectural Drafting and Design Overhead Cabinets Base Cabinets Standard depth 12" (300 mm) 24" (600 mm) Maximum depth 18" (450 mm) 36” (900 mm) Height 30" to 33" (750 to 825 mm) when placed above countertop 36" (900 mm) floor to countertop 12" to 18" (300 to 450 mm) when placed above an appliance Width 9" to 48" (225 to 1200 mm) 9" to 48" (225 to Stock cabinets are available 1200 mm) Stock in 3" (75 mm) increments cabinets are available in 3" (75 mm) increments Location 15" (375 mm) above countertop 24" (600 mm) above sink 30" (750 mm) above range TABLE 101 Cabinet Dimensions of food bar located in a peninsula. If a counter 30" (750 mm) high is provided, chairs can be used with it. The other heights will require stools for seating. When the food bar is the same height as the other counters, the counter area will seem much larger than when two different heights are used. A width of 12" (300 mm) will provide sufficient space for eating. If the food bar is higher than the other kitchen cabinets, it can be used as a visual shield to hide clutter in the kitchen. be placed to promote easy movement between work areas. The sink should be near the cooking units and the refrigerator to facilitate the preparation of fresh foods. Provide a minimum of 48" (1200 mm) between counters to accommodate someone working at the sink and another person walking behind him or her. Try to avoid placing the sink and dishwasher on different counters, even if they would be just around the corner from each other. Such a layout often leads to accidents from water dripping onto the floor. Refrigerator. Typically a space 36" (900 mm) wide is provided for the refrigerator similar to Figure 10-35. If a built-in or refrigerator similar to the unit in Figure 10-44 is used, a space ranging from 36" to 48" (900 to 1200 mm) wide × 24" to 28" (600 to 700 mm) deep × 84" (2100 mm) high should be allowed. To ease unloading of groceries, the refrigerator should be placed near the service entry. The refrigerator should be placed at the end of a counter, so that it will not divide the counter into small work spaces. If it must be placed near a cabinet corner, allow a minimum of 15" (375 mm) in the corner for access to the back of Arrangement of Appliances Many home owners prefer the sink to be located in front of a window, but a location with a view into other living areas is also popular. Placement of the sink at a window allows for supervision of outdoor activities and provides a source of light at this workstation. Because of its placement at a window, the sink is often located first as the kitchen is being planned. The sink should also 42" HIGH FOOD BAR 36" HIGH FOOD BAR 30" HIGH FOOD BAR FIGURE 1043 Common arrangements of food bars. FIGURE 1044 If a home is to include a built-in refrigerator, the designer will need to verify the exact size of the unit to be used. Courtesy Dick Schmitke. Chapter 10: Room Relationships and Sizes 199 used. Cooktops are available in widths of 30", 36", 42", and 48" (750, 900, 1050, and 1200 mm). Oven units are typically 27", 30", or 33" (675, 750, or 825 mm) wide. The bottom of the oven is typically 30" (750 mm) above the floor. Avoid placing a stove next to a refrigerator, a trash compactor, or a storage area for produce or breads. FIGURE 1045 Many homes use a range combining all of the cooking needs in one central location. Courtesy Sam Griggs. Microwave. A microwave unit may be placed above the oven unit, but the height of each unit above the floor should be considered in regard to the height of the clients. A microwave mounted with the bottom of the appliance between 30" to 48"(750 to 1200 mm) above the floor and near the daily eating area often proves to be very practical. Provide a counter 15" (375 mm) wide beside the microwave for placing hot dishes coming out of the unit. the counter. A minimum of 15" (375 mm) of counter space should be provided on the latch side of a singledoor refrigerator, and on both sides of a side-by-side unit. If space cannot be provided adjacent to the refrigerator, provide a counter within 48" (1200 mm) across from the refrigerator. The location must also be convenient for access to the sink for food preparation and to the cooking areas for food storage. The refrigerator should be placed within 60" to 72" (1500 to 1800 mm) of both the sink and the cooking center. If possible, it should be placed so that the door will not block traffic through the work triangle. Avoid placing the refrigerator beside an oven. Breadboard. In addition to the major kitchen appliances, care must be given to other details such as breadboards, counter work spaces, and specialized storage areas. The breadboard should be placed near the sink and the stove but not in a corner. Ideally, a minimum of 15" (375 mm) of counter space can be placed between appliances to allow for food preparation. Specialized storage often needs to be considered to meet clients’ needs. These needs will be covered as cabinets are explained in Chapter 26. Range. The cooking units should be located near the daily eating area. The range, similar to Figure 10-45, should be placed so that the person using it will not be standing in the path of traffic flowing through the kitchen. This will reduce the chance of hot utensils being knocked from the cooking elements. Ranges should be placed so that there is approximately 18" (450 mm) of counter space between the unit and the end of the counter to prevent burns to people passing by. If a food bar is provided behind and at the same height as the cooking surface, provide a minimum space of 9" (225 mm) behind the cooking surface. Stoves should not be placed within 18" (450 mm) of an interior cabinet corner. This precaution will allow the oven door to be open and still allow access to the interior cabinet. A walkway 48" (1200 mm) wide should be provided to allow someone to walk behind a person working at the stove. For most kitchens a cabinet or an under-cabinet rack similar to Figure 10-46A is adequate for wine storage. In custom homes, a special room may be requested for storing wine. Although this is referred to as a wine cellar, it could be as simple as a small, insulated closet near the kitchen or family room, a small storage area located under a stairwell, or an environmentally controlled room specifically designed for the storage of fine wines. The location and size will vary based on the budget, the number of bottles to be stored, and the availability of a basement. A temperature of 55°F, a relative humidity of 60% to 65%, and low exposure to ultraviolet light exposure are ideal for long-term wine storage. The cool temperature slows the aging process, while the high humidity prevents moisture inside the wine bottle from moving into the cork and eventually evaporating into the air. Placing the wine storage area in a naturally cool location such as a basement may eliminate the need for a cooling unit. While some basements in northern climates may naturally provide these conditions, the basements of most Cooktop. A cooktop and oven should be within three or four steps of each other if separate units are to be Wine Cellar 200 FIGURE 1046A An under-counter wine storage area is common in many kitchens. Courtesy Judy Schmitke. homes are too warm and dry to passively provide the ideal conditions for wine storage. Most storage units require the use of a wine cellar cooling unit. Wine cellars installed above ground will require active conditioning to achieve the ideal wine cellar environment. Figure 10-46B shows a small wine cellar. Utility Room The room that is called a utility room or mudroom should be planned to include space for washing, drying, folding, mending, ironing, and storing clothes. Additional space is often used for long-term storage of dry and canned food, as well as for a freezer. Figure 10-47 shows a small utility room. In a wellplanned clothing center, a means of hanging wet clothing should be provided in addition to the standard clothes dryer. A counter for folding and storing clean clothes as well as a closet for hanging clothes as they come out of the dryer should also be included. A built-in ironing board should be provided as well. Figure 10-48 shows common items found in a utility room. Utility rooms are often placed near either the bedrooms or the kitchen area. There are advantages to Architectural Drafting and Design FIGURE 1046B A wine cellar can be located in an insulated room near the kitchen or family room, or in a cool area of the basement. Courtesy Karen Griggs. both locations. Placing the utility room near the bath and sleeping areas puts the washer and dryer near the primary source of laundry. Care must be taken to insulate the sleeping area from the noise of the washer and dryer. Placing the utilities near the kitchen allows for a much better traffic flow between the two major work areas of the home. A utility room near the kitchen can often provide space for additional kitchen storage. In smaller homes, the laundry facilities may be enclosed in a closet near the kitchen. In warm climates, laundry equipment may be placed in the garage or carport. In homes with a basement, laundry facilities are often placed near the water heater source. Many home owners find that laundry rooms in a basement are too separated from the living areas. If bedrooms are on the upper floor, a laundry chute to the utility room can be a nice convenience. The utility room often has a door leading to the exterior. This allows the utility room to function as a mudroom. Entry can be made from the outside directly into the mudroom, where dirty clothes can be removed. This allows for cleanup near the service entry and helps keep the rest of the house clean. Figure 10-49A shows Chapter 10: Room Relationships and Sizes 201 DINING DW KIT REFR 5 SHELVES UTIL WASH DRY GARAGE LT FIGURE 1049A The utility room may serve as a service entry where dirty clothes can be removed as the home is entered. FIGURE 1047 A small utility room near the kitchen can be used for additional kitchen storage as well as for washing, drying, and folding clothes. Courtesy Cary Gleason. this type of utility layout. Another common use for a utility room is to provide an area for sewing and ironing similar to Figure 10-49B. Bonus Room budget allows. Many plans show this space as unfinished attic space, but plan for future conversion to living area as the need arises. The unused attic can be turned into living space similar to that in Figure 10-50 if access can be provided. A hallway connected to other upper-level living areas typically provides access. The use of bonus rooms is determined by the home owner. GARAGE 5/8" TYPE 'X' GYP. BD. WALL & CEIL. W.H. DRY L.S. 30" HIGH COUNTER W/ KNEE SPACE UTILITY WASH BRM IR Homes with a high-pitched roof often have space above the main living area or above the garage that can be converted from attic space into extra living space if the S.P. F.A.U O N BD LT W D DW G.D. SEWING CENTER FIGURE 1048 Common utility room appliances. FOLD-DN IRON BD. KITCHEN 3 SHELVES REFR SK 5 SHELVES . DBL T.C. OVEN PAN FIGURE 1049B This utility room provides a service entry, spacious layout for laundry chores, a sewing center, and plenty of storage. 202 FIGURE 1050 What might have been unused attic space can often be turned into living space as a bonus room. Courtesy Leta Allmain. Common uses for the area include a family room, additional sleeping areas, or a home office. When a bonus room is used for one of these purposes, windows must be provided to meet code requirements for light, ventilation, and emergency egress. Dormers are usually provided to meet building code requirements. Verify code requirements for each of these requirements as well as minimum wall heights in Chapter 9. See Chapter 22 for a discussion of dormers. Architectural Drafting and Design bike to an in-house weight room or gymnasium. If an exercise room will be provided, space for the equipment should be provided, as well as hallways and doors that are wide enough to provide access. The room should be near a bathroom, or it may have its own bath in larger custom homes. Features such as a steam room, sauna, and massage room are also located close to the exercise room. Figure 10-51 shows a full health center created for a custom home. An interior lap pool such as the pool shown in Figure 10-52 is common for many custom homes. When included, consideration must be given to venting the hot, moist air displaced by the pool. Consideration must also be given to the additional structural needs associated with the exercise equipment. Garage or Carport Believe it or not, some people actually park their car in the garage. For those who do not, the garage often becomes a storage area, a second family room, or a place for the water heater and furnace. The minimum space for a single car is 11' × 20' (3300 × 6000 mm). Exercise Center An exercise center or health center can range from a spare bedroom that will be used to store an exercise FIGURE 1051 A full weight room is often provided in many custom homes. This room includes access to a bathroom through the left door, and a sauna located to the right. Courtesy BOWA Builders, Inc. Photo by Jim Tetro. FIGURE 1052 A lap pool is sometimes included in exclusive custom homes. Designing a ventilation or dehumidification system is critical in the planning stages. Courtesy Dean Benfit. Chapter 10: Room Relationships and Sizes The minimum practical space for two cars should be 21' × 21' (6300 × 6300 mm). These sizes provide enough room to open doors and to walk around the car. Additional space should also be included for a workbench. A garage 22' × 24' (6600 × 7200 mm) provides for parking, storage, and room to walk around. Many custom homes include enclosed parking for three cars. Consideration is often given for parking a boat, truck, camper, or recreational vehicle. Space should be planned in the garage or in a separate storage location for the lawn mower and other yard equipment. Additional space must be provided if a post is located near the center of the garage to support an upper floor. It will also be helpful if a required post can be located off center from front to back so that it will not interfere with the opening of car doors. The garage location is often dictated by the site. Although access and size are important, the garage should be designed to blend with the residence. Many home owners prefer that the garage doors not be seen from the street as the home is being approached. Clients usually have a preference for either one large single door or smaller doors for each parking space. A single door 8' wide × 7' high (2400 × 2100 mm) is common. A door 9' (2700 mm) wide is the smallest that should be used for a truck with wide-side mirrors, or for most boat trailers. A double door is typically 16' (4800 mm) wide. Aside from the owner’s preference, posts required to support upper floors may influence the type of door to be used. Typically, the space between doors will be based on the amount of space needed inside the garage to allow car doors to open without hitting anything. When multiple single doors are to be used, consideration should be given to lateral bracing for the front of the garage. Although a good engineer can make any structure stand up, keeping the space between doors to a minimum and increasing the size of the walls at each outer edge of the garage can minimize the cost of keeping the front wall rigid. Chapter 32 will explore lateral bracing in more detail. As a general guideline, do not let structural considerations dictate the initial design. A 32" (800 mm) wide door should be installed to provide access from the garage to the yard. In areas where cars do not need to be protected from the weather, a carport can be an inexpensive alternative to a garage. Provide lockable storage space on one side of the carport if possible. This can usually be provided between the supports at the exterior end. 203 TRAFFIC PATTERNS A well-designed home must consider the relationship of the rooms to each other, the flow from the interior to the exterior, and the rooms’ relationship to the site and orientation of the sun. Interior Traffic A key aspect of any design is the traffic flow between areas of the residence. Traffic flow is the route that people follow as they move from one area to another. Often this means hallways, but areas of a room are also used to aid circulation. Rooms should be of sufficient size to allow circulation through the room without disturbing the use of the room. By careful arrangements of doors, traffic can flow around furniture rather than through conversation or work areas. Interior Hallways Codes that cover the width of hallways were covered in Chapter 9. Good design practice will provide a width of 36" to 48" (900 to 1200 mm) for circulation pathways. A space of 48" (1200 mm) is appropriate for pathways that are used frequently, such as those that connect main living areas. Pathways used less frequently can be smaller. In addition to hallways, the entries of a residence are important in controlling traffic flow. Traffic between Floor Levels In addition to considering traffic flow between rooms, it is important to determine how the levels of a home will relate to each other. The ideal location for stairs is off a central hallway. Many floor plans locate the stairs in or near the main entry similar to Figure 10-53 to provide an attractive focal point in the entry, as well as convenient access to upper areas. Stairs should be located for convenient flow from each floor level and should not require access through another room. The location will also be influenced by how often the stairs will be used. Stairs serving mechanical equipment in a basement will be used less frequently than stairs connecting the family room to other living areas. Traffic Flow between Interior and Exterior Areas Just as important as how the major interior areas relate to each other is the traffic flow between each of these areas and exterior areas. A well-planned home will expand the inside living areas to outside areas such 204 Architectural Drafting and Design FIGURE 1054 A sunroom is a multipurpose room that can be used as a reading room, a breakfast room, or a music room, or as extra space for entertaining while providing transition between interior and exterior spaces. Courtesy Marvin Windows and Doors. FIGURE 1053 Many floor plan designs locate the stairs in or near the main entry to serve as a focal point in the foyer. Courtesy Dick Carroll. as courtyards, patios, decks, balconies, and porches. Sunrooms and solariums are interior areas that combine interior and exterior features. Exterior structures that enhance outdoor living include gazebos and arbors. Each should be planned so that it blends with the overall design of the home. A sunroom or solarium is a common way to bring the outside into the interior living areas. A sunroom is a multipurpose room, similar to the one shown in Figure 10-54 that can be used as a reading room, a breakfast room, a music room, or as extra space for entertaining while providing transition between the interior and exterior spaces. A solarium is typically associated with passive solar heating, but the room also provides an excellent location for casual living and may include a lap pool, a spa, or an area for indoor gardening. Each of these uses will require that ventilation, sun orientation, and views are carefully planned. Chapter 12 will introduce materials to help in planning a sunroom or solarium. Figure 10-55 shows a solarium used to provide added room for entertainment and to enclose a spa. Most of the terms describing exterior areas are strictly defined and regulated by building codes, but the use of FIGURE 1055 A solarium can provide an excellent location for casual living and may include a lap pool, spa, or an area for indoor gardening. Courtesy Sunbilt Solar Products. Chapter 10: Room Relationships and Sizes FIGURE 1056 A patio designed to provide an elegant extension of the living areas to the outside. Courtesy Eric S. Brown Design Group, Inc. Photo by Lawrence Taylor. 205 Balconies and decks are elevated floors. The IRC defines a deck as an exterior floor supported on at least two opposing sides by adjoining structures, posts, or piers. Figure 10-57 shows a covered deck supported by columns on the upper floor of a home. A balcony is an above-ground deck that projects from a wall or building with no additional supports. Although a porch is not defined by the building code, a common perception is that it is an enclosed patio or deck, as in Figure 10-58. In some areas of the country, the term enclosed would refer to walls, windows, doors, and a roofed area. In warmer areas of the country, enclosed may include only a roof or awning-type covering to protect the area from sunlight, insects, or other natural elements. The usefulness of an outdoor area these terms by the general public will vary slightly. The IRC defines a court as an exterior space that is at grade level, is enclosed on three or more sides by walls or a building, and is open and unobstructed to the sky. The courtyard provides an excellent screen, allowing privacy for outdoor living in the front yard and a secure play area for young children. Courtyards can be used as an extension of the living, dining, and family rooms by providing a patio or deck and landscaped areas. A patio is a ground-level exterior entertaining area made of concrete, stone, brick, or treated wood. The patio in Figure 10-56 is designed to provide an elegant extension of the living areas to the outside. It provides good access to the interior, ample areas of sunny and shaded seating, and room for pool activities. FIGURE 1057 What many would consider the balcony or veranda of this historic southern home is considered a deck by building codes. The IRC defines a deck as an exterior floor that is supported on at least two opposing sides by adjoining structures, posts, or piers. Courtesy Eric S. Brown Design Group, Inc. Photo by Oscar Thomson. FIGURE 1058 An enclosed porch can provide outdoor living protected from insects and weather. Courtesy California Redwood Association. Waters, Cluts, and O’Brian Architect; photo by Saari Forai. 206 may be greatly increased if it is enclosed by screens, plastic, or glass panels. Gazebos and arbors are freestanding structures that provide protection from the elements. Common uses include protected outdoor eating areas, covered pools, or spas. Most families will require one or more outdoor entertaining areas. To determine which areas are to be included in a home, designers must consider needs, function, location, orientation, climate, and size. Key questions to be considered with the client include: ● When will the area be used? ● Who will use it? ● What activities are planned for the area? ● Will traffic flow through the area? Areas that may need to be provided include a play area for children; seating for dining, quiet activities, or lounging in the sun; and space for outdoor games such as Ping-Pong, shuffleboard, and tennis. Common to most outdoor entertainment areas of custom homes is an outdoor kitchen similar to Figure 10-59. A patio or deck that will be used for outdoor eating will have different size requirements if a pool or spa is to be included. A deck will seem smaller than a patio of the same size because of the addition of a rail. Any deck, patio, or balcony is required to have a guardrail when the finished floor height is 30" (750 mm) or more above the finish grade or floor below. A balcony as small as 36" (900 mm) wide can be used to place a lawn chair in a sunny spot for one person. A minimum balcony width of 48" (1200 mm) should be provided for two or more FIGURE 1059 Covered patios and creative landscaping can be used to beautify outdoor living areas. Courtesy Eric S. Brown Design Group, Inc. Photo by Oscar Thomson. Architectural Drafting and Design small chairs, to allow access. The minimum space for patios and decks that will include a seating and traffic area is 10' × 14' (3000 × 4200 mm). Once the function is determined, the location of the deck or patio must be considered. A patio or deck located near main living areas will need to incorporate traffic flow in addition to the space required for its own functions. Exterior areas located near a bedroom or bathroom suite should have some type of screen or landscaping to provide privacy. Figure 10-60 shows how landscaping can be incorporated into the design to provide a sense of privacy and beauty. A designer must consider the orientation of the outdoor area and the local climate. A balcony or deck may be placed on the west side of a home in a northern region to take advantage of the sun. In a southern region, designing for shade will be of great importance. Just as important as the movement of the sun will be prevailing wind directions and the view. Chapter 13 will discuss methods of designing homes to enhance the relationship of the home to terrain, view, sun, wind, and sound. FIGURE 1060 Landscaping can be an effective way to enhance outdoor living. Courtesy Sherry Benfit. 207 GOING GREEN Green Design Considerations You may not have thought about it as you read this chapter, but the design concepts presented throughout this chapter are based on green construction and energy efficient design. Green design is much more than specifying appliances that are certified efficient by the Energy Star program. A key element of green design is the process of designing a home so that it blends with its environment aesthetically, flows with the terrain with minimal impact on the natural resources, and takes advantage of prevailing winds to heat and cool the home. Good planning involves designing each room of the house so that it functions well with adjoining rooms. Good environmental planning requires not only that the home meets the design criteria of the family, but it must also make efficient use of the movement of the sun throughout the day and the entire year. By arranging the required living, sleeping, and service areas of a home based on the site and its orientation to the sun, the efficiency of the home’s heating and cooling systems can ADDITIONAL RESOURCES • Placing the kitchen near the utility room to minimize the steps required between two major work areas. • Placing the laundry utilities near where the majority of laundry will be created to greatly reduce travel distances. • Placing a kitchen window to allow for supervision of the play area of small children. • Designing the location of appliances so that heat produced by the appliance can be an asset to the living area and not be detrimental to items in surrounding storage areas. See CD for more information One of the best ways to improve your ability to design pleasing homes is to look at successful designs. Excellent sources for review include magazines, television, and the Internet. To increase your reading options, use your favorite search engine and research major listings such as architectural magazines, interior design magazines, and home magazines. Magazines used by designers include: Architect’s Journal Architectural Design Architectural Digest Better Homes and Gardens Building Design & Construction Country Home Country Living Design Architecture be enhanced, and the energy used to maintain the inside environment can be greatly reduced. The layout of features within the home also contributes to the efficiency of the occupants of the home. A welldesigned floor plan will minimize travel distances from major areas of the home to enhance efficient living. Small things such as: Design Times DesignLine (AIBD) Home Home Design House Beautiful In Style Kitchen & Bath Design News Metropolitan Home If you have access to cable or satellite television, channels such as HGTV and TLC provide an excellent selection of programs that explore architectural design, interior design, and construction. New programs are aired each season, so be sure to check program listings or the Web sites for your favorite station for available programs. Current popular programs include: 24 Hour Design Awesome Interiors Before & After Classic Casual Living Curb Appeal Decorating Cents Decorating with Style Designed to Sell Designers’ Challenge Devine Design Dream House House Hunters Interiors by Design Kitchen Designs Pure Design Room by Room This Old House Classics This Small Space What You Get for the Money World’s Most Extreme Homes Information about each program can be obtained by contacting http://www.hgtv.com, http://www.tlc.discovery. com, or by using a search engine to search the Internet. Other Web sites that promote interior design include: Address www.aibd.org Company, Product, or Service American Institute of Building Design 208 www.arcadiandesign.net www.aham.org www.decoratorsecrets.com www.about.com www.iida.com www.kcma.org www.maplefloor.org www.marble-institute.com www.nspi.org Architectural Drafting and Design Arcadian Residential Design Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers Decorator Secrets Home-planning guide on the Internet International Interior Design Association Kitchen Cabinet Manufacturers Association Maple Flooring Manufacturers Association, Inc. Marble Institute of America National Spa and Pool Institute www.glasswebsite.com/nsa www.wineracksamerica.com National Sunroom Association Wine Cellar Design The best way to improve your skills is to visit open homes. Walking through a wide variety of homes and construction sites will help you visualize the materials you will be drawing. As you walk through homes, it may be helpful to take measurements of each room and develop a list of sizes that you find pleasing or confining. Photographing homes and their decor is an additional method to help you remember fine details of interior design. Photos of each area of a home can be a valuable aid in your future as you help clients define their taste. Room Relationships and Sizes Test See CD for more information QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 10 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it. 3. Answers should be based on the code that governs your area, unless otherwise noted. Question 10–1 What are the three main areas of a home? Question 10–2 How much closet area should be provided for each bedroom? Question 10–3 What rooms should the kitchen be near? Why? Question 10–4 What are the functions of a utility room? Question 10–5 Give the standard size of a two-car garage. Question 10–6 List five functions of a family room. Question 10–7 What are the advantages of placing bedrooms on an upper floor? Question 10–8 What are the advantages of placing bedrooms on a lower floor? Question 10–9 List four design criteria to consider in planning a dining room. Question 10–10 What are the service areas of the home? Question 10–11 List and describe two types of entries. Question 10–12 Using the Internet, research five sources of information about the design of a home theater. Question 10–13 Describe the use of a foyer in a home. Question 10–14 Describe the difference between a formal and a casual living room. Question 10–15 What should be considered when determining living room placement? Question 10–16 You are designing a home for a family with no children. The clients insist on having only one bedroom. How would you counsel them? Question 10–17 Visit several open homes in your area and take pictures or obtain floor plans of a minimum of five different master bedroom suites. Question 10–18 Visit several different home supply stores or use the Internet to obtain information on several different closet storage options. Question 10–19 Redesign Figure 10-32 to allow access from the entry to the dining room without passing through the living room or kitchen. Question 10–20 Use the Internet to visit builder organizations such as the National Association of Home Builders. Research current issues affecting home building in your region. CHAPTER 11 Exterior Design Factors I N T R O D U C T I O N The design of a house does not stop once the room arrangements have been determined. The exterior of the residence must also be considered. Often a client has a certain style in mind that will dictate the layout of the floor plan. In this chapter, ideas will be presented to help you better understand the design process. To design a residence properly, consideration must be given to the site, the style and shape of the floor plan, exterior styles, and the energy efficiency of the design. Site considerations will be explored in Chapter 13 and energy-efficient design will be explored in Chapter 12. determine what may or may not be built. Although once found only in the most exclusive neighborhoods, review boards are now common in undeveloped subdivisions, recreational areas, and retirement areas. These boards often set standards for minimum square footage, height limitations, and the type and color of siding and roofing materials. A potential home owner or designer is usually required to submit preliminary designs to the review board showing floor plans and exterior elevations. Access SITE CONSIDERATIONS Several site factors affect the design of a house. Among the most important are the neighborhood and access to the lot. For a complete description of each item, see Section 3. Site access can have a major effect on the design of the house. The narrower the lot, the more access will affect the location of the entry and the garage. Figure 11-1 shows typical access and garage locations for a narrow lot with access from one side. Usually only a straight driveway is used on interior lots because of space restrictions. Neighborhood In the initial planning of a residence, the neighborhood must be considered. It is extremely poor judgment to design a $500,000 residence in a neighborhood of $150,000 houses. This is not to say that the occupants will be unable to coexist with their neighbors, but the house will have poor resale value because of the lower value of the houses in the rest of the neighborhood. The style of the houses in the neighborhood should also be considered. Not all houses should look alike, but some unity of design can help preserve high values for all the properties in the neighborhood. Review Boards To help keep the values of the neighborhood uniform, many areas have architectural control committees. These are review boards made up of residents who FIGURE 111 Access to an inner lot is limited by the street and garage location. 209 210 Architectural Drafting and Design When a plan is being developed for a corner lot, there is much more flexibility in garage and house placement. To enhance livability, some municipalities are moving away from the layouts shown in Figure 11-1. Traditional layout has produced what is referred to as a snout house, meaning a home that is dominated by a view of the garage. In a design where the home is dominated by the garage, the main entrance to the home is often secondary to the entrance for cars, and the driveway often dominates the front yard. In an attempt to eliminate barriers between homes and enhance visibility, building covenants may call for: ● At least one main entrance to the house that meets one of the following requirements: FIGURE 113 A pleasing relationship between the residence and the garage. ❍ The main entrance can be no further than 6'–0" (1800 mm) behind the longest wall of the house that faces the street. ❍ The main entry must face the street, or be at an angle of up to 45°. ● At least 15% of the area of the street-facing facade of the home must be windows. ● The length of the garage wall facing the street may not be greater than 50% of the length of the entire facade of the home. ● A garage wall that faces a street may be no closer to the street property line than the longest street-facing wall of the home (see Figure 11-2). SMALL REAR YARD NO PRIVACY Figure 11-3 shows an example of a pleasing relationship between the garage and the balance of the home. Another popular way to make a neighborhood more livable is to remove the garage altogether from the front of the site. Many planned areas have moved the garage to the rear of the site so that no driveway or parking is provided on the entry or front side of the home. Automobile access is provided to the rear of the lot by an alley. When a residence is being planned for a rural site, weather and terrain can affect access. Studying weather patterns at the site will help reveal areas of the lot that may be inaccessible during parts of the year because of poor water drainage or drifted snow. The shape of the land will determine where the access to the house can be placed. Figure 11-4 shows a garage carefully blended into a home on a large site. ENLARGED REAR YARD IMPROVED PRIVACY POOR VISIBILITY IMPROVED VISIBILITY FIGURE 112 By limiting the distance that the garage can project from the balance of the home, visibility is improved, which promotes a friendlier neighborhood atmosphere. FIGURE 114 On larger sites, the entrance to the garage can often be moved away from the main entry. Courtesy David Jefferis. Chapter 11: Exterior Design Factors 211 FIGURE 116 Horizontal lines can be used to accent the length, or hide the height, of a structure. Courtesy Western Red Cedar Lumber Association. FIGURE 115 Curved lines are used to provide smooth transitions and accent a structure. Courtesy California Redwood Association. ELEMENTS OF DESIGN The elements of design are the tools the designer uses to create a structure that will be both functional and pleasing to the eye. These tools are line, form, color, and texture. Horizontal surfaces often create a sense of relaxation and peacefulness. Vertical lines create an illusion of height; they lead the eye upward and tend to provide a sense of strength and stability. Vertical lines are often used in columns, windows, trim, and siding patterns similar to the home in Figure 11-7. Diagonal lines can often be used to create a sense of transition. Diagonal lines are typically used in rooflines and siding patterns. Form Lines are used to produce forms or shapes. Rectangles, squares, circles, ovals, and ellipses are the most common shapes found in structures. These shapes are typically three-dimensional, and the proportions between them are important to design. For the best results, the form of a structure should be dictated by its function. Forms are typically used to accent Line Line provides a sense of direction or movement in the design of a structure and helps relate it to the site and the natural surroundings. Lines may be curved, horizontal, vertical, or diagonal and can accent or disguise features of a structure. Curved lines in a design tend to provide a soft, graceful feeling. Curves are often used in decorative arches, curved walls, and round windows and doorways. Figure 11-5 shows how curved surfaces can be used to accent a structure. Horizontal lines are typically seen in long roof or floor shapes, window layout, siding trim, balconies, and siding patterns. Horizontal features in a structure can be used to minimize the height and maximize the width of a home, as seen in Figure 11-6. FIGURE 117 Vertical lines can be used to accent the height of a structure. Courtesy Louisiana-Pacific Corporation. 212 Architectural Drafting and Design FIGURE 118 Forms such as rectangles, circles, and ovals are used to provide interest. Courtesy Louisiana-Pacific Corporation. specific features of a structure. Figure 11-8 shows how form can be used to break up the length of a residence. Form is also used to create a sense of security. For example, large columns provide a greater sense of stability than thinner columns. Color Color is an integral part of interior design and decorating and helps distinguish exterior materials and accent shapes. A pleasing blend of colors creates a dramatic difference in the final appearance of any structure. Color is described by the terms hue, value, and intensity. Hue represents what you typically think of as the color. Colors are categorized as primary, secondary, or tertiary on a color wheel similar to Figure 11-9. Primary colors—red, yellow, and blue—cannot be created from any other color. All other colors are made by mixing, darkening, or lightening primary colors. Secondary colors—orange, green, and violet—are made from an equal combination of two primary colors. Mixing a primary color with a secondary color will produce a tertiary or intermediate color—for example, red-orange, yellow-orange, yellow-green, blue-green, blue-violet, and red-violet. Mixing each of the primary colors in equal amounts will produce black. Mixing black with a color will darken the color, producing a shade of the original color. White has no color pigment and gray is a mixture of black and white. Adding white to a color lightens the original color, producing a tint. Value is the darkening or lightening of a hue. Intensity is the brightness or strength of a specific color. A color is brightened as its purity is increased by removing neutralizing factors. Sports cars often have high-intensity colors. A color is softened by adding the color that is directly opposite it on the color wheel. Low-intensity colors such as mint green are used to create a calming effect. Colors are also classified as warm or cool. Colors seen in warm objects, such as the reds and oranges of burning coals, are warm colors. Warm colors tend to make objects appear larger or closer than they really are. Blues, greens, and violet are cool colors. These colors often make objects appear farther away. Most designers use neutral colors for the major portions of a home and rely on the trim and roofing for accent colors. Color can be added through landscaping and interior design features. Texture WA RM TERTIARY RED-VIOLET PRIMARY RED TERTIARY RED-ORANGE SECONDARY VIOLET SECONDARY ORANGE TERTIARY BLUE-VIOLET TERTIARY YELLOW-ORANGE PRIMARY BLUE PRIMARY YELLOW TERTIARY BLUE-GREEN CO SECONDARY GREEN TERTIARY YELLOW-GREEN OL FIGURE 119 The color wheel shows primary, secondary, and tertiary colors. These categories are then divided into warm and cool colors. Texture, which refers to the roughness or smoothness of an object, is an important factor in selecting materials to complete a structure. Rough surfaces tend to create a feeling of strength and security—examples include concrete masonry and rough-sawn wood. Rough surfaces also give an illusion of reduced height. Resawn wood, plastic, glass, and most metals have a very smooth surface and create a sense of luxury. A smooth surface tends to give an illusion of increased height; also, it reflects more light and makes colors seem brighter. PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN Line, form, color, and texture are the tools of design. The principles of design affect how these tools are used to create an aesthetically pleasing structure. The basic principles to be considered are rhythm, balance, proportion, and unity. Chapter 11: Exterior Design Factors FIGURE 1110 Repetitive features lead the eye from form to form. Courtesy Monier. 213 FIGURE 1111 Formal balance places features evenly along an imaginary center line. Courtesy Aaron Jefferis. Rhythm Most people can usually recognize rhythm in music. The beat of a drum is a repetitive element that sets the foot tapping. In design, a repetitive element provides rhythm and leads the eye through the design from one place to another in an orderly fashion. Rhythm can also be created by a gradual change in materials, shape, and color. Gradation in materials could be from rough to smooth, gradation in shape from large to small, and gradation in color from dark to light. Rhythm can also be created with a pattern that appears to radiate outward from a central point. A consistent pattern of shapes, sizes, or material can create a house that is pleasing to the eye as well as provide a sense of ease for the inhabitants and convey a sense of equilibrium. Figure 11-10 shows elements of rhythm in a structure. FIGURE 1112 Informal balance is achieved by moving the center line away from the mathematical center of a structure and altering the sizes and shapes of objects on each side of the center line. Balance Balance is the relationship between the various areas of the structure and an imaginary center line. Balance may be formal or informal. Formal balance is symmetrical; one side of the structure matches the opposite side in size. The residence in Figure 11-11 is an example of formal balance. Its two sides are similar in mass. Informal balance is asymmetrical; in this case, balance can be achieved by placing shapes of different sizes in various positions around the imaginary center line. This type of balance can be seen in Figure 11-12. Proportion Proportion is related to both size and balance. It can be thought of in terms of size, as in Figure 11-13, where one exterior area is compared with another. Many FIGURE 1113 Shapes that are related by size and shape create a pleasing flow from form to form. Courtesy Saundra Powell. 214 current design standards are based on the designs of the ancient Greeks. Rectangles using the proportions 2:3, 3:5, and 5:8 are generally considered very pleasing. Proportion can also be thought of in terms of how a residence relates to its environment. Proportions must also be considered inside the house. A house with a large living and family area needs to have the rest of the structure in proportion. In large rooms the height must also be considered. A 24' × 34' (7200 × 10 200 mm) family room is too large to have flat ceiling 8' high. This standard-height ceiling would be out of proportion to the room size. A ceiling 10' high, or a vaulted ceiling, would be much more in keeping with the size of the room. Unity Unity relates to rhythm, balance, and proportion. Unity ties a structure together with a common design or decorating pattern. Similar features that relate to each other can give a sense of well-being. Avoid adding features to a building that appear to just be there or tacked on (see Figure 11-14). As an architectural drafter, you should be looking for these basic elements in residences that you see. Walk through houses at every opportunity to see how other designers have used these design basics. Many magazines are available that feature interior and exterior home designs. Study the photos for pleasing relationships and develop a scrapbook of styles and layouts that are pleasing to you. This will provide valuable resource material as you advance in your drafting career and become a designer or architect. Architectural Drafting and Design FIGURE 1115 A single-level residence is popular because it allows stair-free access to each area. Courtesy Pamela Russom, American PolySteel. FLOOR PLAN STYLES Many clients come to a designer with specific ideas about the kind and number of levels they want in a house. Some clients want a home with only one level so that no stairs will be required. For other clients, the levels in the house are best determined by the topography of the lot. Common floor plan layouts are singlelevel, split-level, daylight basement, two-story, dormer, and multilevel. Single-Level The single-level house (Figure 11-15) has become one of the most common styles. It is a standard of many builders because it provides stair-free access to all rooms, which makes it attractive to people with limited mobility. It is also preferred by many home owners because it is easy to maintain and can be used with a variety of exterior styles. Split-Level FIGURE 1114 Unity is a blend of varied shapes and sizes to create a pleasing appearance. Courtesy California Redwood Association. Waters, Cluts, and O’Brian Architects; photo by Saari Forai. The split-level plan (Figure 11-16) is an attempt to combine the features of a one- and a two-story residence. This style is best suited to sloping sites, which allow one area of the house to be two stories and another area to be one story. Many clients like the reduced number of steps from one level to another that is found in the split-level design. The cost of construction is usually greater for a split-level plan than for a single-level structure of the same size because of the increased foundation cost that the sloping lot will require. Chapter 11: Exterior Design Factors FIGURE 1116 Homes with split floor levels are ideal for gently sloping sites. Courtesy LeRoy Cook. Split-level plans may be split from side to side or front to back. In side-to-side split-levels, the front entrance and the main living areas are typically located on one level, with the sleeping area located over the garage and service areas. In front-to-rear splits, the front of the residence is typically level with the street, with the rear portion stepping to match the contour of the building site. Daylight Basement The style of house called daylight basement could be either a one-story house over a basement or garage, or two complete living levels. This style of house is well suited for a sloping lot. From the high side of the lot, the house will appear to be a one-level structure. From the low side of the lot, both levels of the structure can be seen (see Figure 11-17). FIGURE 1117 A home with a daylight basement allows living areas on the lower level to have access to the exterior on one or more sides of the home, while looking like a one-level home on the opposite side. Courtesy Janice Jefferis. 215 FIGURE 1118 Two-level homes provide the maximum square footage of living area using the minimum amount of the lot. Two-Story A two-story house (Figure 11-18) provides many options for families that do not mind stairs. Living and sleeping areas can be easily separated, and a minimum of land will be used for the building site. On a sloping lot, depending on the access, the living area can be on either the upper or lower level. The most popular feature of a two-level layout is that it provides the maximum building area at a lower cost per square foot than other styles of houses. This saving results because less material is used on the foundation, exterior walls, and roof. Dormer The dormer style allows an upper level that is usually about half of the square footage of the lower floor. This use of dormers is best suited to an exterior style that incorporates a steep roof similar to Figure 11-19. These small dormers, often called doghouse dormers, FIGURE 1119 Dormer-style home. Courtesy Matthew Jefferis. 216 FIGURE 1120 Multilevel homes provide endless possibilities for floor-level arrangements on sloping sites. allow space for windows into the living space in the attic. Another common type of dormer is a full dormer that allows a room with full headroom to be added to the edge of the attic space. The dormer level is formed in what would have been the attic area. The dormer has many of the same economic features as a two-story home. Chapter 22 will explore other types of dormers as roof construction is explored. Multilevel With a multilevel layout, the possibilities for floor levels are endless. Site topography as much as the owners’ living habits will dictate this style. Figure 11-20 shows a multilevel layout. The cost for this type of home exceeds all other styles because of the problems of excavation, foundation construction, and roof intersections. EXTERIOR STYLES Exterior style is often based on past styles of houses. New homes usually do not try to replicate the exact layout of past styles of homes, but they typically do try to copy the exterior style and charm associated with a specific historic style. The balance of this chapter will examine home styles that were common to the original settlers. Styles will be explored based on the time period of their popularity and the area of the world where the style originated. Colonial The early colonists lived in log cabins. Many companies now sell plans and precut kits for assembling log houses. Many of the colonial houses were similar Architectural Drafting and Design FIGURE 1121 Dating back to historical New England, colonial homes are very symmetrical, with windows equally spaced on both sides of the main entry. Courtesy Michael Jefferis. in style to the houses that had been left behind in Europe. Construction methods and materials were varied because of the weather and building materials available. Many colonial home styles date back to historical New England. A colonial home can be described as a home where the second-floor living area is the same size as the first-floor living area. More specifically, it was symmetrically designed with a center door with windows equally spaced on both sides and a gable roof with the ridge that runs parallel to the front side of the home. Bedrooms were usually on the second floor. Newer versions of the colonial style often have a covered front porch, attached garage, and a family room situated behind the garage. The second-floor living area frequently extends over the garage. Figure 11-21 shows an example of a home built using the colonial style. Colonial influence can still be seen in houses that are built to resemble the Georgian, saltbox, garrison, Cape Cod, Federal, Greek revival, and southern colonial styles of houses. House styles from the colonial period also include influences of the English, Dutch, French, and Spanish. Other popular styles include farmhouse, ranch, Victorian, and contemporary. Georgian The Georgian style is an example of a basic style that was modified throughout the colonies in response to available materials and weather. The style was named for the kings of England who were in power when it flourished in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The Georgian style followed the classical principles of design used by ancient Romans. This English style Chapter 11: Exterior Design Factors 217 FIGURE 1123 Georgian-style homes have formal balance, with the entry on the center line. Courtesy Jordan Jefferis. Saltbox FIGURE 1122 Dentil molding is a tooth-like trim that is often placed along the eaves of homes trying to replicate traditional styling. A Palladian window, a large window that is divided into three parts, is also a common feature of Georgian- and Federalstyle homes. came to America by way of British pattern books and from the masons, carpenters, and joiners who emigrated from England. The style became a favorite of well-to-do colonists who wanted their homes to convey a sense of dignity and prestige. Georgian house plans were rectangular in shape, usually two or three stories in height, and usually had symmetrical floor plans. The roofs had a medium roof pitch with small overhangs. Square tooth-like trim called dentil molding, shown in Figure 11-22, was often placed along the eaves. Chimneys were placed in the sidewalls, and a central hall was typically flanked by one or two rooms. The principles of form and symmetry were most evident in Georgian style in the front elevation. The front entry was centered on the wall, and equally spaced double-hung windows with 9 or 12 windowpanes were usually placed on each side of the door. A transom window was usually placed above the door. The front entry was usually covered with a columned porch supported by pilasters or columns, and the doorway was trimmed with carved wood detailing. Windows and doors were usually surrounded by decorative framework. Georgian homes almost always featured a row of five windows on the front facade just below the eave on the second story. In the South, much of the facade was built of brick. In northern states, wood siding was the major covering. Other common exterior materials used were stucco and stone. An example of a home built following the Georgian style can be seen in Figure 11-23. One of the most common modifications of the Georgian style is the saltbox. The saltbox maintained the symmetry of the Georgian style but omitted much of the detailing. This housing style received its name because its steep roof resembled colonial-era salt containers. A saltbox was typically a two-story structure at the front but tapered to one story at the rear. In Colonial times, the lower rear portion was often used as a partially enclosed shed, which was oriented north as a windbreak. These square or rectangular homes typically had a large central chimney and large, double-hung windows that had shutters to provide protection from winter winds. Exterior walls were covered with clapboard or shingles. Figure 11-24 shows a home that incorporates features of saltbox styling. Garrison The garrison style combined saltbox and Georgian style with the construction methods of log buildings. Originally modeled after the lookout structures of early FIGURE 1124 A saltbox residence has a two-level front and a one-level rear. 218 Architectural Drafting and Design FIGURE 1125 A garrison-style home has an upper level that extends over the lower level. Courtesy Matthew Jefferis. FIGURE 1126 A Cape Cod home features the formal balance of other styles but adds dormers and shutters. Courtesy GeorgiaPacific Wood Products LLC. forts, the upper level of a garrison-style home extended past the lower level. Originally, heavy timbers were used to support the overhang and were usually carved. Garrison-style homes were typically sided in unpainted clapboard or wood shingles, had steep gabled roofs, and small diamond-paned windows. Figure 11-25 shows the garrison-style features that have been incorporated into a modern residence. mid-twentieth century, the small, uncomplicated Cape Cod shape became popular in suburban developments. A twentieth-century Cape Cod is square or rectangular with one or one-and-a-half stories and steeply pitched, gabled roofs. The siding is usually clapboard or brick and dormers and window shutters are also typical of the style. Federal Cape Cod Cape Cod style consisted of a one-level boxed structure with a steep gabled roof that allowed an upper-floor level to be formed throughout the center of the house. This style of home was developed in New England during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Early Cape Cod homes were shingle-sided, one-story cottages with two basic rooms. The plan included a great room that was used for daily living, and a second room that was used as a bedroom. The central chimney had connecting fireplaces to warm each room. Over time, a kitchen was added to the back of the house with small bedrooms at the rear corners. The steep roof originally associated with the style allowed an upper-floor level to be formed throughout the center of the house. As the style advanced, dormers were placed on the front side of the roof to make the upper floor habitable. The upper floor was expanded to include bedrooms that were covered with either a shed-type dormer that covered the entire front width, or with small dormers to allow window placement. Windows on the lower floor were placed symmetrically around the door and had shutters on the lower level. An example of Cape Cod styling can be seen in Figure 11-26. An offshoot of the Cape Cod style is Cape Ann, which has many of the same features as a Cape Cod house but is covered by a gambrel roof. During the The Federal style was popular in America between 1780–1840. Federal homes combined Georgian architecture with classical Roman and Greek styles to form a very dignified style. While Georgian homes were square and angular, a Federal-style building was more likely to have curved lines and decorative flourishes such as swags, garlands, and elliptical windows. Federal homes were built of wood or brick with low-sloped roofs with dentil moldings below the eaves. A common alternative to the dentil molding was a flat roof surrounded with a balustrade. A balustrade is a row of repetitive, small posts called balusters that support the upper railing similar to Figure 11-27. FIGURE 1127 A balustrade is often placed around a deck sitting atop the roof of many Federal-style homes. Chapter 11: Exterior Design Factors 219 FIGURE 1128 Common pediment styles found on traditional homes. Other key features of the home style included a high, covered entry porch or portico supported on Greek-style columns centered over the front door. A semicircular fanlight window was often placed above the front door, surrounded with arched trim, and narrow side windows usually flanked the front door. Projected pediments similar to those in Figure 11-28 were another common feature of the main door. Other windows on the front elevation were arranged symmetrically around a center doorway, capped with a projected pediment, and trimmed with shutters. A Palladian window was often used in the center of the second story. A Palladian window is a large window that is divided into three parts similar to Figure 11-22. The center section is larger than the two side sections, and is usually arched. Circular and elliptical windows were often used to add variety. Figure 11-29 shows an example of a Federal-style residence. Greek Revival The Greek revival style became the chief residential motif of wealthy landowners in the United States from 1830 through the 1850s. Homes of this style were built using classic proportions and decorations of classical Greek architecture to copy features of the FIGURE 1129 Federal style combines features of Georgian and classical Roman and Greek architecture. Courtesy Megan Jefferis. Parthenon. These homes were large, rectangular, and very box-like with bold, simple lines. The exterior was usually covered with clapboard siding or brick. Roofs were usually low-sloped gables or hips with small overhangs with cornices featuring wide trim band comprising frieze and architrave. A two-story portico with a low-sloped gable roof supported on Greek columns was centered on the front of the residence. The front door was usually topped with a transom window, or capped by a prominent cornice similar to those in Figure 11-28 and flanked by narrow sidelights. Figure 11-30 shows an example of Greek revival architecture. Southern Colonial Several home styles emerged from the South as builders sought refuge from the heat, humidity, and weather of the area. One of the most popular southern styles was the Antebellum, which is Latin for “before war.” The term refers to the elegant plantation homes built in the American South in the 30 years or so preceding the Civil War. Antebellum homes used features found in the Greek revival or Federal style such as grand, symmetrical facades with evenly spaced windows, and FIGURE 1130 Greek revival features classic Greek proportions and ornamentation. Courtesy William E. Poole, William E. Poole Designs, Inc. 220 FIGURE 1131 Southern colonial or plantation-style homes reflect classic symmetry. They typically have a large covered porch to provide protection from the sun. boxy layouts with center entrances in the front and rear, balconies, and Greek columns or pillars. Roofs were usually low-sloped gables or hips, with small overhangs with cornices featuring a wide trim band with frieze. Figure 11-31 shows an example of a southern colonial home. English English-style houses are fashioned after houses that were built in England prior to the early 1800s. Two styles that are often copied based on their English roots are the Tudor and English cottage. English Tudor The traditional Tudor home was made of masonry or stucco and modeled after English manor homes, but was also influenced by Dutch and Gothic styling. There are several different styles of Tudor homes, but the Elizabethan variation is most often copied in twenty-first century architecture. The traditional Tudor home featured an asymmetrical layout and walls that were two or more stories in height. Exterior walls were constructed of stone or brick set in intricate patterns, or heavy timber and plaster. The halftimbered exterior used exposed wood timbers to form the structural framework and the spaces in between were filled with brick or stucco. The roofs were typically made up of one or more steeply pitched gables. Parapeted gable end walls that extended above the roof and massive chimneys topped with decorative chimney pots were also common. Doors tops were often rounded and windows were usually multipaned casement windows with diamond-shaped glass rather than the more traditional rectangle. Half-timbered bay Architectural Drafting and Design FIGURE 1132 English Tudor combines half-timber with brick, stone, and plaster. Courtesy Janice Jefferis. window projections and projecting oriel windows were other common window features. Figure 11-32 shows common features of English Tudor styling. English Cottage A subtype of the Tudor revival style is the Cotswold Cottage. With a sloping roof and a massive chimney at the front, the cottage-style home served as a model for many storybook homes. Cottage homes were patterned after the rustic cottages constructed in southwestern England since medieval times and often featured steep, half-hipped, thatched roofs. The exterior might have featured half-timbering, stone, brick, and shingle or stucco siding. Other common features included an uneven gable roof; asymmetrical shape; a prominent chimney made of brick or stone; small dormer windows; and casement windows of leaded glass. Dutch As early as the seventeenth century, Dutch settlers in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania were building brick and stone homes with roofs that reflected their Flemish culture. The Dutch colonial style had many of the features of homes already described. The major difference was a broad two-level roof with flared eaves that were slightly rounded into barn-like gambrel shapes. The lower roof level was usually very steep and served as the walls for the second floor of the structure. The upper area of the roof was the more traditional gable roof. Early homes were a single room, but as the style developed, additions were made to each end, creating a distinctive linear floor plan. End walls were originally constructed of stone, and the chimney was usually located on one or both ends of Chapter 11: Exterior Design Factors FIGURE 1133 Dutch colonial homes often feature a gambrel roof. Courtesy Laine M. Jones Designs. the home. Double-hung sash windows with outward swinging wood casements, dormers with shed-like overhangs, and a central Dutch double doorway were also common. The double door, which was divided horizontally, was once used to keep livestock out of the home while allowing light and air to filter through the open top. An example of Dutch colonial style can be seen in Figure 11-33. French Colonial Homes Colonial French influence can be seen in several common home styles found throughout the United States. These styles include French Provincial, French Normandy, French plantation, French mansard, and Second Empire. Second Empire homes will be explored later in this chapter as Victorian homes are examined. 221 FIGURE 1134 French Provincial homes featured two-level brick or stucco structures with steep, hipped roofs and a square balcony and porch balustrades. Second-story windows usually had arched tops that often extended through the cornice to rise above the eaves. French Normandy French Normandy homes are patterned after the homes in Normandy and the Loire Valley of France. Many of the original French homes had farm silos that were attached to the home. American colonial designers used the shape and style of the traditional French farmhouse and created a turret with living space where the silo would traditionally be. These homes had many of the features of a Tudor style such as decorative half timbering with stone, stucco, or brick used between the timbers. French Normandy homes were distinguished from Tudor homes by a round stone tower topped by a cone-shaped roof. The tower was usually placed near the center, to serve as the entrance to the home. French Normandy and French Provincial details are often combined to create a style simply called French Country or French Rural. Figure 11-35 shows a home with French Normandy features. French Provincial French Provincial colonial homes had their origins in the style of the rural manor homes, or chateaus, built by French nobles during the mid-1600s. Homes patterned in this style are recognized by their balance and symmetry, which were used to create a stately, formal home. The homes were two-level brick or stucco structures with detailing in copper or slate. They generally had steep, hipped roofs and a square balcony and porch balustrades. Windows and chimneys were usually balanced on each side of the entrance. Other defining features included rectangular doors set in arched openings, and double French windows with shutters. Second-story windows usually had an arched top that extended through the cornice to rise above the eaves. Figure 11-34 shows a home with French Provincial features. FIGURE 1135 French Normandy had a round stone tower topped by a cone-shaped roof. The tower was usually placed near the center of the home to serve as the entrance to the home. 222 Architectural Drafting and Design FIGURE 1137 French colonial homes often hide the upper floor behind a mansard roof. Courtesy David Jefferis. FIGURE 1136 The French Normandy style evolved into the French plantation style in many southern states, incorporating two full floors and a wraparound porch covered with a hip roof. Courtesy William E. Poole, William E. Poole Designs, Inc. French Plantation In the southern states, the French Normandy style evolved into the French plantation style. This home style incorporated two full floors and a wraparound porch covered with a hip roof. The porch was an important passageway because traditional French Colonial homes did not have interior halls. A third floor was a common component, with dormers added for light and ventilation. Figure 11-36 shows a French plantation home. This style was modified around New Orleans into what is now known as the Louisiana French style. The balcony sizes are diminished, but the supporting columns and rails have become fancier. these homes particularly suited for warmer climates. Some Spanish colonial homes featured a Montereystyle, second-story porch. Arches and tiled roofs were two of the most common features of Spanish- or mission-style architecture. Timbers were often used to frame a flat or very low-pitched roof. Windows with grills or spindles and balconies supported on square pillars with wrought-iron railings were also common features. Round or quatrefoil windows were often used for accent. A quatrefoil window is a round window composed of four equal lobes that resemble a four-leafed clover. Figure 11-38 shows an example of Spanish-style architecture. Italianate and Italian Villas Two common Italian home styles that are still popular in American architecture include the Italianate and the Italian villas. Italianate French Mansard French mansard styling used a hipped or mansard roof to hide the upper floor area. A mansard roof is an angled wall and will be discussed in Section 6. Originally found in the northern states, these homes were usually a rectangle with a smaller wing on each side. The mansard roof was used to hide the upper floor, but hip roofs were also used. Figure 11-37 shows an example of French mansard styling. Italianate-style homes were a popular housing style in the United States during the period of 1840–1885. Spanish In Florida, California, and the southwestern United States, settlers drew upon Hispanic and Moorish building traditions. Spanish colonial buildings were constructed of adobe or plaster and were usually one story. Deeply shaded porches and dark interiors made FIGURE 1138 Spanish-style homes typically were constructed of adobe or plaster and featured low-sloping tile roofs, arches, and window grills. Courtesy Megan Jefferis. Chapter 11: Exterior Design Factors FIGURE 1139 Italianate-style homes were typically large symmetrical rectangular structures covered with a low-pitched roof with wide eaves. Tall, narrow, windows placed in pairs below Roman arches were also common. 223 FIGURE 1140 Homes designed to copy the Italian villa style typically include a rambling, asymmetrical floor layout, and low-pitched tile roofs with large overhangs. Villa homes usually have exteriors covered with stucco, and arched windows and doors crowned with heavy trim. and doors crowned with heavy trim. Figure 11-40 shows an example of an Italian villa. This style was common throughout most of the country because the wide variety of materials associated with the style made it adaptable to varied budgets. Key features of this symmetrical style were the large rectangular wood-framed structure that emphasized vertical proportions and elaborate decorations. Structures usually ranged in height from two to four stories and were covered with a low-pitched roof with wide eaves featuring decorative brackets, large cornices, and a square cupola. A single-story arcade porch was centered on the front to cover heavily molded double entry doors. The porch was often topped with balustraded balconies and flanked with side bay windows. The front entry door was usually double rectangular or arched entry doors with elaborate surrounds. Tall, narrow, double-paned windows with hood moldings were often used with windows, although Roman or segmented arches above windows and doors were also common. Windows were usually placed in pairs. Figure 11-39 shows a home using Italianate features. Italian Villa The Italian villa style remains popular in the United States and is a style often used for many large custom homes. The style became popular in America during the nineteenth century and is recognized by its rambling, asymmetrical floor layout, low-pitched tile roofs, and a tower. Large overhangs, supported on decorative brackets under the eaves were also typical of villa-style homes. Exteriors were usually covered with stucco. Villa homes usually had arched windows Victorian Italianate-style homes gave way to the Victorian styles in the late 1800s. Victorian-style homes are still being copied in many parts of the country. These styles featured irregularly shaped floor plans and very ornate detailing throughout the residence. Victorian houses often borrowed elements from many other styles of architecture, including partial mansard roofs, arched windows, and towers. Exterior materials included a combination of wood and brick. Wrought iron was often used. Victorian-style homes can be divided into Gothic, Second Empire, Folk, and Queen Anne. Gothic Victorian In the 1800s, fashionable houses in England began to resemble medieval Gothic cathedrals, convents, and storybook castles. The style moved to America in the period from 1840–1880. The exterior walls of these homes were typically constructed from stone or brick with an asymmetrical floor plan. Exterior walls were often topped to resemble a battlement of a castle or fort, and used to surround steeply pitched roofs. Several types of windows could be found in Gothic architecture including pointed windows with decorative leaded glass, oriel, and quatrefoil-shaped windows. An oriel window projects from the wall and forms a small turret that does not extend to the ground. Brackets or corbels usually supported the curved walls that held the windows. Figure 11-41 shows an example of a Gothic Victorian home. 224 Architectural Drafting and Design FIGURE 1141 Homes from the Gothic Victorian style often had walls that were topped to resemble a battlement of a castle or fort, and used to surround steeply pitched roofs. Victorian houses often borrowed elements from many other styles of architecture, including very ornate detailing, wrought iron fretwork, arched windows, and towers. Second Empire Second Empire homes were inspired by the architecture in Paris during the reign of Napoleon III, and reached the height of their popularity in the United States between 1855–1885. This Victorian style shown in Figure 11-42 is easily recognizable because of its high mansard roofs that cover the upper floors. The roofs were often covered with patterned slate shingles. Although these homes are often seen in horror movies, they were thought to be very elegant when they were constructed. Walls were often covered with ornate wood trim or intricate brick patterns. Wrought iron crestings were also common above the upper cornice. Other common features of this style of home included dormer windows that projected from the roof, classical pediments above each opening, and tall double-hung windows on the first floor. Decorative brackets were used for support beneath protrusions such as eaves, window bays, and balconies. Folk Victorian Folk Victorian homes developed for less affluent consumers during the period from 1870–1910. These homes were much simpler than the traditional Victorian homes but featured trim work made possible by mass production. Homes were traditionally square or symmetrical with porches with spindle work that wrapped the home. They are similar to FIGURE 1142 Second Empire Victorian homes often included high mansard roofs finished with patterned slate shingles, which were used to cover the upper floors. Other common features of this style included wrought iron crestings above the upper cornice, dormer windows that projected from the roof, classical pediments above each opening, and tall double-hung windows on the first floor. Queen Anne homes of the same time period but do not have towers, bay windows, or elaborate moldings of that style. Queen Anne This style of home was popular during the period of 1880–1910 as the machine age was sweeping America. As a result of mass production in factories, precut architectural components were available for shipping across the country. The style was named after the eighteenth-century English queen, and was characterized by elaborate bric-a-brac, a complicated roofline, and expansive porches that wrapped around the front and side of the house. These homes usually had a round tower, turret, or a large round bay window. Elaborate moldings and trim called gingerbread were also key features of the Queen Anne style. Figure 11-43 shows an example of a Queen Anne Victorian-style home. Chapter 11: Exterior Design Factors 225 the classical architecture of ancient Greece and Rome, which contain some but not all of the main features. Art Deco structures are a style of architecture originating in the 1920s that featured geometric, streamlined shapes and the use of materials such as aluminum, stainless steel, lacquer, and in-laid wood. Farmhouse FIGURE 1143 Queen Anne Victorian-style homes were characterized by a round tower, elaborate moldings, and gingerbread trim, a complicated roofline, and expansive porches that wrap around the front and side of the house. The farmhouse style made use of two-story construction and was usually surrounded by a covered, wraparound porch. The roof ridge ran parallel to the front surface. A steep roof with dormers usually covered the home with a shallow pitch at the porch. The exterior material was usually clapboard siding. Trim and detail work, common in many other styles of architecture, were rarely found in farmhouse style. Figure 11-44 shows an example of this style. American Foursquare Prairie The American Foursquare home style was originally popular during the period of 1895–1930. This style is recognizable because of the simplicity of the design. The style featured a simple box shape that was two stories tall with an attic and a full basement. Each floor generally had four rooms. The first floor contained an entry foyer, living room, dining room, and kitchen. The second floor was made up of three bedrooms and a bathroom. Walls were usually made of wood, but brick, stone, and stucco siding with clapboards, cedar shingles, or a combination of these materials was common. The homes were usually covered with a low-sloped hip roof. Large overhangs supported with cornice-line brackets or other details drawn from craftsman and Italian Renaissance styles were a common feature. Others features sometimes associated with a Foursquare home were a large central dormer, and a front porch that covered the majority of the front facade of the home. Surface features and limited decoration help this style to adapt to a wide range of architectural styles. A Foursquare house with white clapboard siding and black shutters is usually identified as a Colonial Revival. The style took on Queen Anne styling by adding bay windows and decorative brackets. The style was later altered again by adding stucco siding and a porch with stone columns to resemble a craftsman bungalow. Depending on the details that are added, the traditional Foursquare home may resemble Spanish Eclectic, French Provincial, Tudor Neoclassical, or Art Deco. Neoclassical is used to describe buildings inspired by Prairie-style houses, popular in the Midwest between 1900–1920, are recognizable for their low horizontal lines, one-story projections, low-pitched hipped roofs, and large overhanging eaves that were designed to help the home blend into the landscape. Roofs were typically tile or shingles depending on the area of the country where the home was built. Made popular by Frank Lloyd Wright, the floor plan of a prairie home usually consisted of open interior spaces divided by FIGURE 1144 Farmhouse style is used to describe a simple single-level structure with a steep roof. Dormers were usually used to provide light to an upper loft. The roof ridge was parallel to the front of the home and a roof with a shallow pitch was used to cover a front porch. Trim and detail work, common in many other styles of architecture, were rarely found in the farmhouse style. Courtesy Cardinal Homes. 226 FIGURE 1145 Prairie-style houses are recognizable for their low horizontal lines, one-story projections, low-pitched hipped roofs, and large overhanging eaves that were designed to help the home blend into the landscape. leaded or stained glass panels or built-in furniture with natural finishes that were intended to blur the distinction between indoors and outside. Rooms were arranged in square, L-shaped, T-shaped, or Y-shaped floor plans. Exterior walls varied between stuccoed masonry, or wood-frame construction covered with brick and beveled horizontal siding. Windows were typically arranged in rows of small casement windows framed in horizontal bands that accent the horizontal lines. This style of home can now be found throughout the country (see Figure 11-45). Bungalow The bungalow style originated in India and became a popular American style between 1900–1920. Originally patterned after one-story, thatch-roofed houses in the province of Bengal, the style was converted to a oneand-a-half story home in America. The Amercian bungalow featured open, balanced but asymmetrical floor plans. Roofs were usually steep enough to hide the upper floor, or used low-sloping gables with front and rear dormers. Large extended eaves with decorative, bracketed supports were also typical. A large veranda covered by an extension of the main roof was a common feature on the front of the homes. Common exterior materials included shingles, lap siding or board, and batten siding. Windows were typically casement or double-hung with small-paned glass, trimmed with wide simple casings. The front door typically was glass-paned with double sidelights. Bungalow homes typically made extensive use of built-in furniture, shelves, seating, and wood trim throughout the house. The dining rooms, bedrooms, kitchens, and bathrooms were arranged around a central living room on the main floor. Additional bedrooms were placed upstairs in the center of the Architectural Drafting and Design FIGURE 1146 The bungalow style featured simple box-like structures with steep roofs that were used to hide an upper floor. Low sloping gables with front and rear dormers were a common alternative. A large veranda covered by an extension of the main roof was a common feature on the front of these homes. gable roof. Figure 11-46 shows a home built with bungalow features. Craftsman In the early twentieth century, the craftsman-style home became popular in America. Floor plans usually consisted of asymmetrical, free-flowing, two-story layouts. The upper level often cantilevered over the lower level. Lower levels were usually made of stone or brick, and upper levels were covered in shingles, stucco, stone, or brick. Windows were typically double-hung with grids in the upper half and were asymmetrically placed, or casement windows were placed in series. Window trim was usually plain, wide-board casings. Rectangular cantilevered bays with multiple windows were also common. FIGURE 1147 Craftsman-style homes featured asymmetrical, free-flowing two-story layouts with an upper level that often cantilevered over the lower level. Roofs were steep gables supported by decorative brackets, with multiple perpendicular gables. Chapter 11: Exterior Design Factors 227 Homes featured a large wraparound porch that was elevated several feet above the surrounding grade. Porch roofs were often supported by masonry or large decorative wood columns with wood-framed walls covered with shingles used as a railing between the columns. Open large-scale balusters were also a common alternative for porch railings. Tapered wood columns were also a common means of supporting the porch roof. The porch was typically covered at the front under a low-sloped roof that extended from the main gable. Roofs were steep gables supported by decorative brackets, with multiple perpendicular gables. A large dormer on the front and back of the gable was typical of the craftsman style. Ranch The ranch style of construction originated in the Southwest where it became the dominant style from the mid-1930s to the present. This style is defined by a one-story, rambling layout, which was made possible because of the mild climate and plentiful land on which such houses were built. The roof was lowpitched, with a large overhang to block the summer sun. The major exterior material was usually stucco or adobe. Common features of the ranch style were long, horizontal, single-level construction covered with a low-sloped roof with large overhangs. The floor plan was usually arranged in an asymmetrical shape using a rectangle, L-shaped, or U-shaped design. No matter the shape, the floor plans usually featured simple, open spaces with very few interior walls. Figure 11-48 shows a modern adaptation of the ranch style. Contemporary Homes FIGURE 1149 Contemporary homes are built to meet a wide variety of needs. Courtesy Janice Jefferis. rarely would the traditional floor plan of one of those houses be desired. Quite often the floor plans of older houses produced small rooms with poor traffic flow. A designer must take the best characteristics of a particular style of house and work them into a plan that best suits the needs of the owner. Contemporary, or modern, does not denote any special style of house. Some houses are now being designed to meet a wide variety of needs, and others reflect the lifestyle of the owner. Figure 11-49 through Figure 11-53 show examples of the wide variety of contemporary houses. Some houses, such as the home in Figure 11-49, are now being designed to meet a wide variety of needs. Other homes like the home in Figure 11-50 are custom-designed to reflect the lifestyle of the owner. No matter the style that is favored, several recent trends in new-home construction are helping buyers realize their dreams. The most popular It is important to remember that a client may like the exterior look of one of the traditional styles, but very FIGURE 1148 Ranch-style homes feature a one-level elongated floor plan covered by a low-sloping roof. Courtesy Piercy & Barclay Designers, Inc., CPBD. FIGURE 1150 Many contemporary homes use clean lines with little or no trim to provide an attractive structure. Design by Jack Smuckler, A.I.A.; photo by Jerry Swanson. Courtesy California Redwood Association. 228 GOING GREEN Green Styles The selection of the floor plan style will have a major impact on the efficiency of a home, and will affect the home style. The selection of one home style over another can be a major consideration in designing a home that is energy efficient. The choice of floor plan style should be influenced by the site topography and the living style of the owners. Credits are given by both Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) and the National Green Building Standards (NGBS) for designing for infill sites. These sites are often difficult to build on due to steep grades. Selecting a suitable floor plan style can greatly reduce the cost of the construction, eliminate extensive grading, reduce water runoff, and help to blend the home to the existing topography. The floor plan type will also affect the home style to be used. Although a single-level home can be created with Victorian features, the style is more suited for multilevel homes. As you’ve learned in earlier chapters, multilevel homes can take advantage of the natural convection to circulate heat from the lower floors to rooms in the upper floors. Placing dormers above the upper living areas allows heated air to be exhausted from the building envelope, providing natural ventilation for summer cooling. Incorporating home styles that feature large overhangs on the south and west walls to protect fenestration from direct sunlight will also affect the style of the home to be selected. Home styles that incorporate covered porches, porticos, or decks to provide protection from the south and west summer sun are green design features that increase the livability of the home. The blending of the exterior and interior of the home can often incorporate green ideas to make homes more energy efficient. Future chapters will introduce methods of incorporating green design in the orientation of the home. The homes in Figure 11-51 are designed as zero-lot-line homes to provide all the benefits of home ownership without the problem of land maintenance. By sharing a common wall, this style of building eliminates materials by decreasing the lumber and siding materials needed to frame the sidewalls for each unit. The use of zero-lot-line construction also maximizes the use of available land. The home in Figure 11-52 uses a passive solar greenhouse on the right, and a sunroom on the left side to increase the heating efficiency of an otherwise traditional home. The home in Figure 11-53 is ideally suited to very cold climates by incorporating FIGURE 1151 Many homes are now being constructed that have a common property line. Courtesy Western Red Cedar Lumber Association. FIGURE 1152 Although this elegant residence reflects no particular style, it has pleasing proportions, symmetry, and balance. Courtesy BOWA Builders, Inc. Greg Hadley, photographer. GOING GREEN 229 Green Styles (Continued) a sunroom with its large use of glass for solar gain, with its subterranean design. Using concrete walls provides a storage medium for the sunlight collected through the fenestration, and the bermed earth provides protection for the walls and ceiling from harsh winter weather. The green roof also provides an effective means of reducing water runoff typically associated with a standard roof. Each of these design concepts will be explored in future chapters. FIGURE 1153 Subterranean construction is energy efficient in severe climates. Courtesy Weather Shield Mfg., Inc. floor plans offer flexibility, adaptability, and plenty of room to grow. A new home can usually incorporate features of any architectural style because decorative details don’t dictate the size and placement of the rooms. As you explore the design possibilities throughout this text, give consideration to the following trends that are popular in early twenty-firstcentury homes: ● Open, informal spaces—Because of high building costs and family lifestyles, most home buyers prefer an informal “great room” rather than formal rooms for entertaining. Combining the family room with the dining area gives the home a greater sense of spaciousness. A half wall or a work counter defines the kitchen area while allowing unobstructed views. ● Fewer hallways—Homes with fewer hallways have an open, airy feeling. Instead of long, dark corridors, rooms flow together with doors leading directly to a living area or other shared space. The home may appear larger because less square footage is spent on passageways. ● Bonus rooms—A spare room near the kitchen, over the garage, or in another area apart from the bedrooms provides extra value when a home is not designed for a specific buyer. These bonus rooms give buyers extra space that can serve many functions such as a play area, a multimedia home theater, an art studio, a workshop, an exercise room, a high-tech home office, or a quiet sanctuary. ● Spacious laundry room—No longer relegated to the garage or basement, a cleaning center should be bright, spacious, and conveniently located. Common locations include near the kitchen or bedrooms. The area should provide space for the basic appliances of a utility room in addition to space for storage of sewing or craft supplies. Some designers use this area as a multipurpose room with ample cabinets, play space for children, and room for crafts and other hobbies. ● Ample storage space—Walk-in closets, linen closets, dressing rooms, pantries, and easy-to-reach kitchen cabinets add enormous appeal to any home. ● Accessibility—Many buyers are seeking homes that can comfortably accommodate family members or guests with mobility problems or visual impairments. Fewer stairs, wider doors and hallways, and larger bathrooms make a home easier to navigate. One-story homes are increasingly popular with baby boomers. Two-story homes with the master bedroom suite on the main level and additional sleeping areas upstairs are also very popular. ● Spacious garages—SUVs, snowmobiles, jet skis and other recreational vehicles make spacious garages a must for many families. Two-car garages are 230 Architectural Drafting and Design considered the minimum, but many buyers opt for an even wider three-car garage. ● Sliding partitions—Movable partitions, sliding doors, pocket doors, or other types of movable partitions allow flexibility in living arrangements. With partitions, a great room can be transformed ADDITIONAL RESOURCES See CD for more information One of the best ways to improve your ability to design pleasing homes is to view successful designs. Excellent sources for review include magazines, television, and the Internet. To increase your reading options, use your favorite search engine and research major listings such as architectural magazines, interior design magazines, and home magazines. Magazines used by designers include: Architectural Digest Architectural Record Engineering News Record Environmental Design and Construction Old House Journal Residential Architect Traditional Home Information about each program can be obtained by accessing www.hgtv.com, www.tlc.discovery.com, or by using a search engine to search the Internet. Other Web sites that promote interior design include: Address www.greatbuildings.com www.homeportfolio.com www.about.com www.iida.org If you have access to cable or satellite television, HGTV and DIY provide an excellent selection of programs that explore interior design and construction. New programs are aired each season, so be sure to check program listings or the Web sites of your favorite stations for available programs. Current popular programs include: Before and After Curb Appeal Dream Drives into a more intimate living area and a secluded dining room. ● Outdoor living—The yard and garden become a part of the floor plan when sliding glass doors lead to decks, patios, and porches. Upscale features include outdoor fireplaces, grills, and wet bars. www.excelhomes.com Company, Product, or Service Documents thousands of structures and offers many related links Features a home design directory Home-planning guides on the Internet International Interior Design Association Links to design-related Web sites Dream House Extreme Homes Homes Across America Exterior Design Factors Test See CD for more information QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, as follows: 1. Letter your name, Chapter 11 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it. Question 11–1 Explain how the neighborhood can influence the type of house that will be built. Question 11–2 Describe how lines can be used in the design of a structure. Question 11–3 Sketch a simple two-bedroom house in two of the following shapes: L, T, U, or V. Question 11–4 List four functions of a review board. Chapter 11: Exterior Design Factors Question 11–5 Describe four floor plan styles, and explain the benefits of each. Question 11–6 What factors make a two-story house more economical to build than a single-story house of similar size? Question 11–7 What house shape is the most economical to build? Question 11–8 Photograph or sketch examples of the following historical styles found in your community: a. Dutch colonial b. Garrison c. Saltbox d. Victorian Question 11–9 What forms are most typically seen in residential design? 231 Question 11–16 Sketch a Dutch colonial house. Question 11–17 Sketch or photograph a house in your community built with a traditional influence, and explain which styles this house has copied. Question 11–18 What are some of the drawbacks of a traditional style? Question 11–19 What are the common proportions of classical Greek design? Question 11–20 What style of residence has two full floors with a wraparound porch covered with a hip roof? Question 11–21 Define the following terms and list the styles with which they are associated: a. Portico b. Quatrefoil window Question 11–10 List and define the three terms used to describe color. c. Baluster Question 11–11 Identify the primary and secondary colors. e. Palladian window Question 11–12 List the major features of the following styles: a. Ranch b. Tudor c. Cape Cod d. Spanish Question 11–13 How is a tint created? Question 11–14 Photograph or sketch three contemporary houses that have no apparent historical style. Question 11–15 What period of architecture influenced the Georgian style? d. Corbel Question 11–22 List differences between the Georgian and Federal styles. Question 11–23 Explain key features of a Foursquarestyle home. Question 11–24 Explain key features of a prairie-style home. Question 11–25 Use the Internet and research a home style that is popular in your area. Explain key features of the style you selected, and explain why that style is suited to your area. CHAPTER 12 Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction I N T R O D U C T I O N Conservation design uses different technologies to improve construction methods and provide alternative energy sources. Architects, architectural designers, building contractors, and home buyers today are concerned about quality of life on the earth and in the home. Improving energy efficiency is a good way to reduce oil dependency and address environmental concerns. Throughout North America, private, local, state, and national agencies sponsor projects that provide incentives and education for architects, designers, and builders in an effort to create buildings that are good for the earth today and into the future. The terms environmentally friendly and environmentally sound refer to designing and constructing buildings with renewable materials such as wood from certified forests, earthen materials, and recycled products. These buildings are healthier because nontoxic and low-toxicity materials are used. Energy from renewable resources, such as geothermal, solar, photovoltaic, or wind energy is also taken into consideration in protecting the environment and reducing the carbon footprint. A carbon footprint, as defined by Wikipedia, is “a measure of the impact human activities have on the environment in terms of the amount of greenhouse gases produced, measured in units of carbon dioxide.” The carbon footprint measurement is meant to be useful for individuals, nations, and organizations to conceptualize their personal or organizational impact in contributing to global warming. A theoretical tool to reduce the impact of carbon footprints, carbon offsets, are the lessening of carbon emissions through the development of alternative projects such as solar or wind energy, or reforestation. Greenhouse gases are the gases that absorb global radiation and contribute to the greenhouse effect. The main greenhouse gases are water vapor, methane, carbon dioxide, and ozone. The greenhouse effect is atmospheric heating caused by solar radiation being readily transmitted inward through the earth’s atmosphere but long-wave radiation less readily transmitted outward, due to absorption by certain gases in the atmosphere. Reducing emissions from all greenhouse gas sources can help produce a carbon neutral result through energy efficiency, renewable energy purchases, and carbon offset 232 purchases. Here are five ways you can reduce your carbon footprint: 1. Build an efficient home with materials that reduce or eliminate carbon dioxide emissions; consider renewable energy to heat and cool your home. 2. Install energy- and water-efficient appliances and mechanical systems in your home. 3. Purchase items that have a low carbon footprint from responsible manufacturers. 4. Carpool, use mass transit, or plan your trips to reduce driving. 5. Participate in programs that aim to offset carbon dioxide emissions. Many companies offer programs to offset your carbon dioxide emissions, which often include donations to renewable energy or tree planting programs. (Source: Mascord Efficient Living, Building a More Sustainable Lifestyle.) ENERGY-EFFICIENT DESIGN For decades, energy-conscious individuals have been experimenting with energy-efficient design and construction. Their goal has been to reduce home heating and cooling costs. In recent years, as a result of rising energy costs, several formal studies have been done around the country, sponsored by various private and governmental agencies that are committed to conservation. The experimental programs have included the following goals: ● Conserve natural resources. ● Save the environment. ● Preserve the earth’s ozone layer. ● Create a better and healthier living environment. ● Meet consumers’ demand for more economical living. ● Evaluate realistic material and construction alternatives that can be used to alter building codes in the future. Today’s home buyers are concerned about energyefficient design. They expect energy-efficient design GOING GREEN 233 An Overview A special feature called Going Green is found throughout this textbook, providing current practical and experimental energy-efficient architectural design and construction techniques resulting in a significant reduction in energy consumption. As the building industry grows to meet the demands of our increasing population, there is a strong need to take care of the environment and allow for current and future development. As a student, it is very important for you to learn what is available today and to find ways to improve energy efficiency in architectural design and construction in the future in an effort to protect the earth. National and local programs have been established to meet this need. A leading program is often referred to as green building. The U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) is a key organization developed to promote building design and construction that is environmentally responsible and healthy, while allowing construction to remain profitable. Modern advances in building construction are available to designers, builders, and owners who want to “build green” and make the most of environmental protection in the architectural and construction industries. and construction to be a part of the total home package. In many cases, green design and construction can be achieved without a great deal of additional cost. Consumers look for design and construction that uses high-quality insulation, air infiltration barriers, proper caulking, energy-rated windows, and other quality materials. Consumers also look for energy-efficient appliances and cost-saving improvements such as solar heat. These design and construction practices increase comfort while reducing energy costs. Home builders around the country have realized the advantages of energy-efficient design and construction for consumers and themselves. An energy-efficient home is easier to sell than a home built without energyefficient design and construction. In several controlled situations where energyefficient construction techniques were implemented to determine if there would be a significant reduction in energy consumption, the results clearly showed a savings. A number of techniques can be used that do not cost much more than standard construction; however, at the other extreme, some energy-conserving design and construction methods are complex and labor- and material-intensive. The following describes a variety of energy conservation architectural design and construction programs and practices. buildings are buildings capable of maintaining their desired function into the future. LEED represents every part of the construction industry. As taken from the USGBC Web site, LEED was created to: THE LEED PROGRAM The U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) members came together to create a standard for green building, called the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating System. This rating system is a national standard for developing high-performance, sustainable buildings. Sustainable ● Define “green building” by establishing a common standard of measurement. ● Promote integrated, whole-building design practices. ● Recognize environmental leadership in the building industry. ● Stimulate green competition. ● Raise consumer awareness of green building benefits. ● Transform the building market. LEED has a commercial building certification program that started in 2000 that recognizes commercial construction projects demonstrating the highest sustainability performance standards. LEED certification requires that the project meet the fundamentals, and score a minimum number of points in a LEED rating system. In the LEED program, various levels of certification are applied to new buildings and rehabilitated structures. The objective is for the building to earn enough points to qualify for Platinum, Gold, or Silver levels of certification. The LEED rating system and its relationship to national building codes is discussed in Chapter 9. The LEED for Homes Program The LEED for Homes program started in 2007 for residential architecture. Contents of this discussion are taken in part from the LEED for Homes and the Green 234 Home Guide Web sites. LEED for Homes is a rating system that promotes the design and construction of high-performance green homes. A green home uses less energy, water, and other natural resources; creates less waste; and is healthier and more comfortable for the occupants. Benefits of a LEED home include lower energy and water bills; reduced greenhouse gas emissions; and less exposure to mold, mildew, and other indoor toxins. LEED certification allows buyers to identify homes that have been third-party inspected, performance-tested, and certified as truly green homes that perform better than standard homes. Home builders using LEED are able to differentiate their homes as among the best energy-efficient homes on the market. The LEED for Homes ratings set a minimum level of performance in the following eight categories: 1. Innovation and design. This category encourages project planning and design to improve the coordination and integration of the various elements in a green home. Credits are earned for innovative designs, exemplary performance, or regional bestpractices that can be shown to produce proven environmental and human health benefits. Innovation and design includes involving key representation from building design, energy engineering, performance testing, sustainable design, civil engineering, landscape architecture, habitat restoration, land-use planning, and a LEED representative in the preliminary and final design. 2. Location and linkages. The placement of homes in socially and environmentally responsible ways in relation to the larger community provides credits toward LEED certification. The term linkages means that the specific home site is environmentally linked to the community. Location and linkages address how builders select site locations that promote environmentally responsible land-use patterns and neighborhoods. Location and linkages credits reward builders for selecting home sites that have more sustainable land-use patterns and offer advantages over conventional developments. Land is used more efficiently, reducing the acreage needed for new housing. Division of farmland, forest, and other natural areas is minimized. Well-sited developments need fewer roads, water, and sewer lines. These developments promote a range of sustainable transportation options, including walking, cycling, and mass transit. 3. Sustainable sites. This category awards projects for minimizing site impacts allowing natural elements to have a significant environmental impact. Proper placement of the home on the site can have major long-term effects on local and regional ecosystems, Architectural Drafting and Design and reduce demand for water, chemicals, and pesticides for site management. Good design decisions can result in attractive, easy-to-maintain landscaping that protects native plant and animal species and contributes to the health of local and regional habitats. Erosion, chemical, and pesticide run off from rainfall are minimized, and rain can be used for potable water and to recharge aquifers. Potable water is water of a quality that is suitable for drinking. An aquifer is an underground bed or layer of earth, gravel, or porous stone that yields water. Sustainable sites offer enrichment with trees and plants that provide shade, aesthetic value, habitat for native species, and a way to absorb carbon and enrich the soil. 4. Water efficiency. LEED for Homes credits are given for the conservation and reuse of inside and outside water. The use of water-conserving plumbing fixtures and fittings can easily reduce water usage by over 30% in new homes. 5. Energy and atmosphere. Credits are available for homes built with energy-efficient construction methods and materials, and for homes that reduce CO2 emissions as a result of improving their environmental performance. According to the Green Home Guide Web site, the average certified LEED home uses 30% to 40% less electricity and saves more than 100 metric tons of CO2 emissions over its lifetime. Modest investments in energy-saving and other climate-friendly technologies can yield homes and communities that are healthier, more comfortable, more durable, energy efficient, and environmentally responsible places to live. 6. Material and resources. LEED for Homes credits are given for the use of material-efficient framing methods, environmentally preferable low-emission products, and recyclable waste management practices. Reclaimed materials can be substituted for new materials, saving costs and reducing the use of natural resources. Recycled-content materials reuse waste products that would otherwise be deposited in landfills. LEED for Homes promotes the use of local materials, which supports the local economy and reduces the harmful impact of long-distance transport. Use of third-party-certified wood promotes good stewardship of forests and related ecosystems. Use of low-emitting materials improves the indoor air quality in the home and reduces demand for materials with added volatile, toxic compounds. Additionally, the builder can separate construction debris into multiple bins or disposal areas allowing easier shipment to recycling facilities or pickup by a waste management company. Chapter 12: Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction 7. Indoor environmental quality. This LEED for Homes category can provide a large number of LEED for Homes credits. This category encourages builders to prevent air pollution and improve air quality and comfort in the homes they build. Source removal is the most practical way to ensure that harmful chemical compounds are not brought into the home. Evaluating the properties of adhesives, paints, carpets, composite wood products, and furniture, and selecting materials with low levels of potentially irritating gas emissions can reduce occupant exposure. Scheduling deliveries and sequencing construction activities can reduce exposure of materials to moisture and absorption of contaminants. Source control plans focus on capturing pollutants that are known to exist in a home. For example, filtering the air supply removes particulates that would otherwise be continuously recirculated through the home. Protection of airhandling systems during construction and cleaning prior to occupancy reduces future problems. Indoor air quality also contributes to occupant comfort. The proper installation of automatic sensors and controls to maintain proper temperature, humidity and ventilation in occupied spaces helps maintain the best possible air quality. The use of outdoor air ventilation, indoor contaminant control, air filtering, and radon protection are described in Chapter 21 of this textbook. 8. Awareness and education. Credits are given for the education of the home owner or tenant, and the building manager. This category promotes broad awareness among home buyers and tenants that LEED homes are built differently and need to be operated and maintained in a manner that saves energy, water, and other resources through the lifetime of the home. The long-term benefits of LEED measures might not be achieved without proper training. LEED for Homes certification ensures that a home is designed and constructed with the highest quality of environmental and human protection possible in the industry. This is because LEED for Homes credits are given only if the design and construction meet rigid inspection and third-party testing of the various components that go into building a home. Other energy-conscious design and construction programs offer significant improvement in the environmental and sustainable quality of construction materials and practices, but they may not have the quality inspection control and testing found in LEED-certified homes. Additional resources are identified at the end of this chapter. 235 NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF HOME BUILDERS MODEL GREEN HOME BUILDING The National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) started a voluntary program, in 2005, called the Model Green Home Building Guidelines. This program and its effect on national building codes are described in Chapter 9. The following information was taken in part from the NAHB’s Model Green Home Building Guidelines Web site. Sustainable, environmentally friendly, and recycled building products, and the education of builders have increased the residential construction industry’s acceptance of green building. NAHB members currently build more than 80% of the homes in this country, and are incorporating green practices into the development, design, and construction of new homes. NAHB’s voluntary Model Green Home Building Guidelines are designed as a tool kit for builders who want to use green building practices, and for local home builder associations that want to start their own green building programs. The NAHB Model Green Home Building Guidelines include the following categories: ● Lot preparation and design. Careful site planning can reduce the impact on natural features such as vegetation and soil, and improve long-term performance of a home on the site. ● Resource efficiency. Advanced framing techniques and home designs can effectively optimize the use of building materials. Careful material selection can help reduce the amount of time and money needed for home maintenance. Also, waste management practices are used to recycle construction waste materials. ● Energy efficiency. This category helps the builder create a better building envelope and incorporate more energy-efficient mechanical systems, appliances, and lighting into a home. The results are long-term energy savings and increased comfort for the home owner. ● Water efficiency and conservation. The availability of an adequate water supply is a national concern. Use of indoor and outdoor water conservation guidelines reduces water consumption and utility costs. ● Occupancy comfort and indoor environmental quality. Effective management of moisture, ventilation, and other issues can create a more comfortable and healthier indoor living environment. ● Operation, maintenance, and education. The features of this category show a builder how to educate home owners on the features of their new green home. It is important for home buyers to learn how 236 to operate and maintain the green home in a manner that saves energy, water, and other resources throughout the lifetime of the home. The NAHB Model Green Home Building Guidelines help organize the green design and construction process and help the builder incorporate more green building features into homes. For more information about the NAHB Model Green Home Building Guidelines, consult the additional resources at the end of this chapter or contact: National Association of Home Builders 1201 15th Street, NW Washington, DC 20005 Web site: http://www.nahbrc.org/greenguidelines The National Green Building Standard™ The following is taken in part from the National Association of Homebuilders Research Center (NAHBRC) Web site. In a continuing effort to advance the use of environmentally responsible technologies in residential construction, NAHB, the International Code Council (ICC), and the NAHB Research Center worked together to develop an American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard for green home building construction practices. Completed on January 29, 2009, the National Green Building Standard is for all residential construction work including single-family homes, apartments and condos, land development, and remodeling and renovation. It is a voluntary green home building standard that can be adopted by local green home building programs or local building departments as a conformance guide. The standard is publicized as a joint publication between the NAHB and the ICC. The new standard builds upon the NAHB Model Green Home Building Guidelines developed by the NAHB Research Center with participation from a stakeholder group of over 64 organizations representing various vested interests in residential construction in the United States. ENERGY STAR Energy Star is a joint program of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) created to help save money and protect the environment through energy-efficient products and practices, and through superior product energy efficiency. Energy Star–qualified homes must meet strict guidelines for energy efficiency set by the EPA. These homes are at least 15% more energy efficient than homes built to the 2004 International Residential Code (IRC), and include additional energy-saving features that typically make them 20% to 30% more efficient than standard Architectural Drafting and Design homes. Energy Star homes are independently verified to meet the requirements. Energy savings are based on heating, cooling, and hot water energy use and are typically achieved through a combination of: ● Building envelope upgrades. ● High-performance windows. ● Controlled air infiltration. ● Upgraded heating and air-conditioning systems. ● Tight duct systems. ● Upgraded water heating equipment. These features contribute to improved home quality, home owner comfort, lower energy demand, and reduced air pollution. Energy Star also encourages the use of energy-efficient lighting, appliances, and features designed to improve indoor air quality. Verification of a home’s energy efficiency by a third party is an essential step in getting the Energy Star label and certificate. Verification is generally dependent on the construction method used to build the home. Homes constructed on-site are typically verified using one of two methods: 1. Home Energy Ratings Systems (HERS) ratings. 2. Builder Option Packages (BOPs). A HERS rating is an evaluation of the energy efficiency of a home, compared to a computer-simulated reference house of identical size and shape. The home being evaluated must meet minimum requirements of the Model Energy Code (MEC). The HERS rating results in a score between 0 and 100, with the reference house assigned a score of 80. The Energy Star–qualified new home is required to be significantly more energy efficient than the reference house, by achieving a HERS score of at least 86. A BOP is the other manner through which a home can be qualified as an Energy Star–qualified new home. A BOP represents a set of construction specifications for a specific climate zone, based on performance levels for the thermal envelope, insulation, windows, orientation, heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system, and water heating efficiency for the climate zone. THE ENVIROHOME INITIATIVE, CANADIAN HOME BUILDERS’ ASSOCIATION The following is taken in part from the EnviroHome Web site. The EnviroHome Initiative was established in 1994 by the Canadian Home Builders’ Association Chapter 12: Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction (CHBA) and TD Canada Trust to recognize and support innovative new home builders who are specially trained and licensed, and committed to offering consumers homes that are “better for you, better for your community, and better for the environment.” TD Canada Trust is a full-service bank that provides home loans. Canadian Home Builders’ Association EnviroHome projects showcase the best in new home-building technology and products. EnviroHome builders are the best, highly innovative, skilled professionals who know how to construct exceptional homes that meet the needs of today’s consumers for healthy affordable homes. EnviroHomes are exceptionally comfortable, healthy to live in, more energy efficient, and better for the environment than homes not designed and built to EnviroHome standards. Each year the EnviroHome designation is given to a select number of new home projects across Canada. To qualify, each home must be certified to the R-2000 Standard and include additional air quality and environmental features beyond what the R-2000 program requires. R-2000 is a specific Canadian home building technology that has earned a worldwide reputation for quality, comfort, and environmental responsibility. Every R-2000 certification involves special measures in three main areas of construction: energy performance, indoor air quality, and use of environmentally preferred materials. R-2000 homes incorporate a range of cost-effective, energy-efficient building practices and technologies, regardless of design or size. R-2000 homes are independently certified to meet a high level of energy efficiency, beyond what building codes require. With an R-2000 certificate, home owners can have confidence in the performance of their home. Builders choose to be part of the R-2000 program because they want access to the best home building technology available so they can offer their customers a better home. ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES The Energy-Efficient Construction Practices content on the Student CD includes information and examples about how to decrease dependency on the heating and cooling system, through the use of framing techniques such as caulking, vapor retarders, radiant barriers, and insulation. A discussion about the types of insulation is included as well. Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES, for more information. 237 SOLAR ENERGY DESIGN Sunlight becomes solar energy when it is transferred to a medium that has the capacity or ability to provide useful heat. This useful solar energy can be regulated in order to heat water or the inside of a building, or create power to run electrical utilities. Most areas of the earth receive about 60% direct sunlight each year, and in very clear areas, up to 80% of the annual sunlight is available for use as solar energy. When the sun’s rays reach the earth, the air and the features on the earth become heated. Certain dense materials such as concrete can absorb more heat than less dense materials such as wood. During the day the dense materials absorb and store solar energy. Then at night, with the source of energy gone, the stored energy is released in the form of heat. Some substances, such as glass, absorb thermal radiation while transmitting light. This concept, in part, is what makes solar heating possible. Solar radiation enters a structure through a glass panel and warms the surfaces of the interior areas. The glass keeps the heat inside by absorbing the radiation. Two basic residential and commercial uses for solar energy are heating spaces and hot water. Other uses are industrial and include drying materials such as lumber, masonry, or crops. Solar energy has also been used for nearly a century with desalinization plants to provide fresh water from either mineral or saltwater. Solar space heating systems are passive, active, or a combination of the two. Passive solar systems, also called architectural solar systems, use no mechanical devices to retain, store, or radiate solar heat. Active solar systems, also called mechanical solar systems, do use mechanical devices to absorb, store, and use solar heat. The potential reduction of fossil fuel energy consumption can make solar heat an economical alternative. A number of factors contribute to the effective use of solar energy. Among them are energy-efficient construction techniques and full insulation of a building to reduce heat loss and air infiltration. An auxiliary heating system is often used as a backup or supplemental system in conjunction with solar heat. The amount of heat needed from the auxiliary system depends on the effectiveness of the solar system. Both the primary and the supplemental systems should be professionally engineered for optimum efficiency and comfort. A southern exposure, when available, provides the best site orientation for solar construction. A perfect solar site allows the structure to have an unobstructed southern exposure. This topic is described further in Chapter 13. Room placement is another factor to consider for taking advantage of solar heat. Living areas, such as the 238 living and family rooms, should be on the south side of the house, while inactive rooms, such as bedrooms, laundry room, and bathrooms, should be located on the north side, if a cooler environment is desirable. If possible, the garage should be placed on the north, northeast, or northwest side of the home. A garage can act as an effective barrier, insulating the living areas from cold exterior elements. The inactive rooms, including the bedrooms, bathrooms, laundry room, pantry, and garage, shelter the living area from the northern exposure. Masonry walls also allow the house to be built into a slope on its northern side, or berms to be used as shelter from the elements. The Air-Lock Entry Another energy-efficient element of design is an air-lock entry, known as a vestibule. This is an entry that provides a hall or chamber between an exterior and interior door to the building. The vestibule should be designed so the interior and exterior doors are not open at the same time. The distance between the doors should be at least 7 feet (2100 mm), to force the occupants to close one door before they reach the other door. The main idea behind an air-lock entry is to provide a chamber that is always closed to the living area by a door. When the exterior door is opened, the air lock loses heat, but the heat loss is confined to the small space of the vestibule and the warm air of the living area is exposed to minimum heat loss. Architectural Drafting and Design drapes to allow sunlight to enter and heat the rooms. In the early evening, before the heat begins to radiate out of the house, the occupant should close the shutters or draperies to keep the heat within. Codes and Solar Rights Building permits are generally required for the installation of active solar systems or the construction of passive solar systems. Some installations also require plumbing and electrical permits. Verify the exact requirements for solar installations with local building officials. During the initial planning process, always check the local zoning ordinances to determine the feasibility of the installation. For example, many areas restrict dwelling height. If the planned solar system encroaches on this zoning rule, then a different approach or a variance to the restriction should be considered. The individual’s access to sunlight is not always guaranteed. A solar home can be built in an area that has excellent solar orientation, and then a few years later, a tall structure may be built across the street that blocks the sun. A neighbor’s trees can grow tall and reduce sunlight. Determine the possibility of such a problem before construction begins. Some local zoning ordinances, laws, or even deed restrictions can protect the individual’s right to light. In the past, laws generally provided the right to receive light from above the property but not from across neighboring land. This situation is changing in many areas of the country. Living with Solar Energy Systems Solar energy and energy-efficient construction require a commitment to conserving energy. Each individual must evaluate cost against potential savings and become aware of the responsibility of living with energy conservation. Solar systems can be designed that provide some heat from the sun and require little or no involvement from the occupant to assist with the process. Such a minimal energy-saving design is worth the effort in many cases. Active solar space heating systems are available that can provide a substantial amount of needed heat energy. These systems are automatic and also do not generally require involvement from the home owner, although the home owner should be aware of operation procedures and maintenance schedules. Alternately, some passive solar heating systems require much participation by the occupants. For example, a mechanical shade must be used by the home owner to block the summer sun rays from entering southern-exposure windows. During the winter months, when the sun is heating the living area, the heat should be retained as long as possible. In the morning the home owner needs to open shutters or Roof Overhang The sun’s angle changes from season to season. The sun is lower on the horizon in the winter and higher in the summer. An overhang can shield a major glass area from the heat of the summer sun and also allow the lower winter sun to help warm the home. Figure 12-1 shows an example of how a properly designed overhang can aid in the effective use of the sun’s heat. SUMMER SUN OVERHANG WINTER SUN FIGURE 121 Effective overhang. Chapter 12: Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction An overhang that provides nearly 100% shading at noon on the longest day of the year can be calculated with a formula that divides the window height by a factor determined in relationship to latitude: Overhang = 239 SUMMER WINTER Windowsill height F North Latitude F North Latitude F 28° 8.4 44° 2.4 32° 5.2 48° 2.0 36° 3.8 52° 1.7 40° 3.0 56° 1.4 A DROP SHADE Example: Calculate the recommended southern overhang for a location at 36° latitude and provide for a windowsill height of 6'–8". Latitude is the angular distance between an imaginary line around the earth parallel to the equator and including the equator. B SLIDING SHADE 6'–8" (Window height) Overhang (OH)= 3.8 (F at 36° latitude) = 6.6 =1.8 ≈ 1'–10" 3.8 The recommended overhang is greater for a more northerly latitude. Overhang protection can be constructed in ways other than a continuation of the roof structure; there is a great deal of flexibility in architectural design. An awning, porch cover, or trellis can be built to serve the same function as an overhang. Alternative methods of shading from summer heat and exposing window areas to winter sun can be achieved with mechanical devices. These movable devices require the occupant to be aware of the need for shade or heat at different times of the year. Figure 12-2 shows some shading options. C AWNING SHADE FIGURE 122 Optional shading devices. used individually and together, including south-facing glass, thermal storage walls, roof ponds, solariums, and envelope construction. PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS In passive solar architecture, the structure is designed so the sun directly warms the interior. A passive solar system allows sunlight to enter the structure and be absorbed into a structural mass. The stored heat then warms the living space. Shutters or curtains are used to control the amount of sunlight entering the home, and vents help control temperature. In passive solar construction, the structure is the system. The amount of material needed to store heat depends on the amount of sunlight, the desired temperature within the structure, and the ability of the material to store heat. Materials such as water, steel, concrete, and masonry have good heat capacity; wood does not. Several passive solar architectural methods have been South-Facing Glass Direct solar gain is a direct gain in heat created by the sun. This direct gain is readily created in a structure through south-facing windows. Large window areas facing south can provide up to 60% of a building’s heating needs when the windows are insulated at night with tight-fitting shutters or insulated curtains. When the window insulation is not used at night, the heat gain during the day is quickly lost. The sun’s energy must heat a dense material in order to be retained. Floors and walls are often covered with or made of materials other than traditional wood and plasterboard. Floors constructed of or covered with tile, brick, or concrete, and special walls made of concrete or masonry or containing 240 Architectural Drafting and Design FIGURE 123 South-facing glass provides direct gain. Courtesy Residential Designs. water tubes, can provide heat storage for direct solar gain applications. Figure 12-3 shows a typical application of direct-gain south-facing glass. Clerestory windows can be used to provide light and direct solar gain to a second-floor living area and increase the total solar heating capacity of a house. Clerestory windows are a row of windows set along the upper part of a wall. These clerestory windows can also be used to help ventilate a structure during the summer months, when the need for cooling is greater than the need for heating (see Figure 12-4). Skylights can be used effectively for direct solar gain. A skylight is a window in a roof used to admit sunlight. When skylights are placed on a south-sloping roof, they provide needed direct gain during the winter. In the summer, skylights can cause the area to overheat unless additional care is taken to provide for ventilation or a shade cover. Some manufacturers have skylights that open and can provide sufficient ventilation. Figure 12-5 shows an application of operable skylights. CLERESTORY WINDOWS NORTH SIDE COOL AIR FIGURE 124 Clerestory circulation. FIGURE 125 Operable skylights can provide sufficient ventilation. Courtesy VELUX America, Inc. Thermal Storage Walls Thermal storage walls are constructed of any good heat-absorbing material such as concrete, masonry, or water-filled cylinders. The storage wall can be built inside and next to a large southern-exposed window or group of windows. The wall receives and stores energy during the day and releases the heat slowly at night. The Trombe wall, designed by a French scientist, Dr. Felix Trombe, is a commonly used thermal storage wall. The Trombe wall is a massive dark-painted masonry or concrete wall situated a few inches inside and next to south-facing glass. The sun heats the air between the wall and the glass. The heated air rises and enters the room through vents at the top of the wall. At the same time, cool air from the floor level of adjacent rooms is pulled in through vents at the bottom of the wall. The vents in the Trombe wall must be closable to avoid losing the warm air from within the structure through the windows at night. The heat absorbed in the wall during the day radiates back into the room during the night hours. The Trombe wall also acts to cool the structure during the summer. This happens when warm air rises between the wall and glass and is vented to the outside. The air currents thus created, work to pull cooler air from an open north-side window or vent. Figure 12-6 shows an example of a thermal storage wall. Chapter 12: Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction 241 OPEN VENT TOP AND BOTTOM WATER-FILLED STRUCTURE SOUTH SIDE STORAGE WALL MECHANICAL INSULATION BLANKET LIVING SPACE WINTER DAY USE OF STORAGE WALL CLOSED VENTS TOP AND BOTTOM RADIANT HEAT SOME HEAT LOSS WINTER NIGHT USE OF STORAGE WALL WARM AIR OUT VENT OR CLERESTORY COOLER AIR FROM NORTH SIDE WARM AIR VENTED OUT SUMMER ACTIVITY OF STORAGE WALL FIGURE 126 Thermal storage wall. Some passive solar structures use water as the storage mass: large vertical water-filled tubes or drums painted dark to absorb heat are installed as the Trombe wall. The water functions as a medium to store heat during the day and release heat at night. Roof Ponds Roof ponds are used occasionally in residential architecture, although they are more common in commercial construction. A roof pond is usually constructed of containers filled with antifreeze and water on a flat roof. The water is heated during the winter days, and then at night the structure is covered with insulation, which allows the absorbed heat to radiate into the living space. This process functions in reverse during the summer. The water-filled units are covered with insulation during the day and uncovered at night to allow any stored heat to escape. To assist the radiation of heat at night, the structure should be constructed of a good thermal-conducting material such as steel. Figure 12-7 shows an example of the roof-pond system. GARAGE, CARPORT, AWNING, COVERED AREA. FIGURE 127 Roof-pond system. Green Roof A green roof is also known as a rooftop garden. These roofs are planted over existing roof structures to help reduce building temperatures, filter pollution, and lessen water runoff. A green roof reduces the urban heat island effect and potentially tempers heating and cooling loads in the building. The urban heat island effect means that city areas are warmer than suburbs or rural areas due to less vegetation, more land coverage, and other infrastructure. The green roof also slows stormwater runoff removing the load on the city’s wastewater system. Solariums A solarium, sometimes called a sunroom or solar greenhouse, is designed to be built on the south side of a house next to the living area. Solariums are a nice part of the living area when designed into a home. Solariums allow plants to grow well all year. The theory behind the solarium is that a great amount of solar energy is absorbed and transmitted to the rest of the building. A thermal mass can also be used in conjunction with the solarium. Heat from the solarium can be circulated throughout the entire house by natural convection or through a forced-air system. The circulation of hot air during the winter and cool air during the summer in the solar greenhouse functions similar to a Trombe wall. The solarium can overheat during long, hot summer days. This potential problem can be reduced by mechanical ventilators or a mechanical humidifier. Exterior shading devices, which are covers that can be rolled down over the greenhouse glass area, are often advantageous. The use of landscaping with southern deciduous trees, as discussed in Chapter 13, is a possible 242 Architectural Drafting and Design VENT OPEN TOP AND BOTTOM VENT CLOSED SOUTH SIDE SOLAR GREENHOUSE CIRCULATING WARM AIR PLANTS STORAGE MASS WINTER ACTIVITY VENT OPEN VENT CLOSED COOLER NORTH AIR WARM AIR SUMMER ACTIVITY FIGURE 128 Solarium construction. alternative. Figure 12-8 shows how a solarium operates to provide solar heat and circulate summer cooling. ENVELOPE DESIGN The Envelope Design content on the Student CD includes information and illustrations about the function and construction of a home using the envelope design concept. Refer to the Student CD, ENVELOPE DESIGN, for more information. local codes should be checked. Active solar systems are commonly adapted to existing homes or businesses that normally use a forced-air heating system. Solar Collectors As the name implies, solar collectors catch sunlight and convert this light to heat. Well-designed solar collectors are nearly 100% efficient. The number of solar collectors needed to provide heat for a given structure depends on the size of the structure and the volume of heat needed. These are the same kinds of determinations made when sizing a conventional heating system. Collectors are commonly placed in rows on a roof or on the ground next to the structure, as shown in Figure 12-9. Architects and designers are integrating the solar panels into the total design in an effort to make them less obvious. The best placement requires an unobstructed southern exposure. The angle of the solar collectors should be in proper relationship to the angle of the sun during winter months, when the demand for heat is greatest. Verify the collector angle that is best suited for a specific location. Some collectors are designed to be positioned at 60° from horizontal so the winter sun hits at about 90° to the collector. Although this is the ideal situation, a slight change from this angle of up to 15° may not alter the efficiency very much. Other collectors are designed to obtain solar heat by direct and reflected sunlight. Reflecting, or focusing, lenses help concentrate the light on the collector surface. Figure 12-10 shows an example of solar collector tilt. ACTIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS Active solar systems are part of a group of green power systems. Green power, as defined on the Environmental Protection Agency Web site, is “electricity that is generated from resources such as solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, and low-impact hydro facilities.” Active solar systems for space heating use collectors to gather heat from the sun, which is transferred to a fluid. Fans, pumps, valves, and thermostats move the heated fluid from the collectors to an area of heat storage. The heat collected and stored is then distributed to the structure. Heat in the system is transported to the living space by insulated ducts, which are similar to the ducts in a conventional forced-air heating system. An active solar heating system generally requires a backup heating system that is capable of handling the entire heating needs of the building. Some backup systems are forced-air systems that use the same ducts as the solar system. The backup system can be heated by electricity, natural gas, or oil. Some people rely on wood- or coal-burning appliances for supplemental heat, but Photovoltaic Modules Photovoltaic technology has been developed and refined. Photovoltaic modules are now powering thousands of installations worldwide. Solar photovoltaic systems are now producing millions of watts of electricity to supply power for remote cabins, homes, railroad signals, water pumps, telecommunications stations, and utilities. Uses for this technology are continuing to expand, and new installations are being constructed. Photovoltaic cells turn light into electricity. The word photovoltaic is derived from the Greek photo, “light,” and voltaic, “to produce electricity by chemical action.” Photons strike the surface of a silicon wafer, which is a semiconductor diode, to stimulate the release of mobile electric charges that can be guided into a circuit to become a useful electric current. Photovoltaic modules produce direct current (DC) electricity. This type of power is useful for many applications and for charging storage batteries. When alternating current (AC) is required, DC can be changed to AC Chapter 12: Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction 243 FIGURE 129 Typical applications of solar hot water collectors. Courtesy Lennox Industries, Inc. by an inverter. Some photovoltaic systems are designed to use the energy produced immediately, as is often the case in water-pumping installations. If the energy produced by solar electric systems is not used immediately, or if an energy reserve is required for use when sunlight is not available, the energy must be stored. The most common storage devices are batteries. Although both DC and AC systems can stand alone, AC systems can also be connected to a utility grid. During times of peak power usage, the system can draw on the grid for extra electricity if needed. At other times, such a system can return extra power to the grid. In most areas of the country the utility (grid) is required to purchase excess power from private sources. Precise site selection is vitally important. The solar modules should be situated where they receive maximum exposure to direct sunlight for the longest period of time every day. Other considerations are distance from the load (appliance); shade from trees or buildings, which changes with the seasons; and accessibility. The future looks bright for solar technologies. The costs and efficiencies of high-technology systems are improving. As home owners watch their heating and cooling costs rise and become more concerned about shortages of oil and gas, solar heating becomes an attractive alternative. In preparing a preliminary design, solar alternatives should be considered. A qualified solar engineer should evaluate the site and recommend solar design alternatives. Additional assistance is usually available from the state or national Department of Energy. Storage 60° SOUTHERN SOLAR COLLECTOR WINTER SUN COLLECTOR 80° REFLECTOR 10° FIGURE 1210 Solar collector tilt. During periods of sunlight, active solar collectors transfer heat energy to a storage area and then to the living space. After the demand for heat is met, the storage facilities allow the heat to be contained for use when solar activity is reduced, such as at night or during cloud cover. The kind of storage facilities used depends on the type of collector system used. There are water, rock, and chemical storage systems. Water storage is excellent because water has a high capacity for storing heat. Water in a storage tank is used to absorb heat from a collector. When the demand for heat exceeds the collector’s output, the hot water from the storage tank is pumped into a radiator, or through a water-to-air heat exchanger for dispersal to the forced-air system. Domestic hot water can be provided by a water-to-water heat exchanger in the storage tank. Rock storage is often used when the collectors contain air rather than water. Heated air flows over a rock 244 storage bed. The rock absorbs some heat from the air while the balance is distributed to the living space. When the solar gain is minimal, cooler air passes over the rock storage, where it absorbs heat and is distributed by fans to the living space. Domestic hot water may also be provided by an air-to-water heat exchanger situated in the rock storage or in the hot air duct leading from the collector. Chemicals used in collectors and in storage facilities absorb large amounts of heat at low temperatures. Many of these systems claim to absorb heat on cloudy days or even when the collectors are snow covered. Chemicals with very low freezing temperatures can actually absorb heat during winter months, when the outside temperature is low. Solar Architectural Concrete Products Solar collectors can be built into a patio, driveway, tennis court, pool deck, or tile roof. Solar architectural concrete products make the most versatile solar collector on the market. These products can be used as a driveway, sidewalk, patio, pool deck, or roofing material, or as the side surface of a building wall or fence. The finished surface can resemble cobblestone, brick, or roof tiles. Pigments are added to the specially formulated material, giving it a lasting color that is pleasing to the eye. These solar products are completely different from all other solar collectors in that they add to the aesthetic value of the property. They are manufactured from a specially formulated mixture that is strong, dense, very conductive, and waterproof. Solar architectural cement products absorb and collect heat from the sun and outside air and transfer the heat into water, glycol, or another heattransferring fluid passing through embedded tubes. Architectural Drafting and Design FIGURE 1211 Groundwater system. Courtesy Solar Oriented Environmental Systems, Inc. tubing around a heat exchanger. Direct exchange represents only a small number of geothermal systems and the Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute does not recognize these. A geothermal system operates by pumping groundwater from a supply well and then circulating it through a heat exchanger, where either heat or cold is transferred by a refrigerant. The water, which has undergone only a temperature change, is then returned through a discharge well back to the strata, as shown in Figure 12-11. Lakes, rivers, ponds, streams, and swimming pools may be alternate sources of water. Rather than pumping the water up to the heat exchanger, a geothermal exchanger can be inserted into a lake, river, or other natural body of water to extract heat, as shown in Figure 12-12. To cool, the geothermal heat pump extracts heat from within the structure and transfers it to the fluid, where the heat dissipates into the ground as it circulates. Another alternative is to insert a geothermal Freon exchanger directly into a well, where the natural GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS Geothermal heating and cooling equipment is designed to use the constant, moderate temperature of the ground to provide space heating and cooling, or domestic hot water, by placing heat exchangers in the ground, or in wells, lakes, rivers, or streams. The basic types of geothermal systems are water- and refrigerant-based. The water-based system has closed-loop and open-loop options. The closed-loop system has water or waterantifreeze fluid pumped through polyethylene tubes. The open-loop system has water pumped from a well or reservoir through a heat exchanger, and is then discharged into a drainage ditch, a field tile, a reservoir, or another well. The refrigerant-based system is also known as direct exchange where refrigerant flows in copper FIGURE 1212 Geothermal Freon exchanger in a lake. Courtesy Solar Oriented Environmental Systems, Inc. Chapter 12: Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction 245 FIGURE 1213 Geothermal Freon exchanger in a well. Courtesy Solar Oriented Environmental Systems, Inc. FIGURE 1215 Ground-loop system. Courtesy Solar Oriented Environmental Systems, Inc. convection of the groundwater temperature, assisted by the normal flow of underground water in the strata, is used to transfer the hot or cold temperature that is required. Sometimes the thermal transfer must be assisted by forcing the Freon to circulate through tubes within the well by a low-horsepower pump (see Figure 12-13). A geothermal system may assist a solar system that uses water as a heat storage and transfer medium. After the water heated by solar collectors has given up enough heat to reduce its temperature to below 100°F, this water becomes the source for operating the geothermal system (see Figure 12-14). When an adequate supply of water is unavailable, the ground, which always maintains a constant temperature below the frost line, can be used to extract either heat or cold. The thermal extraction is done through the use of a closed-loop system consisting of polyethylene tubing filled with a glycol solution and circulated through the geothermal system. One such system is shown in Figure 12-15. Another method is to use a vertical dryhole well, which is sealed to allow it to function as a closed-loop system, as shown in Figure 12-16. The geothermal system is mechanically similar to a conventional heat pump, except that it uses available water to cool the refrigerant or to extract heat, as opposed to using 90°F air for cooling or 20°F to 40°F air for heating. The conventional heat pump is described in Chapter 21. The difference between air source and ground or water sources is that air temperature can change much more than ground or water temperatures. This gives the ground or water source heat pump more capacity and makes it more efficient. Water can store great amounts of geothermal energy because of its high specific heat, which is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of any substance 1°F. The specific heat of air is only 0.018, so it can absorb and release only 1/50 of the energy that water can. To produce a given amount of heat, 50 times more air volume than water is required to pass through the unit. FIGURE 1214 Solar-assisted system. Courtesy Solar Oriented Environmental Systems, Inc. FIGURE 1216 Vertical-dry system. Courtesy Solar Oriented Environmental Systems, Inc. 246 Architectural Drafting and Design WIND ENERGY BIOPOWER Wind energy is a form of solar energy. Winds are caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, the irregularities of the earth’s surface, and the earth’s rotation. Wind turbines capture energy from the wind. A wind turbine is turned by the wind passing over propellers that power an electric generator, creating a supply of electricity. Large-scale applications use several technologically advanced turbines grouped together in what is referred to as a wind farm. This wind power plant generates electricity that is fed into a local utility for distribution to customers. Small-scale wind turbines are also available for home or business use. The wind speed in an area determines the effectiveness of possible power generation by wind. Good wind areas have an annual minimum average wind speed of 13 miles per hour. Contact your state or the U.S. Department of Energy to determine if your area is a good location for wind power. The advantage of wind energy is that the source is a free, renewable, clean resource. However, you must have a good location where wind is available, the initial cost is a factor to consider, there is some noise from the turbines, and mortality of birds flying into the turbines is a concern. The initial cost is balanced out over time when compared with the cost of fuels used for other systems. It is possible that wind power could produce over 10% of the energy needs of the United States by 2050. The following was taken in part from the Web site of the USA Biomass Corporation. Biomass means natural material, such as trees, plants, agricultural waste, and other organic material. Organic material is any material that originated as a living organism. In this context, biomass refers to plant matter grown to generate electricity or produce biofuel, but it also includes plant or animal matter used for production of fibers, chemicals, or heat. Biomass can also include biodegradable wastes that can be burned as fuel. Biomass excludes organic material that has been transformed by geological processes into coal or petroleum, because they contain carbon that has been “out” of the carbon cycle for a very long time. Coal and petroleum combustion increases the carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere. Biomass energy, also referred to as biopower, uses biomass to generate electricity in a way that is cleaner and more efficient than most other electricity generation techniques. Biomass-generating facilities typically use natural biofuels to produce steam, which drives a turbine that turns a generator to produce electricity. In addition to providing clean energy, biopower protects the environment by preventing scrap lumber, agricultural cuttings, forest debris, and other organic waste from being open-burned or dumped in landfills. The benefits of biopower include: HYDROELECTRIC POWER Hydroelectric generators convert the energy from falling water into electricity. Hydroelectric power is a renewable resource, which supplies about 15% of the electricity needs in the United States and about 60% in Canada. Although hydroelectric resources are abundant, there is environmental concern about dams blocking the natural river flow. Hydroelectric power for residential and business use is dependent on a good source of flowing water. The two key factors are flow rate and the vertical distance that water falls, which is referred to as head. The site should be evaluated and tested by a hydrology engineer to determine its feasibility. Local codes and environmental regulations must be considered before planning a hydroelectric project. Power produced from hydroelectric sources is clean, and this makes it an excellent consideration when compared with power plants fired by fossil fuels. However, other environmental impacts, such as fish passage, must be considered. ● Biopower is twice as effective at reducing greenhouse gases as other forms of renewable energy, helping reduce America’s dependence on fossil fuel– generating facilities. ● Biopower is carbon neutral, releasing no new carbons into the atmosphere, helping to reduce the greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change. ● Biopower reduces carbon dioxide emissions by over 15 tons annually, while diverting over 25 million tons of organic materials that would otherwise decompose, be open-burned, or accumulate in the forest as overgrowth material. ● Biopower improves the health of American forests and reduces fire-fighting costs by clearing millions of tons of forest waste annually, which otherwise would be fuel for deadly forest fires. HEALTHY ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION Constructing a healthy building involves issues related to construction techniques, construction materials, as well as heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning design. Many of the proper construction methods have been Chapter 12: Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction 247 discussed throughout this chapter. Techniques that result in energy-efficient construction are important because the goal is to design and build an airtight structure. The methods used to reduce outside air infiltration range from the selection and proper installation of insulation and caulking products to the installation of continuous vapor retarders. The risks involved in building an airtight structure involve air quality; these risks range from stale air to a buildup of harmful contaminants. These issues can be addressed with a well-designed and properly installed heat recovery and ventilation system. Sources of pollutants and methods used to deal with these problems are discussed in Chapter 21, with complete coverage of HVAC systems. The selection of building materials and products is also an important consideration. Avoid manufactured wood products such as fiberboard, particleboard, and plywood unless they are manufactured using environmentally safe processes and adhesives. Use water-based caulking, paint, and finishes. Keep carpeting to a minimum, or eliminate it completely for very sensitive clients. An alternative to synthetic carpeting is natural fiber products such as wool and cotton. Combustion appliances that use gas fuel, such as furnaces, ranges, water heaters, and clothes dryers, must be properly ventilated, and combustion must be complete. An electric or heat pump furnace; electric water heater, range, and dryer; or sealed combustion appliances should be considered. Avoid treated wood products in the construction of the building envelope, although they may be considered for outside use, as in decks. In regions where treated wood is commonly used for termite and rot control, steel-frame construction is a consideration. Steel-frame construction has been commonly used in commercial structures and is becoming a serious consideration for residential design and construction. The following is a checklist of features and products that can be considered for designing a healthy structure: ● ● Design and build with high-quality environmentally friendly insulation, caulking, and vapor barriers. ● Use airtight well-insulated wood- or metal-frame windows. ● Use unbleached plasterboard and plaster rather than chemically produced sheetrock and materials. ● Install a properly designed heat recovery ventilation system, also called an air-to-air heat exchanger. See Chapter 21 for more information. ● Install a high-performance particle air filtration system. See Chapter 21 for more information. The following is taken in part from the National Brownfield Association (NBA) Web site. The National Brownfield Association is a nonprofit, member-based organization consisting of NBA U.S.A. and NBA Canada. The NBA is the only nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting sustainable development and encouraging green building on brownfield sites. Brownfields, as defined by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, are “real property, the expansion, redevelopment, or reuse of which may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant.” Brownfield sites can be found Use low-toxicity ceramic tiles and hardwood floors or natural fiber carpets rather than synthetic carpets. ● Use wood sheathing and decking such as tongueand-groove rather than plywood and particleboard. Low-formaldehyde products can be considered. ● Consider low-toxicity foam insulation or other nonchemical insulation products. ● Use water-base, solvent-free, low-toxicity paints and finishes. ● Construct a tightly sealed foundation to help keep out radon gas and moisture. Radon gas is discussed in Chapter 21. ● Use a heat pump such as a geothermal unit that produces no indoor pollutants. Heat pumps are described in Chapter 21. ● Install gas appliances and fireplaces that use only outdoor air and exhaust to the outside without any downdraft. ● Use ultraviolet (UV) lights mounted inside the duct work, so when the furnace fan circulates air from the house, the air passes across the UV light rays which neutralize up to 98% of microorganisms. Additional information about UV lights is provided in Chapter 21. ● Install an electrical system that is designed to reduce stray voltage. Some people are sensitive to power surges. ● Use a sealed and well-balanced metal duct system. Avoid fiberglass insulation ducts. Metal ducts can be insulated on the outside. ● Install a central vacuum system that vents particles out of the house into a filtered container in the garage. ● Install a garage ventilation system. ● Use ceramic roofing. Sustainable Development and Green Building on Brownfield Sites 248 GOING GREEN The Ultimate Urban Green Home This ultimate urban green home, designed by res communis, is an almost perfect sustainable and self-sufficient design using super, energy-efficient, environmentally safe materials and clean energy technologies. The owners named this home the Commons, because the ideas used to design and build the home need to be shared and common. A goal of this home is to be a national model of the greenest self-sufficient design and construction available. The Commons is part of the Living Building Challenge. The Living Building Challenge is an initiative program developed by the Cascadia Region Green Building Council, which is the Northwest chapter of the U.S. Green Building Council. The purpose of the Living Building Challenge is to force architectural design and construction beyond the scope outlined in the highest LEED for Homes standard. The homes built in this program are tested for performance and must meet specific outcomes to be qualified. The green features found in the Commons are described below. NET-ZERO ENERGY The home, with the help of a photovoltaic (PV) solar array is classified as net-zero energy, which means that the home generates as much or more energy than the occupants consume through the course of a year. To accomplish this, the house is grid inter-tied, which means that when the solar array is producing more energy than is needed, the energy is fed into the power grid and when the solar array is not producing enough, the home pulls power back from the grid. SUPER INSULATED The building envelope can be the most important consideration when designing a sustainable structure, because the heating and cooling of a building are the largest energy loads. The walls for the Commons are made using a double-steel stud construction technique with an overall thickness of 12", and insulated with AirKrete cementitious foam insulation, blown-in cellulose, and clad in fiber-cement paneling. Cementitious foam insulation is an effective air barrier, nontoxic, not a petroleum product, and not susceptible to moisture damage. Blown-in cellulose is a waste product, nontoxic, and low in cost. Fiber-cement cladding is a highly durable and nontoxic material that acts as a skin for the building envelope. life of the building, which is an important aspect of sustainability. PASSIVE SOLAR DESIGN The Commons is oriented with its longest and tallest face towards the south and the southern walls are largely glass in order to gain as much warmth from the winter sun as possible. The floors within the sunspace and greenhouse are earthen, which have high thermal mass for storing solar energy. Passive solar systems are discussed further in this chapter. NET-ZERO WATER AND RAINWATER CATCHMENT Net-zero water means that a home collects or generates as much or more water than the occupants consume through the course of a year. All water used in the Commons, including potable water, is gathered from rainwater falling on the roof and stored in a cistern. This system removes the dependence on municipal water systems and increases awareness of usage, because the occupants can consume only the amount of water that has been supplied naturally. A cistern is a receptacle for holding water or other liquid, especially a tank for catching and storing rainwater. This is also referred to as a rainwater catchment system. Rainwater catchment systems are described further in Chapter 20. GREEN ROOF Incorporated in the roof design is a green roof, which reduces the urban heat island effect and potentially tempers heating and cooling loads in the building. Also known as a rooftop garden, a green roof is planted over an existing roof structure to help reduce building temperatures, filter pollution, and lessen stormwater runoff, thereby lessening the load on the city wastewater system. The urban heat island effect means that city areas are warmer than suburbs or rural areas due to less vegetation, more land coverage, and other infrastructure. SOLAR HOT WATER In addition to photovoltaic panels for electricity, the Commons has solar hot water panels to offset the water heating loads and provide warm water to radiant wall heaters. Solar hot water systems are described in Chapter 20. CLEAR SPAN STRUCTURE COMPOSTING TOILETS AND GRAY WATER RECLAMATION The Commons is constructed so all interior walls are non-load-bearing, allowing for easier reconfiguration of the space in the future, which can extend the useful The Commons has waterless composting toilets, which lower overall water requirements for the house. By using a composting system, the home can be disconnected GOING GREEN 249 The Ultimate Urban Green Home (Continued) from the municipal sewer system. Gray water processing has just recently been approved in the state of Oregon, for use in flushing toilets and irrigation. Designers are working with city and state officials to process and treat the gray water back to potable standards on-site. A goal of the Commons is to become an example project by putting the gray water through constructed wetlands in the greenhouse, onto the green roof, and then allowing it to be filtered back into the cistern for potable water. Confirm the possibility of gray water reclamation with regulations in your area. If the designers are unable to obtain the proper permits to process gray water on-site, the home will be built with rough plumbing in order to implement a gray water reuse system when permits are available. Gray water is wastewater from clothes washing machines, showers, bathtubs, hand washing, lavatories, and sinks. By removing toilets from the municipal sewer system, the home reduces the load on the system. Rough plumbing is the plumbing system found beyond the location where sinks, showers, tubs, toilets, and related fixtures connect. Composting toilets also allow for the compost waste product to be used as fertilizer for the ornamental landscaping and soil remediation around the house. Composting toilets are described further in Chapter 20. EARTHEN FLOORS Earthen floors are a green building technology that combines the mixture of sand, clay soil, and fibers that are poured in place and sealed with linseed oils and waxes to make durable washable surfaces. The finished surface is more comfortable to walk on than concrete or tile, and can be easily repaired in case of damage. The earthen floor system allows sunlight to enter the FIGURE 1217 A rendering of the Commons with numbers identifying sustainable features described in the text. Courtesy res communis, www.rescommunis.org. structure and be absorbed. The stored heat helps warm the living space. The features of the Commons are shown in Figure 12-17 with the exterior rendering, and Figure 12-18 providing the upper-level and lower-level floor plans. The numbers identified on the exterior rendering and floor plans are outlined in the following: 1. Green Roof—The green roof reduces the urban heat island effect, tempers heating and cooling loads, and slows stormwater runoff. 2. Rainwater Catchment—All water used is gathered from rainwater falling on the roof and stored in a cistern. 3. Translucent Movable Roof—This portion of the roof is transparent to allow light to filter through, but FIGURE 1218 (A) The main floor and (B) the second floor of the Commons with numbers identifying sustainable features described in the text. Courtesy res communis, www.rescommunis.org. 250 GOING GREEN The Ultimate Urban Green Home (Continued) keeps the courtyard below mostly dry and allows for its use during rainy weather. 4. Movable Walls—Large glass roll-up doors on the greenhouse and sunspace blur the boundary between indoors and out. 5. Exterior Walls—The walls for the Commons are made using 12"-thick double steel stud construction, insulated with AirKrete and clad in fiber-cement paneling. 6. Energy Source—All power used in the home is provided by a roof-mounted solar array. The home is net-zero energy. 7. Subterranean Shop and Garden—A subterranean shop allows the occupants to maintain a backyard space for a garden and fruit trees. Being underground, sound created from tools and activities are deadened, reducing noise pollution. 8. Appliances—The custom refrigerator is superinsulated with a new vacuum insulation allowing R-50 in 2 inches. A washing machine that spins most of the water out, in conjunction with a clothesline, eliminates the need for a clothes drier. A built-in central vacuum cleaner results in cleaner air, exhausting dust and particulates to the exterior. 9. Composting Toilet—Waterless composting toilets lower overall water requirements for the house. A custom bidet is installed on the toilet to prevent the need for toilet paper. 10. Sunspace and Greenhouse—The sunspace and greenhouse capture solar heat and store it in the thermal mass of the earthen floors. The sunspace also acts as a flex space with its roll-up glass doors allowing it to bridge the gap between the kitchen and the outdoors in milder times of the year. The indoor greenhouse allows the occupants to supplement their diet with fresh, home grown foods. The plants condition the air by removing pollutants that enter the house from outside and from off-gassing electronics. Plants have also been shown to increase the productivity and happiness of occupants. In addition to offering a place to grow plants, the greenhouse also has a large quantity of glass to capture solar heat gain from the sun, which can be drawn into the living spaces. 11. Interior Walls—Many components within the house, including the interior walls, are constructed from reused materials such as wood and glass from the previous building on the site. 12. Floors (Office)—High-traffic areas and circulation paths, such as those in the office, are made of an earth-based “concrete” because of its durability. Areas where the occupants spend more time standing are clad in reused wood to be warmer and more comfortable underfoot. 13. Dual Density—The house is designed with two master bedrooms in order to increase density and accommodate two families. This increased density fosters community and mutual aid, and allows the sharing of resources, which lowers the overall impact of all involved. 14. Courtyard—The courtyard provides a transition between the home and backyard and is a buffer between the two master bedrooms. Additional features found in the Commons are discussed below. Windows The windows in the structure are oriented to the sun and have a low U-value, but in some cases, the U-value is traded for a higher solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) allowing for a greater harvest of the sun’s energy. Daylighting was also a priority in design; all living spaces have at least two walls with windows in order to balance the light. Energy Recovery Ventilator An energy recovery ventilator (ERV) allows for an airtight house, and provides energy efficiency because the stale outgoing air is passed through a heat exchanger, where the outgoing air exchanges its conditioned state (hot or cold) with the incoming fresh air, conserving energy. ERVs also allow for humidity levels to be monitored and controlled. Wings Wings hide the conduit for the photovoltaic system, solar hot water tubes, and rainwater conveyance. Airlock The two successive doors at the main entrance function as an airlock. Flex Space This space has a multitude of capacities, ranging from an entertainment space, an art space, or a guest bedroom. Earthen Floors Earthen floors have been specified for all rooms, with the exception of the kitchen and bedrooms. Earthen floors have little to no embodied energy, are made from local materials, and are pleasant and warm underfoot. Chapter 12: Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction in every state. Common examples are abandoned gas stations and dry cleaners, railroad properties, factories, and closed military bases. Brownfields can also include ADDITIONAL RESOURCES www.airkrete.com www.ase.org www.ases.org www.usabiomass.org www.certainteed.com www.pdxlivingbuilding www.dap.com www.earthadvantage.com www.energystar.gov www.envirohome.chba.ca www.epa.gov www.epa.gov/greenpower www.epa.gov/iaq properties that are under-utilized for various socioeconomic reasons, such as abandonment, obsolescence, tax delinquency, and blight. See CD for more information The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you keep current with changes in environmental design and construction. Address 251 Company, Product, or Service AirKrete—Manufacturer of cementitious foam insulation Alliance to Save Energy American Solar Energy Society Biopower CertainTeed (insulation) The Commons—One of the nation’s first living buildings Dap caulking Earth Advantage program Energy Star EnviroHome Initiative, Canadian Home Builders’ Association Environmental Protection Agency EPA—Green Power Partnership EPA—Indoor air quality www.usgbc.org/leed www.usgbc.org/leed/homes www.davelennox.com Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating System The LEED for Homes program Lennox Industries, Inc. www.nahbrc.org/greenguidelines NAHB Green Building Guidelines www.brownfieldassociation.org www.nahbrc.org/gbstandard www.osisealants.com www.rescommunis.org www.seia.org www.doe.gov National Brownfield Association National Green Building Standard OSI Sealants, Inc. res communis design Solar Energy Industries Association U.S. Department of Energy www.windpoweringamerica.gov www.epa.gov www.usgbc.org Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction Test U.S. Department of Energy, Wind and Hydropower Technology Program, and wind resource maps U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) U.S. Green Building Council See CD for more information QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 12 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines. Question 12–1 List three reasons why energy-efficient construction techniques are becoming important. Question 12–2 Describe at least one factor that may be a disadvantage of energy-efficient construction. Question 12–3 What is the primary goal of energyefficient design and construction? Question 12–4 Identify at least one goal of conservation design. 252 Question 12–5 Why is it possible to use energy-efficient design in any architectural style? Question 12–6 Why is it possible to implement some energy-efficient design in every new home? Question 12–7 List two site factors that contribute to energy-efficient design. Question 12–8 List two room layout factors that contribute to energy-efficient design. Question 12–9 List two window placement factors that contribute to energy-efficient design. Question 12–10 What are the two basic residential and commercial uses for solar heat? Question 12–11 Describe passive and active solar heating. Question 12–12 List and describe three factors that influence a good solar design. Question 12–13 Discuss the concept of right to light. Question 12–14 Define each of the following solar systems and make a sketch to show how it functions: a. South-facing glass b. Clerestory windows c. Thermal storage wall d. Roof pond e. Solarium Question 12–15 Define solar collector. Architectural Drafting and Design STUDENT CD QUESTIONS The following questions are based on the Student CD–related content found in this chapter. These questions are optional depending on your course objectives. Question CD 12–1 List two factors that influence a reduction in air infiltration into a structure. Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–2 Identify at least two goals of an energy-efficient construction system. Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–3 List three general materials for energy-efficient construction. Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–4 What is caulking? Where is it typically used? Refer to the Student CD: ENERGYEFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–5 What is the recommended thickness for a vapor barrier in a crawl space? Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–6 Refer to the Student CD: ENERGYEFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. List the typical R-value for the following uses based on the DOE recommendations: Question 12–16 What are solar architectural concrete products, and how do they function? a. Flat ceilings Question 12–17 Describe three applications of geothermal heating and cooling systems. c. Walls Question 12–18 Describe the function of photovoltaic cells. Question 12–19 What is the recommended overhang for 36° north latitude? Question 12–20 What is the recommended overhang for 48° north latitude? Question 12–21 Define direct solar gain. Question 12–22 Give two advantages of wind power generation. Question 12–23 List at least 10 features and/or products that can be considered for designing a healthy home. Question 12–24 What are sustainable buildings? Question 12–25 Describe the green building concept. Question 12–26 Define brownfields. Question 12–27 Define green power. Question 12–28 Briefly describe the Energy Star program. b. Floors Question CD 12–7 Describe and show sketches demonstrating the envelope design. Refer to the Student CD: ENVELOPE DESIGN. Question CD 12–8 What are radiant barriers, and what is their function? Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–9 Describe the function of insulation. Refer to this chapter, to Chapter 9, and to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–10 List at least four items that influence how much insulation a home should have. Refer to this chapter, to Chapter 9, and to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–11 What does R-value measure? Refer to this chapter, to Chapter 9, and to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Chapter 12: Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction 253 Question CD 12–12 The ability of material to slow heat transfer is called what? Refer to this chapter, to Chapter 9, and to the Student CD: ENERGYEFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–26 What is the class of a window that has a U-value of 0.40? Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–13 What does the “R” in R-value mean? Refer to this chapter, to Chapter 9, and to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–27 Identify a foam-in-place insulation material that gives high R-values and airtight seals and provides low toxicity. Refer to this chapter, to Chapter 9, and to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–14 Briefly describe loose-fill insulation. Refer to the Student CD: ENERGYEFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–15 Give at least one advantage of loose-fill insulation. Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–28 Refer to this chapter, to Chapter 9, and to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Give the insulation code for the following building components based on sample energy code requirements: a. Walls Question CD 12–16 Provide a brief description of batts and blanket insulation. Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. b. Flat ceilings Question CD 12–17 Why is careful installation of batts and blanket insulation important? Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. e. Basement walls Question CD 12–18 Give at least three advantages of rigid insulation. Refer to the Student CD: ENERGYEFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–19 Identify at least three places where rigid insulation is commonly used. Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–20 Give at least two advantages of foam-in-place insulation. Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. c. Vaulted ceilings d. Under floor f. Slab floor edge g. Forced-air ducts h. Windows i. Front entry door j. Other exterior doors k. Skylights PROBLEMS Write a report of 250 or fewer words on one or more of the following topics: Question CD 12–21 Name the only insulation that can be used in closed cavities. Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Problem 12–1 U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) Question CD 12–22 What is the R-value range per inch of thickness for fiberglass batts and blanket insulation? Refer to this chapter, to Chapter 9, and to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Problem 12–4 Energy Star Question CD 12–23 Describe insulated windows. Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Problem 12–7 Energy-efficient construction, insulated windows Question CD 12–24 What is the advantage of using argon gas in insulated windows? Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Problem 12–9 Thermal storage walls Question CD 12–25 What is low-e glass and what does it do? Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Problem 12–2 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Problem 12–3 Green Building Rating System Problem 12–5 Energy-efficient construction, caulking, vapor retarders, radiant barriers Problem 12–6 Energy-efficient construction, insulation Problem 12–8 Solar energy design Problem 12–10 Envelope design (Refer to the Student CD: ENVELOPE DESIGN.) Problem 12–11 Active solar systems Problem 12–12 Geothermal systems Problem 12–13 Wind energy, including local projects 254 Architectural Drafting and Design Problem 12–14 Healthy design and construction Problem 12–23 Roof ponds Problem 12–15 Brownfields Problem 12–24 Green roof Problem 12–16 Green power Problem 12–25 Solarium Problem 12–17 The Commons Problem 12–26 Solar collectors and storage Problem 12–18 NAHB Green Building Guidelines Problem 12–27 Solar architectural concrete products Problem 12–19 Indoor air quality Problem 12–28 Photovoltaic modules Problem 12–20 The LEED for Homes program Problem 12–29 Hydroelectric power Problem 12–21 National Green Building Standard Problem 12–30 Evaluate and describe your own principles surrounding the energy-efficient design and construction applications discovered in this chapter. Problem 12–22 EnviroHome Initiative, Canadian Home Builders’ Association www.kevinmillerphoto.com SECTION 3 Site Planning This page intentionally left blank CHAPTER 13 Site Orientation I N T R O D U C T I O N Site orientation is the placement of a structure on the property with certain environmental and physical factors taken into consideration. Site orientation is one of the preliminary factors that an architect or designer takes into consideration when beginning the design process. The specific needs of the occupants, such as individual habits, perceptions, and aesthetic values, are important and need to be considered. When designing the home or business, the designer or architect has the responsibility of combining the values of the owner with other factors that influence the location of the structure. In some cases site orientation is predetermined. For example, in a residential subdivision where all lots are 50' × 100' (1524 × 3048 m), the street frontage often dictates the front of the house. The property line setback requirements do not allow much flexibility. Setback is the minimum distance required between the structure and the property line. In such a case, site planning has a minimal influence on the design. This chapter presents factors that can influence site orientation, such as terrain, view, sunlight, wind, and sound. TERRAIN ORIENTATION The terrain is the characteristic of the land on which the proposed structure shall be placed. Terrain affects the type of structure to be built. A level construction site is a natural location for a single-level or two-story home. Some landscape techniques on a level site can allow for alternatives. For example, the excavation material plus extra topsoil could be used to construct an earth berm, which is a mound or built-up area. The advantage of the berm is to help reduce the apparent height of a second story or to add earth insulation to part of the structure (see Figure 13-1). Construction on any site requires that a slope be graded away from the house. This is to help ensure that normal rainwater drains away. Sloped sites are a natural location for multilevel or daylight basement homes. A single-level home is a poor choice on a sloped site because of the extra construction cost for excavation or building up the foundation (see Figure 13-2). Some builders have taken advantage of very steep construction sites by designing homes on stilts. This requires careful geological and structural engineering to ensure safe construction. Figure 13-3 shows how terrain can influence housing types. Subterranean construction has gained popularity, and provides some economical advantages in energy consumption. The terrain of the site is an important factor to consider in the implementation of subterranean designs (see Figure 13-4). VIEW ORIENTATION In many situations, future home owners purchase a building site before they begin the home design. In a large number of these cases, the people are buying a view. The view may be of mountains, city lights, a lake, a river, the ocean, or even a golf course. These view sites are usually more expensive than comparable sites without a view. The architect’s obligation to the client in this situation is to provide a home design that optimizes the view. Actually, it is best to provide an environment that allows the occupants to feel as though they are part of the view. Figure 13-5 shows a dramatic example of a view as part of the total environment. GRADE ONE-LEVEL HOUSE, LEVEL SITE MAIN FLOOR GRADE BASEMENT FLOOR LANDSCAPE BERM, LEVEL SITE FIGURE 131 Level site. 257 258 Architectural Drafting and Design MAIN FLOOR ORIGINAL GRADE SECOND FLOOR LOWER FLOOR GRADE EXCAVATION MULTILEVEL, SLOPED SITE EXCESS EXCAVATION FOUNDATION AND FRAMING MAIN FLOOR GRADE BASEMENT FLOOR WASTED SPACE EXCESS FOUNDATION AND FRAMING DAYLIGHT BASEMENT, SLOPED SITE ONE-LEVEL HOUSE, SLOPED SITE FIGURE 132 Sloped sites. TWO STORY ONE LEVEL TWO LEVEL APPROPRIATE ON FLAT SITE WHERE SPACE IS LIMITED. ON SLAB OR CRAWL SPACE SUITS FLAT SITE. FULL-STORY DROP IN SITE. MULTILEVEL TRI-LEVEL BI-LEVEL APPROPRIATE FOR SLOPING SITE. SUITABLE FOR SLOPED SITE. SUITABLE FOR FLAT SITE. ECONOMIC USE OF FOUNDATION WALL. FIGURE 133 Terrain determines housing types. Chapter 13: Site Orientation GRADE 259 WINTER PATH GLASS WALL, NATURAL LIGHT, AND VENTILATION SUMMER PATH SPRING AND AUTUMN PATH SOLAR ORIENTATION SW SET WINTER S SUNSET W UNDERGROUND STRUCTURE SUBTERRANEAN, SLOPED SITE FIGURE 134 Subterranean construction site. NW SET SUMMER SE RISE WINTER E SUNRISE NE RISE SUMMER N FIGURE 136 Southern exposure. When a site has southern exposure that allows solar orientation, a little basic astronomy can contribute to proper placement of the structure. Figure 13-6 shows how a southern orientation relative to the sun’s path provides the maximum solar exposure. Establishing South FIGURE 135 View orientation. Courtesy Pella Windows and Doors. View orientation can conflict with the advantages of other orientation factors such as solar or wind orientation. When a client pays a substantial amount to purchase a view site, such a trade-off may be necessary. When the view dictates that a large glass surface face a wind-exposed non-solar orientation, some energysaving alternatives should be considered, such as providing as much solar-related glass as possible. Use small window surfaces in other areas to help minimize heat loss. Use triple-glazed windows in the exposed view surface as well as in the rest of the structure if economically possible. Insulate and seal to stop air leakage. SOLAR ORIENTATION The sun is an important factor in home orientation. Sites with a solar orientation allow for excellent exposure to the sun. There should not be obstacles such as tall buildings, evergreen trees, or hills that have the potential to block the sun. Generally, a site located on a south slope has these characteristics. A perfect solar site allows the structure to have unobstructed southern exposure. When a site has this potential, true south should be determined. This determination should be established in the preliminary planning stages. Other factors that contribute to orientation, such as view, can also be taken into consideration at this time. If view orientation requires a structure be turned slightly away from the south, it is possible that the solar potential will not be significantly reduced. True south is determined by a line from the North Pole to the South Pole. When a compass is used to establish north–south, the compass points to magnetic north. Magnetic north is not the same as true north. True north is the same as geographic north, which is the North Pole. The difference between true north and magnetic north is known as the magnetic declination. Figure 13-7 shows the compass relationship between true north–south and magnetic north. Magnetic declination differs between locations. Figure 13-8 shows a map with lines that represent the magnetic declination at different locations throughout the United States. A magnetic declination of 18° east, which occurs in northern California, means that the compass needle points 18° to the east of true north, or 18° to the west of 260 Architectural Drafting and Design TRUE NORTH MAGNETIC NORTH shows how the east–west street orientation can provide the maximum solar potential. If the client loves trees but also wants solar orientation, consider a site where the home could be situated so southern exposure can be achieved with coniferous trees to the north and deciduous trees on the south side. The coniferous trees can effectively block wind without interfering with the solar orientation. The deciduous trees provide shade from the hot summer sun. In the winter, when these trees have lost their leaves, the winter sun exposure is not substantially reduced. Figure 13-10 shows a potential solar site with trees. WIND ORIENTATION MAGNETIC DECLINATION TRUE SOUTH FIGURE 137 Magnetic declination. true south. In this location, as you face toward magnetic south, true south is 18° to the left. Solar Site–Planning Tools Instruments are available that calculate solar access and demonstrate shading patterns for any given site throughout the year. Solar access refers to the availability of direct sunlight to a structure or construction site. Some instruments provide accurate readings for the entire year at any time of day, in clear or cloudy weather. Solar Site Location A solar site in a rural or suburban location where there may be plenty of space to take advantage of a southern solar exposure allows the designer a great deal of flexibility. Some other factors, however, can be considered when selecting an urban solar site. Select a site where zoning restrictions have maximum height requirements. This prevents future neighborhood development from blocking the sun from an otherwise good solar orientation. Avoid a site where large coniferous trees hinder the full potential of the sun exposure. Sites that have streets running east–west and lots 50' × 100' (1524 × 3048 m) provide fairly limited orientation potential. Adjacent homes can easily block the sun unless southern exposure is possible. Figure 13-9 The term prevailing winds refers to the direction from which the wind most frequently blows in a given area of the country. For example, if the prevailing winds are said to be southwesterly, that means the winds in the area generally flow from the southwest. There are some locations that may have southwesterly prevailing winds, but during certain times of the year, severe winds can blow from the northeast. The factors that influence these particular conditions can be mountains, large bodies of water, valleys, canyons, or river basins. The prevailing winds in the United States are from west to east, although some areas have wind patterns that differ from this because of geological and environmental factors. Wind conditions should be taken into consideration in the orientation of a home or business. In many cases, different aspects of site orientation may present a conflict. For example, the best solar orientation may be in conflict with the best wind orientation. The best view may be out over the ocean, but the winter winds may also come from that direction. One of the factors used to evaluate orientation can outweigh another. Personal judgment may be the final ruling factor. A good combination can be achieved if careful planning is used to take all of the environmental factors into consideration. Site Location Wind conditions that influence site location can be found in almanacs, in the local library, and on the Internet. Look for subjects such as climate, microclimate, prevailing winds, and wind conditions. Evaluate the direction of the prevailing winds in an area by calling the local weather bureau, by discussing it with local residents, or by searching the Internet. Select an area where winter winds are at a minimum or where there is protection from these winds. Within a 25-mile Chapter 13: Site Orientation FIGURE 138 U.S. magnetic declination grid map. Courtesy National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC). 261 262 Architectural Drafting and Design GOOD VIEW UNPROTECTED FROM WINDS N PROTECTED WINDS PROTECTION BEHIND A HILL EAST–WEST STREET PROTECTED WINDS PROTECTION BEHIND A FOREST FIGURE 139 East–west street orientation. FIGURE 1311 Locations protected from wind. (40-km) radius of a given area, wind can be more of a problem in certain locations than it is in others. A hill, mountain, or forest can protect the building site from general wind conditions. Figure 13-11 shows some examples of site locations that may be protected from prevailing winds. It can be very difficult to avoid all the negative effects of winds in a given location. When a site has been selected and wind continues to be a concern, construction or landscaping techniques can contribute to a satisfactory environment. A subterranean structure may totally reduce the effects of wind. Underground or partial underground homes, when placed with the below-grade portion against the wind, can create substantial wind control, as seen in Figure 13-12. When subterranean housing is not an option, some other techniques can be used. Building the structure partly into the ground with a basement or using berming can be a successful alternative. Proper foundation drainage is a factor to consider when these methods are used. Figure 13-13 shows how wind protection can be achieved with proper use of the earth. Landscaping can also make an effective break between the cold winter wind and the home site. Coniferous trees or EXPOSED SURFACE NORTH SOUTH CONIFEROUS TREES N NORTH STREET FIGURE 1312 Subterranean wind protection. WIND PROTECTED PROTECTED DECIDUOUS TREES DAYLIGHT BASEMENT SPLIT ENTRY EAST STREET BERM PROTECTED BASEMENT FIGURE 1310 Solar orientation with trees. PROTECTED BERMED FOUNDATION FIGURE 1313 Wind protection using earth. Chapter 13: Site Orientation 263 EVERGREEN HEDGE COLD WIND WINDS TWO STAGGERED ROWS OF CONIFEROUS TREES PROTECTED SOUTH OR VIEW FACING SIDE 2ND FL BERM 1ST FLOOR DRIVE FIGURE 1315 Roof slope with wind protection. STREET FIGURE 1314 Wind protection with landscaping. other evergreen landscaping materials can provide an excellent windbreak. These trees should be planted in staggered rows. Two rows are a suggested minimum, but three rows are better. Some hedge plants can be put in one row to provide wind protection. Figure 13-14 shows how landscaping can protect a structure from cold wind. Room and construction design can also influence wind protection. Place rooms that do not require a great deal of glass for view or solar use on the north side or the side toward severe winter winds. A garage, even though unheated, is an insulator and can provide an excellent break between cold winter winds and the living areas of the home. Bedrooms with fairly small windows can be placed to provide a barrier between the wind and the rest of the home. A common method of exterior construction design that helps deflect wind is a long, sloping roof. A flat, two-story surface causes a great deal of wind resistance. A better alternative is achieved when a long, sloping roof is used to reduce wind resistance, resulting in more energy-efficient construction. Figure 13-15 shows how roof construction can effectively deflect prevailing winds. Summer Cooling Winds Summer winds may be mild and contribute to a more comfortable living environment. Comfort can be achieved through design for natural ventilation and through landscape design. Effective natural ventilation can be achieved when a structure has openings in opposite walls that allow for cross ventilation. In a two- or multiple-story structure, the openings can be effectively tied into the stairwells to provide for continuous ventilation. Figure 13-16 shows an example of how good natural ventilation can be achieved. A vacuum causes ventilation from the sheltered side of the house, which forces air to suck through the house, rather than wind pressure from the windward side of the structure. Landscaping can also help provide summer cooling. The discussion of wind protection showed how coniferous trees can protect against cold winter winds. These evergreen trees can also be used in conjunction with deciduous trees to help funnel summer winds into the home site and help provide natural summer cooling. Fences or other buildings can also help create a wind funnel. Deciduous trees serve a triple purpose. In the summer they provide needed shade and act as a filter to cool heated wind. In the winter they lose their leaves, thus allowing the sun’s rays to help warm the house. Figure 13-17 shows how an effective landscape plan can be used to provide a total environment. SUMMER WIND PATIO DOOR WINDOW ONE STORY SUMMER WIND WINDOWS WINDOW PATIO DOOR TWO STORY FIGURE 1316 Natural ventilation. 264 Architectural Drafting and Design HARSH WINTER NORTHEASTERLY WIND TWO ROWS STAGGERED CONIFERS EVERGREEN HEDGE STREET DRIVE ENTRY DECIDUOUS TREES EVERGREEN HEDGE A few landscaping designs can contribute to a quieter living environment. Berms, trees, hedges, and fences can all be helpful. Some landscape materials deflect sounds, while others absorb sounds. The density of the sound barrier has an influence on sound reduction, although even a single hedge can help reduce a sound problem. A mixture of materials can most effectively reduce sound. Keep in mind that deciduous trees and plants help reduce noise problems during the summer, but they are poor sound insulation in the winter (see Figure 13-18). Trees can provide sound insulation. The greater the width of the plantings for sound insulation, the better the control. Trees planted in staggered rows provide the best design. Figure 13-19 shows the plan view of a site with sound barrier plants. Notice that the garage is placed between the living areas of the home and MILD SUMMER SOUTHWESTERLY WIND STREET HEDGE DRIVE FIGURE 1317 Landscaping for wind control. SOUND ORIENTATION If your construction site is located in the country near the great outdoors, sound orientation may not be a concern. The sounds that you have are singing birds, croaking frogs, chirping crickets, and possibly only a few road noises. It is very difficult to eliminate road sounds from many other locations. A site within a mile of a major freeway can be plagued by excessive droning road noise. A building site that is level with or slightly below a road can have less noise than a site that is above and overlooking the sound source. DECIDUOUS OR CONIFEROUS TREES TALL EVERGREEN HEDGE FENCE FIGURE 1318 Landscaping for sound insulation. TWO ROWS STAGGERED EVERGREENS BUSHES PROPERTY LINE GARAGE REDUCES SOUND FIGURE 1319 Sound reduction: home and landscape plan. TALL FIRS SHORT CEDARS EVERGREEN BUSHES BERM GOING GREEN 265 Environmentally Sound Landscaping Practices This Going Green feature introduces some landscaping methods that can be used to reduce your ecological footprint. LANDSCAPE WITH LESS LAWN When designing landscaping for a new home or if you currently have a lawn, consider the following options: • Reduce the size of your existing lawn or eliminate it entirely depending on the needs of your family. Smaller lawns generate less pollution by requiring less water, fertilizer, and mowing. • Choose organic fertilizers and quality composts to help your lawn grow and build the soil. • Use a manual push-mower for small lawns or try an electric mower for larger areas. • For areas of new lawn or when replacing an existing one, choose grass mixes such as fescues or eco-mixes that require less water than traditional ryegrass. Figure 13-20 shows the before and after of a landscaping project using environmentally sound practices. USING NATIVE AND DROUGHT-TOLERANT PLANTS Consider alternatives to landscaping plants that demand regular and frequent watering, such as the following options: • Plant drought-tolerant plants in place of ornamental plants that demand regular water throughout dry summers. Drought-tolerant plants need watering Before the first year or two to get their roots established but after that, their water consumption is reduced for an accumulative savings. • Use plants native to your region; they can easily adapt to hot, dry summers. Some native plants even prefer little water. • Plant drought-tolerant shade trees in areas where they shade roofs and streets from the hot sun to reduce reflected heat and make these spaces more comfortable. • You can consult your local nursery, online sources, or a landscape architect or designer to determine the best native plants for your location. PERMEABLE SURFACES AND ON-SITE STORMWATER MANAGEMENT Avoid concrete driveways, walkways or other hardscape surfaces that do not allow rainwater to run through them. Instead, consider the following alternatives: • Remove unnecessary hardscape; keep only what you really need. • If you are replacing old hardscaping or planning new areas of hardscaping, try a new material such as Drain Pave pavers, turf stones, permeable concrete or asphalt, even gravel. • Another way to ease the burden on city stormwater drain systems is to divert downspouts to a “dry creek” bed, bio-swale or pond area that fills and slowly releases the water back into the soil during rainy periods. After FIGURE 1320 Landscaping methods used to reduce your ecological footprint include less grass, native plants, permeable surfaces, on-site stormwater management, and quality-zoned watering systems. Courtesy of DeSantis Landscapes. www.desantislandscapes.com. 266 GOING GREEN Environmentally Sound Landscaping Practices (Continued) INSTALL A QUALITY IRRIGATION SYSTEM Consider the following options when designing an irrigation system for your landscaping: • A properly installed irrigation system has separate zones for lawn and shrub beds that should be further broken down into those areas that have shade or full sun exposure. • Equipping your system with a rain sensor helps to conserve water by automatically shutting off the system when there is measurable rainfall. • An irrigation system delivers your plants a consistent supply of water, which helps establish and grow healthy, strong plants. the street to help reduce sound problems substantially. Construction methods and materials can also reduce sound transmission into the building. For example, heavy construction materials such as masonry are effective. Some insulation products, discussed in Chapter 8 and Chapter 9, reduce sound transmission. Tripleglazed high-quality windows can also help reduce outside sound. A number of factors influence site orientation. Solar orientation may be important to one builder, but another ADDITIONAL RESOURCES • Use drip irrigation instead of spray heads where appropriate. • Water in the early mornings when evaporation rates are low. • Most established shrub plantings need to be watered only two to three times per week in the summer. • Using a quality compost mulch on all shrub and tree beds helps save water. • Have an audit done with a Certified Irrigation Auditor to learn the efficiency of your irrigation system. home owner may consider view orientation as the main priority. A perfect construction site has elements and design features of each orientation. When a perfect site is not available, the challenge for the designer or architect is to orient the structure to take the best advantage of each potential design feature. As you have seen, it is possible to achieve some elements of good orientation with excavation and landscaping techniques. Always take advantage of natural conditions whenever possible. See CD for more information The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you learn more about site orientation. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address Company, Product, or Service www.desantislandscapes.com DeSantis Landscapes www.australhomes.com/orientation Principles of good home orientation www.hgtvpro.com www.austinenergy.com www.missourifamalies.gov www.ehow.com Search best practices for solar site orientation Search home orientation Search housing Search how to understand your site’s solar orientation Chapter 13: Site Orientation 267 See CD for more information Site Orientation Test QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 13 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines. Question 13–13 List at least five advantages of considering site orientation in the planning of a home. Question 13–14 Identify the type of homes that are natural for a level site. Question 13–15 Sloped sites are a natural for what type of homes? Question 13–1 Define site orientation. Question 13–16 Why does construction on any site require that a slope be graded away from the structure? Question 13–2 Describe in short, complete statements five factors that influence site orientation. Question 13–17 Give the compass orientation where the sun rises and sets in the winter. Question 13–3 Define magnetic declination. Question 13–18 Give at least two examples of construction methods and materials that can help reduce sound transmission into a building. Question 13–4 What is the magnetic declination of the area where you live? Question 13–5 Name and describe two types of obstacles that can block the sun in an otherwise good solar site. Question 13–6 Describe how trees can be an asset in solar orientation. Question 13–7 What are prevailing winds? Question 13–8 Name two features that can protect a structure from wind. Question 13–19 Define terrain. Question 13–20 Why might view orientation be more important than other orientation considerations? PROBLEMS Use a word processor to write a report of 250 or fewer words on one or more of the following topics: Question 13–9 Show in a sketch how landscaping can be used for winter wind protection and summer cooling. Problem 13–1 Terrain orientation Question 13–10 Show in a sketch how landscaping can be an effective sound control. Problem 13–4 Solar site–planning tools Question 13–11 List at least two factors that must be considered in subterranean construction. Problem 13–6 Wind orientation Question 13–12 List at least two disadvantages of a two-story house on a narrow, treeless lot. Problem 13–2 View orientation Problem 13–3 Solar orientation Problem 13–5 Solar site location Problem 13–7 Summer cooling winds Problem 13–8 Sound orientation CHAPTER 14 Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements R O D U C T I O N Metes are measurements, and bounds are boundaries. Metes and bounds are used to identify the perimeters of any property. This is referred to as the metes and bounds system. The metes are measured in feet, yards, rods (rd), or surveyor’s chains (ch). There are 3' (914 mm) in 1 yard, 5.5 yards or 16.5' (5029 mm) in 1 rod, and 66' (20 117 mm) in 1 surveyor’s chain. The boundaries can be a street, fence, or river. Boundaries are also established as bearings, which are directions with reference to 1 quadrant of the compass. There are 360° in a circle or compass, and each quadrant has 90°. Degrees are divided into minutes and seconds. There are 60 minutes (60') in 1° and 60 seconds (60") in 1 minute. Bearings are measured clockwise or counterclockwise from north or south. For example, a reading of 45° from north to west is labeled N 45° W (see Figure 14-1). If a bearing reading requires great accuracy, fractions of a degree can 268 ºW METES AND BOUNDS SYSTEM 45 This section deals with site plan characteristics and requirements. A site is an area of land generally one plot or construction lot in size. The term site is synonymous with plot and lot. A plat is a map of part of a city or township showing some specific area, such as a subdivision made up of several individual lots. There are usually many sites or plots in a plat. Some dictionary definitions, however, do not differentiate between plot and plat. There are three basic types of legal descriptions: metes and bounds, rectangular survey system, and lot and block. N N Virtually every piece of property in the United States is described for legal purposes. These descriptions are referred to as legal descriptions. Every legal description is unique and cannot be confused with any other property. Legal descriptions of properties are filed in local jurisdictions, generally county or parish courthouses. Legal descriptions are public records and can be reviewed at any time. 45º 60º N6 0º E W E S 75 ºE 75º 30º ºW T 30 N S I S FIGURE 141 Bearings. be used as needed. For example, S 30°20'10" E reads from south 30 degrees 20 minutes 10 seconds to east. The metes and bounds land survey begins with a monument, known as the point of beginning (POB). This point is a fixed location and in times past has been a pile of rocks, a large tree, or an iron rod driven into the ground. Figure 14-2 shows an example of a site plan laid out using metes and bounds, along with the legal description for the plot. RECTANGULAR SURVEY SYSTEM The states in an area of the United States starting with the western boundary of Ohio to the Pacific Ocean, and including some southeastern states and Alaska, are described as public land states. Within this area the U.S. Bureau of Land Management devised a system for describing land known as the rectangular survey system. Parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude were used to establish areas known as great land surveys. Chapter 14: Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements 269 Townships S 2' 44 S ° 56 N 'W 45 10 ' 40 26 N ING SPR °0 'W WA 5' E 3° 1 S2 5' 114 TER POB . RD 'E N ° 48 30 77 8' 8. The great land surveys are broken down into smaller surveys known as townships and sections. The baselines and meridians are divided into blocks called townships. Each township measures 6 miles square. The townships are numbered by tiers running north– south. The tier numbering system is established either north or south of a principal baseline. For example, the fourth tier south of the baseline is labeled Township Number 4 South, abbreviated T. 4 S. Townships are also numbered according to vertical meridians, known as ranges. Ranges are established either east or west of a principal meridian. The third range east of the principal meridian is called Range Number 3 East, abbreviated R. 3 E. Now combine T. 4 S. and R. 3 E. to locate a township or a piece of land 6 miles by 6 miles or a total of 36 square miles. Figure 14-4 shows the township just described. Sections BEGINNING AT A POINT 1200’ NORTH 40˚ 0' WEST FROM THE SOUTHEAST CORNER OF THE ASA STONE DONATION LAND CLAIM NO. 49, THENCE NORTH 40˚ 0' WEST 1026’ TO A PIPE, THENCE SOUTH 56˚ 45' WEST 442' TO CENTER OF ROAD, THENCE SOUTH 23˚ 15' EAST 1145', THENCE NORTH 48˚ 30' EAST 778.8' TO POINT-OF-BEGINNING. FIGURE 142 Metes and bounds plot plan and legal description for the plot. Lines of latitude, also called parallels, are imaginary parallel lines running east and west. Lines of longitude, also called meridians, are imaginary lines running north and south. The point of beginning of each great land survey is where two basic reference lines cross. The lines of latitude, or parallels, are termed the baselines, and the lines of longitude, or meridians, are called principal meridians. There are 31 sets of these lines in the continental United States, with 5 in Alaska. At the beginning, the principal meridians were numbered, and the numbering system ended with the sixth principal meridian passing through Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma. The remaining principal meridians were given local names. The meridian through one of the last great land surveys near the West Coast is named the Willamette Meridian because of its location in the Willamette Valley of Oregon. The principal meridians and baselines of the great land surveys are shown in Figure 14-3. To further define the land within a township that is 6 miles square, the area is divided into units 1 mile square, called sections. Sections in a township are numbered from 1 to 36. Section 1 always begins in the upper-right corner, and consecutive numbers are arranged as shown in Figure 14-5. The legal descriptions of land can be carried one stage further. For example, Section 10 in the given township is described as Sec. 10, T. 4 S., R. 3 E. This is an area of land 1 mile square. Sections are divided into acres. One acre equals 43,560 sq ft, and one section of land contains 640 acres. In addition to dividing sections into acres, sections are divided into quarters, as shown in Figure 14-6. The northeast one-quarter of Section 10 is a 160-acre piece of land described as NE 1/4, Sec. 10, T. 4 S., R. 3 E. When this section is keyed to a specific meridian, it can be only one specific 160-acre area. The section can be broken down further by dividing each quarter into quarters, as shown in Figure 14-7. If the SW 1/4 of the NE 1/4 of Section 10 were the desired property, then you have 40 acres known as SW 1/4, NE 1/4, Sec. 10, T. 4 S., R. 3 E. The complete rectangular system legal description of a 2.5-acre piece of land in Section 10 reads: SW 1/4, SE 1/4, SE 1/4, SE 1/4 Sec. 10, T. 4 N., R. 8 W. of the San Bernardino Meridian, in the County of Los Angeles, State of California (see Figure 14-8). The rectangular survey system can be used to describe very small properties by continuing to divide a section of 270 Architectural Drafting and Design FIGURE 143 Principal meridians and baselines of the great land survey. Courtesy U.S. Bureau of Land Management. Chapter 14: Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements N N NUMBERS NUMBERS RANGE 271 E W 1 MILE SQUARE TOWNSHIP BASELINE NW 1/4 NE 1/4 W E SW 1/4 SE 1/4 T. 4 S. S FIGURE 146 Section quarters. S PRINCIPAL MERIDIAN R. 3 E. T. 4 S., R. 3 E. FIGURE 144 This graph shows a 36-square-mile township, which results from combining Township Number 4 South (abbreviated T. 4 S.) and Range Number 3 East (abbreviated R. 3 E.). a township. Often the township section’s legal description can be used to describe the location of the point of beginning of a metes and bounds legal description, especially when the surveyed land is an irregular site or plot within the rectangular survey system. LOT AND BLOCK SYSTEM subdivided into individual building sites, the subdivision is established as a legal plat and recorded as such in the local county records. The subdivision is given a name and broken into blocks of lots. A subdivision can have several blocks, each divided into a series of lots. Each lot may be 50' × 100' (15240 × 30480 mm, 15.24 × 30.48 m), for example, depending on the zoning requirements of the specific area. Figure 14-9 shows an example of a typical lot and block system. A typical lot and block legal description might read: LOT 14, BLOCK 12, LINCOLN PARK NO. 3, CITY OF SALEM, STATE. This lot is the shaded area in Figure 14-9. The lot and block legal description system can result from either the metes and bounds or the rectangular system. Generally, when a portion of land is N NW 1/4 NE 1/4 NE 1/4 NE 1/4 SW 1/4 NE 1/4 SE 1/4 NE 1/4 NW 1/4 N 1 MILE SQUARE W 6 5 4 3 2 1 7 8 9 10 11 12 18 17 16 15 14 13 6 MILES SQUARE W E E T. 4 S. 19 20 21 22 23 24 30 29 28 27 26 25 31 32 33 34 35 36 SW 1/4 SE 1/4 S R. 3 E. S FIGURE 145 One township comprises 36 sections. Section numbers 1 through 36 are always arranged as shown here. FIGURE 147 Dividing a quarter section. 272 Architectural Drafting and Design N NW 1/4 NW 1/4 40 ACRES SW 1/4 NW 1/4 40 ACRES NE 1/4 NW 1/4 40 ACRES N 1/2 NE 1/4 80 ACRES W 1/2 SW 1/4 NE 1/4 20 AC SE 1/4 NW 1/4 40 ACRES E 1/2 SW 1/4 NE 1/4 20 AC N 1/2 SE 1/4 NE 1/4 20 ACRES S 1/2 SE 1/4 NE 1/4 20 ACRES W E N 1/2 N 1/2 SE 1/4 40 ACRES N 1/2 S 1/2 NE 1/4 SE 1/4 10 ACRES S 1/2 S 1/2 NE 1/4 SE 1/4 10 ACRES S 1/2 NW 1/4 SE 1/4 20 ACRES SW 1/4 160 ACRES SW 1/4 SE 1/4 40 ACRES S NW 1/4 SE 1/4 SE 1/4 10 AC NE 1/4 SE 1/4 SE 1/4 10 AC N 1/2 SE 1/4 SE 1/4 5 ACRES SW 1/4 SE 1/4 SE 1/4 10 AC SE 1/4 SE 1/4 SE 1/4 SE 1/4 2.5 ACRES SW 1/4 SE 1/4 SE 1/4 SE 1/4 2.5 ACRES FIGURE 148 Sample divisions of a section. SITE PLAN REQUIREMENTS A site plan, also known as a plot or lot plan, is a map of a piece of land that can be used for any number of purposes. Site plans can show a proposed construction site for a specific property. Sites can show topography with contour lines, or the numerical value of land elevations can be given at certain locations. Site plans are also used to show how a construction site will be excavated and are then known as grading plans. Site plans can be drawn to serve any number of required functions, and all have similar characteristics, which include showing the following: ● A legal description of the property based on a survey. Property line bearings and directions. ● North arrow. ● Roads and easements. ● Utilities. ● Elevations. ● Map scale. ● As stated earlier, plats are maps that are used to show an area of a town or township. They show several or many lots and can be used by a developer to show a proposed subdivision of land. TOPOGRAPHY Topography is a physical description of land surface showing its variation in elevation, known as relief, and locating other features. Surface relief can be shown with graphic symbols that use shading methods to accent the character of land, or the differences in elevations can be shown with contour lines. Site plans that require surface relief identification generally use contour lines. Contour lines connect points of equal elevation and help show the general lay of the land. A good way to visualize the meaning of contour lines is to look at a lake or ocean shoreline. When the water is high during the winter or at high tide, a high-water line establishes a contour at that level. As the water recedes during the summer or at low tide, a new lower-level 1200 1100 2 3 4 1900 12 2100 3300 2800 P NIA VA YL 10 S N EN 1 11200 9 11300 3 9100 4 O OP D LO 10700 9000 5 9300 9200 I 11400 9400 1 2 I 8900 5 I 11100 7 11500 I 8 LWO RN DR ELKHO SE 9500 4 N 1" = 100' 21–MAR–84 SE CK 8 NO SE 1 7200 1 7300 2 BUR I CT 6 I 12200 1 6 7000 1 23 8700 11600 I 2 N BA 11700 5 21 3 12100 12300 4 7 19 7100 7500 4 7400 3 8600 22 6 7700 16 2 H DR 4800 12000 5000 4900 11800 11900 6900 2 7800 NDOA 2 5200 OO 5 7600 8 3 OP D LO A SHEN 4 5100 LW BUR 6800 790014 12 10 9 8500 5300 5 4 20 I 4700 1 5400 6700 8100 8400 14 6100 8200 11 8300 6600 6400 8000 5700 I 6 12 5900 4 6500 6200 13 6000 5800 I 2 11 10 5500 7 3 9 5600 8 2 6300 1 I 3 4600 1 3 2 2600 4500 E NU AVE 2300 4 2500 5 3 I 2400 4 600 9 6 I 4400 20 2700 14 500 10 7 2200 5 5 8 I 47TH CT 14 2000 100 700 8 I 46TH PLACE 1600 13 3400 4300 11 9 1800 I 19 10 1700 I I 6 7 I 4200 15 3200 2900 11 400 800 I 7 18 13 6 CE PLA 4100 11 12 1500 200 12 CT TH 16 3100 3000 8 300 13 46TH 17 4000 900 WAY SE BABCOCK 9 1000 5 SEE MAP 7 2W 3280 1300 1 48 3900 1400 I 13 I 3500 12 I 3600 11 I 3700 10 273 II 3800 47TH AVE Chapter 14: Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements 9600 18 3 FIGURE 149 Part of a lot and block subdivision. Courtesy GLADS Program. elevations, street elevation at a driveway, and the elevation of the finished floor levels of the structure. Additionally, in some applications, slope can be identified and labeled with an arrow showing the direction of the slope. 0 10 0 10 SLOPE DOWN GENTLE SLOPE 90 90 line is established. This new line represents another contour. The high-water line goes all around the lake at one level, and the low-water line goes all around the lake at another level. These two lines represent contours, or lines of equal elevation. The vertical distance between contour lines is known as contour interval. When the contour lines are far apart, the contour interval shows relatively flat or gently sloping land. When the contour lines are close together, the contour interval shows land that is much steeper. Contour lines are broken periodically, and the numerical value of the contour elevation above sea level is inserted. Figure 14-10 shows sample contour lines. Figure 14-11 shows a graphic example of land relief in pictorial form and contour lines of the same area. Figure 14-12 shows a site with contour lines. Site plans do not always require contour lines showing topography. Verify the requirements with the local building codes. In most instances the only contourrelated information required is property corner SLOPE DOWN STEEP SLOPE FIGURE 1410 Contour lines showing both gentle and steep slopes. 274 Architectural Drafting and Design be found at a local building office or building permit department. Some agencies, for example, require that the site plan be drawn on paper of a specific size, such as 8 1/2 × 14". Typical site plan items include the following: PICTORIAL 26 260 0 275 20 20 0 0 20 0 10 CONTOUR LINES FIGURE 1411 Land relief pictorial and contour lines. Courtesy U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey. ● Site plan scale. ● Legal description of the property. ● Property line bearings and dimensions. ● North arrow. ● Existing and proposed roads. ● Driveways, patios, walks, and parking areas. ● Existing and proposed structures. ● Public or private water supply. ● Public or private sewage disposal. ● Location of utilities. ● Rain and footing drains, and storm sewers or drainage. ● Topography, including contour lines or land elevations at lot corners, street center line, driveways, and floor elevations. DRAWING SITE PLANS Site plan requirements vary by jurisdiction, such as city, county, or state. Some site plan elements are similar throughout the country. Guidelines for site plans can ELEVATIONS AT CORNERS R=25.00' L=39.27' N 88°6'14" W 66.90' EL. 100' S 105 EL. 118' 5 134.92' N 88°6'14" W 95' N 1°29'48" E 34 ° 11 09' 2. 22 93 " W ' INDEX CONTOUR LINE 110 11 EL. 100' INTERMEDIATE CONTOUR LINE EL. 111.2' CONTOUR INTERVAL FIGURE 1412 Site plan with contour lines. Chapter 14: Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements 275 219' EL. 100.1' 98' SLOPE EL. 100.0' SLO 225' DRAIN FIELD REPLACEMENT AREA 225' 25' TEST PIT N I 'M 120 ' 1000 GAL SEPTIC TANK 30' 0 10 20' WELL EL. 103.4' RAIN DRAIN N 9TH STREET PE PROPOSED 3 BDR. HOUSE EL.105.4' WELL ON ADJACENT LOT 60' 219' DRIVEWAY EL. 104.1' LINDEN LANE PLAN SCALE 1" = 60' FIGURE 1413 Recommended typical site plan layout. ● Setbacks—the minimum distance from the property lines to the front, rear, and sides of the structure. ● Specific items on adjacent properties (may be required). ● Existing and proposed trees (may be required). Figure 14-13 shows a site plan layout that is used as an example at a local building department. Figure 14-14 shows a basic site plan for a proposed residential addition. The method of sewage disposal is generally an important item shown on a site plan drawing. There are a number of alternative methods of sewage disposal, including public sewers and private systems. Chapter 20 gives more details of sewage disposal methods. The site plan representation of a public sewer connection is shown in Figure 14-15. A private septic sewage disposal system is shown on a site plan in Figure 14-16. GRADING PLAN FEATURES Grading plans are construction drawings that generally show existing and proposed topography. The outline of the structure can be shown with elevations at each building corner and the elevation given for each floor level. Figure 14-17 shows a detailed grading plan for a residential construction site. Notice that the legend identifies symbols for existing and finished contour lines. This example grading 276 Architectural Drafting and Design 60'–0" N.E. 112th 8'–0" 11'–0" 122.50' PROPOSED ADDITION 32' 54'–0"⫾ 20'–0" PROPOSED DECK EXIST. SEPTIC TANK 66'–0" 15'–0" EXIST. GARAGE 123.34' PLOT 1" PLAN 20'–0" LEGAL: LOT #3 BLOCK F1 VIEW RIDGE MULTNOMAH COUNTY FIGURE 1414 Sample site plan showing existing home and proposed addition. STRUCTURE CL S MH 10' S S 1000 GAL. SEPTIC TANK STRUCTURE STREET 5' MIN. CL STREET FIGURE 1415 Plot plan showing a public sewer connection. 10' 125' MAX FIGURE 1416 Plot plan showing a private septic sewage system. Chapter 14: Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements 277 A PROJECT SITE S. TWAIN DRIVE 96.55' . 70.0 MU TH ST 70.0 75.0 BEAVE BIS N 75.0 RCREE 80.0 VICINITY MAP 98.69' LEGEND 80.0 125.07' EXISTING CONTOUR LINES 90.0 TW 98.0 BW 87.0 90.0 90.0 85.0 LOWER FLOOR 90.5 MAIN FLOOR 99.5 TW 100.0 BW 99.0 99.0 FINISH CONTOUR LINES 100 FINISH ELEVATION 100 FINISHED SLOPE (11/2:1 MAX) 90.0 99.0 RETAINING WALL TOP OF WALL/BASE OF WALL GARAGE 93.0 99.0 100 DRAINAGE SWALE (1% MIN.) TW 100 BW 97 PROPERTY LINE 99.0 95.0 100 LEGAL DESCRIPTION LOT 85, BLOCK 4, ANTHRACITE ESTATES, 100.0 LAWRENCE COUNTY, PENNSYLVANIA 100.0 104.52' EXISTING SIDEWALK EXISTING CURB 20' A 10' NEW CASTLE 4 MILES D NO SCALE 89 85.0 95.0 K ROA 16' 19' CL S. TWAIN DRIVE N SCALE: 1" = 30'-0" FIGURE 1417 Grading plan. plan provides retaining walls and graded slopes to accommodate a fairly level construction site from the front of the structure to the extent of the rear yard. The finished slope represents an embankment that establishes the relationship of the proposed contour to the existing contour. This example grading plan also shows a proposed irrigation and landscaping layout. A retaining wall is a concrete or masonry wall supported at the top and bottom, designed to resist soil loads. Grading plan requirements can differ from one location to the next. Some grading plans show a cross section through the site at specified intervals or locations to evaluate the contour more fully. This cross section is called a profile. A profile through the grading plan in Figure 14-17 is shown in Figure 14-18. Drawing a grading plan and profile is explained in Chapter 15. SITE ANALYSIS PLAN In areas or conditions where zoning and building permit applications require a design review, a site analysis plan may be required. The site analysis provides the basis for the proper design relationship of the proposed development to the site and to adjacent properties. The degree of detail of the site analysis is generally appropriate to the scale of the proposed project. A site analysis plan, shown in Figure 14-19, typically includes the following: ● A vicinity map showing the location of the property in relationship to adjacent properties, roads, and utilities. ● Site features, such as existing structures and plants on the property and adjacent property. ● Scale. 278 Architectural Drafting and Design 110 110 105 105 100 100 95 95 90 90 85 85 80 80 75 75 70 70 65 65 A 70.0 75.0 98.69' 99.0 99.0 96.55' 89 99.0 99.0 104.52' EXISTING SIDEWALK S. TWAIN DRIVE A 80.0 85.0 100.0 TW 98.0 BW 87.0 90.0 10' TW 100.0 BW 99.0 95.0 20' A CUTTINGPLANE LINE EXISTING SIDEWALK 110 105 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 MAIN FLOOR ELEVATION 99.5 LOWER FLOOR ELEVATION 90.5 FOUNDATION 110 105 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 B FIGURE 1418 Constructing a profile from the grading plan in Figure 14-17. (A) Establish a horizontal grid with a range of elevations found in the grading plan. (B) Project where each elevation crosses the cutting-plane line perpendicular to the corresponding elevation at the horizontal grid. Chapter 14: Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements 279 PREVAILING S.W. WINDS S.W./S./S.E. SOLAR GAIN ORIENTATION EXISTING WHITE OAKS EXISTING LOMBARDY POPLARS CROSS SECTION SMALL ACTIVE NEIGHBORHOOD GROCERY STORE POORLY MAINTAINED COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS PROVIDE ADEQUATE SCREENING QUALITY M.F. APARTMENT UNITS TO NORTH OF SITE PROVIDE CROSSWALK RETAIN/SAVE ALL EXISTING LARGE WHITE OAKS SHOWN SINGLE-FAMILY RESIDENCES IN POOR SHAPE GR OU ND SL OP ES BUS STOP – 2 MILES TO DOWNTOWN EXISTING GAS STATION (NEW) OLD VICTORIAN NEEDS REHAB. STREET LIGHT STOP SIGNS WELL MARKED PEDESTRIAN CROSS WALKS S.W. WINDS WI SU GENTLE SLOPING SITE STEEP SLOPE ONLY IMMEDIATELY ADJACENT TO TRORIAT CORRIDOR NTER M MER EXISTING SEWAGE CAPACITY ADEQUATE FOR NEW DEVELOPMENT SITE ANALYSIS DIAGRAM SCALE 1" = 60'-0" LEGEND: BUFFER STRIPS NEEDED WATERLINE IN ROAD SEWER LINES TRANSIT ROUTE BUS STOP EXISTING TREES TO REMAIN STOP SIGNS PROPOSED SITE PROJECT POINTS OF ENTRY EXISTING CONTOURS FIGURE 1419 Site analysis plan. Courtesy Planning Department, Clackamas County, Oregon. 280 Architectural Drafting and Design ● North arrow. ● Property boundaries. ● Slope shown by contour lines or cross sections, or both. ● Number identification of parcels, such as Parcel 1, Parcel 2. ● Location of well or proposed well, or name of water district. ● Type of sewage disposal (septic tank or public sanitary sewers). Name of sewer district. ● Zoning designation. ● Size of parcel(s) in square feet or acres. ● Slope of ground (arrows pointing downslope). ● Setbacks of all existing buildings, septic tanks, and drainfields from new property lines. ● All utility and drainage easements. ● Any natural drainage channels. Indicate direction of flow and whether drainage is seasonal or yearround. ● Map scale. ● Date. ● Building permit application number, if any. ● Plan legend. Traffic patterns. ● Solar site information if solar application is intended. ● Pedestrian patterns. ● SUBDIVISION PLANS Local requirements for subdivisions should be confirmed because procedures vary, depending on local guidelines and zoning rules. Some areas have guidelines for minor subdivisions with few sites that differ from major subdivisions with many sites. The plat required for a minor subdivision can include the following: ● Legal description. ● Name, address, and telephone number of applicant. ● Parcel layout with dimensions. ● North arrow. ● All existing roads and road widths. Figure 14-20 shows a typical subdivision of land with three proposed parcels. The local planning agency determines the measurements for a minor or major subdivision. A major subdivision can require more detailed plats than a minor subdivision. Some of the items that can SAMPLE JOHN DOE 940 WARNER MILNE RD OREGON CITY, OREGON 97045 655-8491 DATE: ZONING: ACREAGE: SEWAGE: WATER: DECEMBER 3, 1999 RA-1 728 ACRES SEPTIC TANK PRIVATE WELL 203.87' 215' 202' 391' LEGAL: T 3 S, R 4 E, SEC. 24 TAX LOT 1000 T/L 200 T/L 300 T/L 400 471' OWNER: 2.5 Ac. 2.78 Ac. 2.0 Ac. Parcel I Parcel II 670' 555' Parcel III EXISTING HOUSE ' 217 SCALE: 1"=100' EL . 100' E SLOP S.E ' 232 WELL SITE .2 IS WE RO AD 60' SOIL TEST HOLES . NO D O. R C FIGURE 1420 Subdivision with three proposed lots. Courtesy Planning Department, Clackamas County, Oregon. Chapter 14: Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements be included on the plat or in a separate document are the following: ● Name, address, and telephone number of the property owner, applicant, and engineer or surveyor. ● Source of water. ● Method of sewage disposal. ● Existing zoning. ● Proposed utilities. ● Calculations justifying the proposed density. ● Name of the major partitions or subdivision. ● Date the drawing was made. ● Legal description. ● North arrow. ● Vicinity sketch showing location of the subdivision. ● Identification of each lot or parcel and block by number. ● Gross acreage of property being subdivided or partitioned. ● Dimensions and acreage of each lot or parcel. ● Streets abutting the plat, including name, direction of drainage, and approximate grade. ● Streets proposed, including names, approximate grades, and radius of curves. ● Legal access to subdivision or partition other than public road. ● Contour lines at 2' interval for slopes of 10% or less, 5' interval if slopes exceed 10%. ● Drainage channels, including width, depth, and direction of flow. ● Location of existing and proposed easements. ● Location of all existing structures, driveways, and pedestrian walkways. ● All areas to be offered for public dedication. ● 281 recreational areas, open spaces, schools, libraries, churches, or convenient shopping facilities. Developers involved in these projects must pay particular attention to the impact on local existing developments. Generally, the plats for planned unit developments must include all of the same information shown on a subdivision plat, and also include these features: ● Detailed vicinity map, as shown in Figure 14-22. A vicinity map shows the development or construction site in relation to the local area. ● Land use summary. ● Symbol legend. ● Special spaces such as recreational and open spaces or other unique characteristics. Figure 14-23 shows a typical planned unit development plan. These plans, like any proposed site plan, may require changes before the final drawings are approved for development. There are several specific applications for a site plan. The applied purpose of each is different, although the characteristics of each type of site plan are similar. Local districts have guidelines for the type of plan required. Be sure to evaluate local guidelines before preparing a site plan for a specific purpose. To get a plot plan accepted, prepare it in strict accordance with the requirements. A variety of plot plan–related templates and CADD programs are available that can help make the preparation of these plans easier. METRICS IN SITE PLANNING The recommended metric values used in the design and drafting of site plans based on surveying, excavating, paving, and concrete construction are as follows: Contiguous property under the same ownership, if any. ● Boundaries of restricted areas, if any. ● Significant vegetative areas such as major wooded areas or specimen trees. Figure 14-21 shows an example of a small major subdivision plat. Surveying Excavating Paving PLANNED UNIT DEVELOPMENT A creative and flexible approach to land development is a planned unit development. Planned unit developments may include such uses as residential areas, Concrete Quantity Unity and Symbol Length meter (m) and kilometer (km) Area square meter (m2), hectare (ha), and square kilometer (km2) Plane angle degree (°), minute ('), second ("), and percent (%) Length millimeter (mm) and meter (m) Volume cubic meter (m3) Length millimeter (mm) and meter (m) Volume cubic meter (m3) Length millimeter (mm) and meter (m) Area square meter (m2) Volume cubic meter (m3) 282 Architectural Drafting and Design EWING AVENUE 15' 15' 10.00' 1/2 IRON ROD END IN CONC. 1 100.00' 319.92' SANDY ESTATES CITY OF HOUSTON, COUNTY OF HARRIS STATE OF TEXAS FIGURE 1421 Small, major subdivision plat. PACIFIC OCEAN BEACH ENTRANCE EASTWOOD COVE N HWY 101 CARMEL 15 MILES VICINITY MAP STREET CL R=10.00' L=13.70' =89° S 1°29' 48" W 2 GATLIN R=25.00' L=30.77' =71° 61.19' 90.00' 134.92' N 88°06' 14" W FIGURE 1422 Vicinity map. 8 79.28' R=50.00' L=22.78' =28° 30' 65.07' 75.74' N 88°30'12" W 106.53' N 1°29' 48" E R=25.00' L=7.17' =16° 20' 25' 25' N 1°53'46" E 7 MIBRADA LOOP 95.00' 34 °0 11 9' 2 2 2. 93 " W ' 10' R=10.00' L=15.17' =89° N 88°30'12" W 171.90' 66.90' S 75.00' 129.32' 50.00' R=25.00' L=32.10' =75° 3 25.00' R =50 .00 25.00' 80.00' N 1°30'31" E 118.54' 117.99' ' 40.09' L =1 32° =1 N 1°29'48" E N 88°30'12" W 8' L=48.39' =55° L=68.92' =79° .7 75.00' S 33°02'56" E 96.07' 53.58' 110.53' N 88°30'12" W 4 6 N 1°53'46" E 5 10' 73.00' 16 309.98' 111.44' 130.86' 85.70' CL 15' 10.00' 15' 20' 30' BEACH 100' ENTRANCE GATEHOUSE PHONE UNOBSTRUCTED OCEAN VIEW 25 UNOBSTRUCTED OCEAN VIEW RECREATIONAL SPACE OPEN SPACE 50 TYPICAL SECTION OPEN SPACE 75 OPEN SPACE 100 OPEN SPACE LAND USE SUMMARY 125 ZONE R1 GROSS AREA 763 NET AREA 705 119 ROADS PACKING STRUCTURES (44 UNITS) 44 RECREATIONAL 4 OPEN SPACES 350 INTERFACING 1.92 DENSITY 12.24 150 150 OPEN SPACE OPEN SPACE Chapter 14: Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements PACIFIC OCEAN ACRES ACRES ACRES ACRES ACRES ACRES UNITS/ACRE 100 OPEN SPACE 75 LEGEND 50 25 PROPERTY BOUNDARY CONTOURS NEW FOOT PATHS PROPOSED ROADS 0 50 100 200 EASTWOOD COVE EXISTING TREES ONE FOURPLEX 283 FIGURE 1423 Planned unit development plan. DEVELOPMENT PLAN 284 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES Architectural Drafting and Design See CD for more information The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you find more information about legal descriptions and site plans. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address www.blm.gov www.usgs.gov Company, Product, or Service U.S. Bureau of Land Management U.S. Geological Survey Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements Test See CD for more information QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 14 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines. Question 14–1 Define site. Question 14–2 What is the difference between the terms site, plot, and lot? Question 14–3 Name the three basic types of legal descriptions. Question 14–4 How many total degrees are in a compass? corner of Section 16, Township Number 6 North, Range Number 4 West. Question 14–18 List at least six items that are required on a site plan. Question 14–19 Define topography. Question 14–20 Define contour lines. Question 14–21 What is the purpose of a grading plan? Question 14–22 Under what conditions is a site analysis plan normally required? Question 14–23 What are setbacks? Question 14–24 Name the two main categories of sewage disposal systems. Question 14–25 Identify the type of legal description that is used for most major subdivisions. Question 14–5 How many minutes are in 1 degree? Question 14–6 How many seconds are in 1 minute? Question 14–7 Define bearing. Question 14–8 Give the bearing of a property line positioned 60° from north toward west. Question 14–9 Give the bearing of a property line positioned 20° from south toward east. Question 14–10 Define baselines. Question 14–11 Define principal meridians. Question 14–12 Give the dimensions of a township. Question 14–13 How many acres are in a section? Question 14–14 How many square feet are in 1 acre? Question 14–15 How are sections in a township numbered? PROBLEMS Use a word processor to write a report of 250 or fewer words on one or more of the following topics: Problem 14–1 Metes and bounds legal description Problem 14–2 Lot and block legal description Problem 14–3 Rectangular survey system for legal description Problem 14–4 Public land states Problem 14–5 Site plan requirements Problem 14–6 Topography Problem 14–7 Grading plan requirements Problem 14–8 Site analysis plan Question 14–16 How many acres are in a quarter section? Problem 14–9 Subdivision plans Question 14–17 Give the partial legal description of 2.5 acres of land in the farthest corner of the northwest Problem 14–10 Planned unit development Problem 14–11 Metrics in site planning CHAPTER 15 Site Plan Layout T I O zoning department. Figure 15-1 is a plat from a surveyor’s map that can be used as a guide to prepare the site plan. The scale of the surveyor’s plat may vary, although in this case the scale is 1" = 200' (1:1000 metric). The site plan to be drawn can have a scale ranging from 1" = 10' (1:50 metric) to 1" = 200' (1:2000 metric). The factors that influence site plan scale include the following: N Site plans can be drawn on media ranging in size from 8 1/2" × 11" up to 34" × 44" depending on the purpose of the plan and the guidelines of the local government agency or lending institution requiring the plan. Many local jurisdictions recommend that site plans be drawn on an 8 1/2" × 14" sheet. ● Sheet size. ● Plot size. ● Amount of information required. ● Amount of detail required. Before you begin the site plan layout, you need some important information. This information can often be found in the legal documents for the property, the surveyor’s map, the local assessor’s office, or the local 10.00' 75.00' 1/2 IRON ROD END IN CONC. 75.74' 129.32' N 1°53'46" E N 1°53'46" E 25.00' 50.00' 10' 7 R=50.00' L=22.78' =28° 8 R=25.00' L=30.77' =71° 61.19' MIBRADA LOOP 66.90' R=25.00' L=7.17' =16° 2 134.92' N 88°06' 14" W 20' N 88°30'12" W 106.53' R=10.00' L=15.17' =89° N 88°30'12" W 171.90' 30' 90.00' N 1°29' 48" E R =50 .00 40.09' L =1 95.00' 3 34 °0 11 9' 2 2 2. 93 " W ' R=25.00' L=32.10' =75° S 118.54' 117.99' 25.00' 80.00' N 1°30'31" E N 88°30'12" W ' 32° =1 N 1°29'48" E 8' L=48.39' =55° L=68.92' =79° .7 75.00' S 33°02'56" E 96.07' 53.58' 110.53' 111.44' N 88°30'12" W 4 6 16 309.98' 5 10' 73.00' 65.07' 130.86' STREET C GATLIN U R=10.00' L=13.70' =89° 1 100.00' 319.92' CL D S 1°29' 48" W O 79.28' R 25' 25' T 85.70' N 10.00' I 20' 30' FIGURE 151 Plat from a surveyor’s map. 285 286 Architectural Drafting and Design Additional information that should be determined before the site plan can be completed usually includes the following: minimum of 18' (5.5 m) wide at the garage opening but can taper to 10' wide at the street entrance. Any reduction of driveway width should be centered on the garage door. A turning apron is preferred when space permits. This allows the driver to back into the parking apron and then drive forward into the street, which is safer than backing into the street. ● The minimum turning radius for a driveway should be 15' (4.5 m). The turning radius for small cars can be less, but more should be considered for trucks. A turning radius of 20' (6 m) is preferred if space permits. Figure 15-2 shows a variety of driveway layouts for you to use as examples. The dimensions are given as commonly recommended minimums for small to standard-sized cars. Additional room should be provided if available. ● Provide adequate room for the installation of and future access to water, sewer, and electrical utilities. ● Do not build over established easements. An easement is the right-of-way for access to property and for the purpose of construction and maintenance of utilities. ● Follow basic grading rules, which include not grading on adjacent property. Do not slope the site so as to cause water drainage onto adjacent property. Slope the site away from the house. Adequate drainage of at least 10' away from the house is recommended. ● Legal description. ● North direction. ● All existing roads, utilities, water, sewage disposal, drainage, and slope of land. ● Zoning information, including front, rear, and side yard setbacks. ● Size of proposed structures. ● Elevations at property corners, driveway at street, or contour elevations. SITE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Several issues that can affect the quality of the construction project and adjacent properties should be considered during site design. Some of these factors are outlined as follows: ● Provide a minimum driveway slope of 1/4" per foot. The maximum slope depends on surface conditions and local requirements. ● Provide a minimum lawn slope of 1/4" per foot if possible. ● Single-car driveways should be a minimum of 10' (3 m) wide, and double-car driveways should be a 10' MIN 18' MIN 18' MIN 10' MIN 10' MIN R12' MINIMUM ONE CAR MINIMUM ONE CAR WITH PARKING MINIMUM TWO CAR R10' 17' 10' MIN 12' R15' R 20' 10' 18' 24' 24' 10' MIN R 12' 10' TO12' MIN TURNOUT APRON PREFERRED SIDE GARAGE FIGURE 152 Typical driveway layout options. U-SHAPED DRIVEWAY Chapter 15: Site Plan Layout 287 ● Identify all trees that are to remain on the site after construction. ● Establish retaining walls where needed to minimize the slope, control erosion, and level portions of the site. RURAL RESIDENTIAL FIRE DEPARTMENT ACCESS AND SITE PLANNING Special considerations need to be made when designing driveways and turnarounds in rural areas. In urban and suburban areas, fire truck access is normally designed into the subdivision plan and each residence is fairly easy to access for firefighting purposes. Rural locations pose special problems for firefighting because they are often larger pieces of property that frequently have long gravel driveways where access can be limited. Check the regulations for your location. The guidelines governing the site design can differ from one location to the next, but the following are common standards: ● Road clearances: A 15' (4500 mm) minimum width all-weather surface driveway must be provided, with an additional 5' (1500 mm) width clear of vegetation. The driveway must also be clear of vegetation to a height of 13'−6" (4000 mm). All-weather means gravel or paved surface. Figure 15-3 shows several basic driveway design options. ● Road load capacities: The driveway must be engineered for a 12,500 lb (5680 kg) wheel load and 50,000 lb (22720 kg) gross vehicle load. 20' 20 ' 90' R2 5' ' 45 5' R2 20' 20' HAMMERHEAD TURNAROUND Y TURNAROUND R4 45' 5' 20' 5' R2 R2 5' 65' CORNER 20' ALTERNATE HAMMERHEAD TURNAROUND 0' Ø9 5' R2 20' CUL-DE-SAC TURNAROUND FIGURE 153 Driveway turnaround options for rural residential fire department access. 288 Architectural Drafting and Design ● LAYING OUT PROPERTY LINES In Chapter 14, you were introduced to the methods for describing properties. Look at Figure 15-1 and notice that the property lines of each lot and the boundaries of the plat are labeled with distances and bearings. An example N W 112.93' 34˚9'22" A FIGURE 154 (A) Drawing a property line. (B) Labeling a property line with the distance and bearing. is the west property line of Lot 2, which is 112.93' for the length and S 34°09'22" W for the bearing. This property line is set up to be drawn as shown in Figure 15-4A. After the property lines are drawn, they are labeled with the distance and bearing, as shown in Figure 15-4B. Many plats have property lines that curve, such as the lines around the cul-de-sac in Figure 15-1. For example, the largest curve is labeled R = 50.00' L = 140.09'. R is the radius of the curve, and L is the length of the curve. There are three sublengths in this curve: L = 48.39' is for Lot 4, L = 68.92' is for Lot 6, and L = 22.78' is for Lot 8. Figure 15-5A shows the setup for drawing this curve using the radius and arc lengths. Plats also typically show a delta angle for curves, which is represented by the symbol ∆. The delta angle is the included angle of the curve. The included angle is the angle formed between the center and the endpoints of the arc, as shown in Figure 15-5B. Figure 15-5C shows the final labeling of the curve. =162˚ =79˚ L=68.92' L=22.78' =55˚ R=50.00' L=68.92' =79˚ CENTER ' 00 0. L =14 0 .09' =28˚ B L=22.78' =28˚ = 16 2 L= 4 =58.3 9 R = 5˚ ' 5 A B S L=140.09' L=48.39' 34 11 ˚09 2. '22 93 "W ' E S Grade: A 10% average minimum road grade is preferred, but up to 15% for 200' (60000 mm) is acceptable. ● Dead ends: Provide a turnaround if the driveway is longer than 150' (945000 mm). ● Turnouts: Provide a 20' (6000 mm) wide by 40' long passage space at the midpoint of every 400' (122000 mm) length. ● Bridges and culverts: These features must be designed to support a minimum of 50,000 lb. ● Fire safety zone: Provide a firebreak at least 30' (9000 mm) around all structures. A firebreak requires ground cover no more than 24" (600 mm) in height and all dead vegetation removed. Steep terrain around the structure can require a greater firebreak. ● Property identification: The property address shall be posted on a fire department–approved sign where the driveway meets the main road. ● Firefighting water supply: On-site water supplies, such as a swimming pool, pond, or water storage tank, must be accessible within 15'. A fire sprinkler system designed and installed in the home can be substituted for a water supply. Additional information about fire sprinkler systems is provided in Chapter 20. ● Roof coverings in wildfire zones: Wildfire zones are heavily wooded areas. The use of wood roofing material or other combustible materials is restricted in these areas. C FIGURE 155 Drawing and labeling curved property lines. (A) The setup for drawing the curve. (B) The included angle, the angle formed between the endpoints and the arc, is 162°. (C) Final labeling of the curve. Chapter 15: Site Plan Layout 289 CADD APPLICATIONS Using Surveyor’s Units Generally, the plat or legal description provides metes and bounds coordinates for property line boundaries. For example, the south property line for Lot 2, in Figure 15-1, has the coordinates given with the bearing and distance of N 88°06'14" W and 134.92'. CADD systems used for either general or architectural applications have a surveyor’s units setting. When the CADD system is set to draw lines based on surveyor’s units, the south property line of Lot 2 is drawn with this computer prompt: @134.92' < N 88d06' 14" W. Notice that the degree symbol (°) is replaced with the lowercase letter d when entering a bearing at the computer prompt. Most CADD programs have options for drawing arcs that allow you to create the curves in Figure 15-5. The commands typically allow you to draw arcs with a combination of radius, arc length, and included angle. This provides you with the flexibility needed to use the R, L, and ∆ information provided on the plat or in the surveyor’s notes. ■ STEPS IN SITE PLAN LAYOUT STEP 3 Lay out the proposed structure using construc- Follow these steps to draw a site plan. STEP 1 Select the paper size. In this case the size is 8 1/2" × 11". Evaluate the plot to be drawn. Lot 2 of Sandy Estates, shown in Figure 15-1, is used for this example. Determine the scale to use by considering how the longest dimension (134.92') fits on the sheet. Always try to leave at least a 1/2" margin around the sheet. CADD scale applications are used as described in Chapter 7. STEP 2 Use the given plat as an example to lay out the proposed site plan. If a plat is not available, then the site plan can be laid out from the legal description by establishing the boundaries using the bearings and dimensions in feet. Lay out the entire site plan using construction lines. If errors are made, the construction lines are very easy to erase, or use CADD layers so construction lines can be frozen when finished with the drawing (see Figure 15-6). tion lines. The proposed structure in this example is 60' long and 36' wide. The house can be drawn on the site plan with or without showing the roof. A common practice is to draw only the outline of the floor plan. In some cases, the roof overhang is considered in the setback. In these situations, the house outline is drawn as a dashed line under the roof and dimensions are given for the house and the overhang. The front setback is 25', and the east side is 15'. Lay out all roads, driveways, walks, and utilities. Be sure the structure is inside or on the minimum setback requirements. Setbacks are imaginary boundaries beyond which the structure may not be placed. Think of setbacks as property line offsets established by local regulations. Minimum setbacks can be confirmed with local zoning regulations. The minimum setbacks for this property are 25' front, 10' sides, and 35' back from the property lines to the house (see Figure 15-7). SI DE SIDE SETBACK SE TB AC K FRONT SETBACK REAR SETBACK FIGURE 156 Step 2: Lay out the plot plan property lines. FIGURE 157 Step 3: Lay out the structures, roads, driveways, walks, and utilities. Be sure the structure is on or within the minimum required setbacks. 290 Architectural Drafting and Design MIBRADA LOOP W R=25.00' L=7.71' all property lines, structures, roads, driveways, walks, and utilities, as shown in Figure 15-8. Some drafters use a thick line or shading for the structure. Draw each feature on the appropriate CADD layer. STEP 5 Add dimensions and contour lines (if any) or elevations. The property line dimensions are generally placed on the inside of the line in decimal feet, and the bearing is placed on the outside of the line. The dimensions locating and giving the size of the structure are commonly in feet and inches or in decimal feet. Try to keep the amount of extension and dimension lines to a minimum on the site plan. One way to do this is to dimension directly to the house and place size dimensions inside the house outline. Add all labels, including the road name, property dimensions and bearings (if used), utility names, walks, and driveways, as shown in Figure 15-9. MIBRADA LOOP W R=25.00' L=7.71' 18' DRIVE EL 100' PROPOSED 3 BEDROOM HOME EL. MAIN FL. 101.5' 5' 95.00' 60'-0" 134.92' EL 102' N 88˚06'14" W N 1˚29'48" W 36'-0" 34 ˚0 9'2 11 2" 2. W 93 ' E S 66.90' S CURB W S 36" WALK 25'-0" EL 100' 21' 25' CL EL 101.2' FIGURE 159 Step 5: Add dimensions and elevations; then label all roads, driveways, walks, and utilities. W S EL 100' PROPOSED 3 BEDROOM HOME EL. MAIN FL. 101.5' 60'-0" FIGURE 158 Step 4: Darken boundary lines, structures, roads, driveways, walks, and utilities. STEP 4 Complete 66.90' EL 102' PLOT PLAN S CURB 134.92' N 88˚06'14" W SCALE 1"=20' LEGAL: LOT 2 SANDY ESTATES CITY OF HOUSTON, COUNTY OF HARRIS, STATE OF TEXAS 5' 95.00' N 1˚29'48" E 36'-0" 34 ˚0 11 9'22 2. 93 " W ' E S 36" WALK 18' DRIVE 25'-0" EL 100' 21' 25' CL EL 101.2' N FIGURE 1510 Step 6: Complete the plot plan. Add title, scale, north arrow, legal description, and other necessary information, such as the owner’s name if required. STEP 6 Complete the site plan by adding the north arrow, the legal description, title, scale, client’s name, and other title block information. Figure 15-10 shows the complete site plan. SITE PLAN DRAWING CHECKLIST Check off the items in the following list as you work on the basic site plan, to be sure that you have included all of the necessary details. Site plans for special applications may require additional information. Refer to this chapter for features found in special plans such as a grading plan, subdivision plan, site analysis plan, planned unit development, and commercial plan. ❑ Site plan title and scale. ❑ Property legal description. ❑ Property line dimensions and bearings. ❑ North arrow. ❑ Existing and proposed roads with the elevation at the center of roads. ❑ Driveways, patios, decks, walks, and parking areas. ❑ Existing and proposed structures with floor-level elevations. ❑ Public or private water supplies. ❑ Public or private sewage disposal. Chapter 15: Site Plan Layout ❑ Location of utilities. ❑ Rain and footing drains and storm sewer or drainage. ❑ Topography, including contour lines or elevations at property corners, street center line, driveways, and floor elevations. ❑ Front, side, and rear setbacks dimensioned and in compliance with zoning. ❑ Specific items on adjacent properties, if required, such as existing structures, water supply, sewage disposal, trees, or water features. ❑ Existing and proposed trees (may be required). 291 A B C D E 0+00 0+20 0+40 0+60 0+80 DRAWING CONTOUR LINES Contour lines represent intervals of equal elevation, as explained in Chapter 14. The following discussion shows you how to lay out contour lines on a construction site. Surveyors use various methods to establish elevations at points on the ground. This information is recorded in field notes. You then use the field notes to plot the contour lines. This discussion explains the grid survey method. Another common technique is the control point survey, which establishes elevations that are recorded on a map. You then lay out the elevations for the contour lines based on the given elevation points. The radial survey is also a common method, used for locating property corners, structures, natural features, and elevation points. This system establishes control points using a process called radiation in which measurements are taken from a survey instrument located at a base known as a transit station. From the transit station, a series of angular and distance measurements are established to specific points on the ground. You then establish the property lines, land features, and contours based on these points. Using the Grid Survey to Draw Contour Lines A grid survey divides the site into a pattern similar to a checkerboard. Stakes are driven into the ground at each grid intersection. The surveyor then establishes an elevation at each stake and records this information in field notes. The spacing of the stakes depends on the land area and the topography. The stakes are placed in a grid 10', 20', 50', or 100' apart, for example. The example in Figure 15-11 shows a grid with lines spaced 20' apart. The vertical lines are labeled with letters, and the horizontal lines are labeled with numbers called stations. The station numbers are in two parts: for example, 0 + 20. The first number is hundreds of feet. Zero represents 0 hundreds, or 0'. The first number is followed F 1+00 FIGURE 1511 Draw a grid at a desired scale. Label the vertical lines with letters and the horizontal lines with station numbers, as shown in this example. by a plus (+) sign. This means that you add the first number to the second number to get the actual distance to this station. The second number is in tens of feet. For example, 0' + 20' = 20', or 1' + 20' = 120'. The intersection of vertical line B and station 0 + 40 is identified as station B–0 + 40. The field notes record the elevation at each station, as shown in Table 15-1. For example, the elevation at A-0 + 80 is 105'. Station Elevation Station Elevation A-0 + 00 101' D-0 + 00 95' A-0 + 20 104' D-0 + 20 97' A-0 + 40 108' D-0 + 40 99' A-0 + 60 112' D-0 + 60 105' A-0 + 80 105' D-0 + 80 100' A-1 + 00 102' D-1 + 00 94' B-0 + 00 100' E-0 + 00 94' B-0 + 20 102' E-0 + 20 96' B-0 + 40 105' E-0 + 40 98' B-0 + 60 110' E-0 + 60 100' B-0 + 80 104' E-0 + 80 95' B-1 + 00 100' E-1 + 00 92' C-0 + 00 98' F-0 + 00 92' C-0 + 20 100' F-0 + 20 93' C-0 + 40 102' F-0 + 40 95' C-0 + 60 108' F-0 + 60 98' C-0 + 80 102' F-0 + 80 90' C-1 + 00 95' F-1 + 00 85' TABLE 151 Grid Survey Field Notes 292 Architectural Drafting and Design B C D 100 98 95 94 104 102 100 97 108 105 102 112 110 105 102 E A F B C D 92 0+00 101 100 98 95 94 96 93 0+20 104 102 100 97 99 98 95 0+40 108 105 102 108 105 100 98 0+60 112 110 104 102 100 95 90 0+80 105 100 95 94 92 85 1+00 102 FIGURE 1512 Use the field notes in Table 15–1 to label the elevation at each grid intersection. Steps in Drawing Contour Lines Contour lines are drawn from grid survey field notes using the following steps: STEP 1 Draw a grid at a desired scale similar to Figure 15-11. Use construction lines if you are drafting manually, or establish a GRID or CONSTRUCTION layer if you are using CADD. Label the vertical and horizontal grid lines. STEP 2 Use the field notes to label the elevation at each grid intersection. The elevations, labeled on the grid in Figure 15-12, are based on the field notes found in Table 15-1. STEP 3 Determine the desired contour interval and connect the points on the grid that represent contour lines at this interval. The contour interval for the grid in Figure 15-12 is 2'. This means that you will establish contour lines every 2', such as at 92', 94', 96', and 98'. STEP 4 Establish the contour lines at the desired contour interval by picking points on the grid that represent the desired elevations. If a grid intersection elevation is 100', then this is the exact point for the 100' elevation on the contour line. If the elevation at one grid intersection is 98' and the next is 102', then you estimate the location of 100' between the two points. This establishes another 100' elevation point. STEP 5 When you have identified the points for all of the 100' elevations, then connect the points to create E F 92 0+00 96 93 0+20 99 98 95 0+40 108 105 100 98 0+60 104 102 100 95 90 0+80 100 95 94 92 85 1+00 FIGURE 1513 Connect the points at the elevations for each contour interval. the contour line (see Figure 15-13). Do this for the elevation at each contour interval. STEP 6 Darken the contour lines. The intermediate lines are thin. The index contour lines are broken and labeled with the elevation and are generally drawn thicker than intermediate lines, as shown in Figure 15-14. 98 106 98 90 A 101 FIGURE 1514 Darken the contour lines. The intermediate lines are thin, and the index contour lines are thick. The index contour lines are broken and labeled with the elevation of the contour line. Chapter 15: Site Plan Layout 293 DRAWING PROFILES PROFILE LINE As described earlier, a profile is a vertical section of the surface of the ground, and/or of underlying earth that is taken along any desired fixed line. The profile of a construction site is usually through the building excavation location, but more than one profile can be drawn as needed. The profile for road construction is normally placed along the center line. Profiles are drawn from the contour lines at the section location. The contour map and its related profile are commonly referred to as the plan and profile. Profiles can be used to show road grades and site excavation, among other things. Projecting directly from the desired cut location on the contour map following these steps creates the profile: 98 90 ˚ 106 98 90 location of the desired profile (see Figure 15-15). STEP 2 Set up the profile vertical scale. The horizontal scale is the same as the map, because you are projecting directly from the map. The vertical scale can be the same, or it can be exaggerated. Exaggerated scales are used to give a clearer representation of the contour when needed. Establish a vertical scale increment that is above the maximum elevation and one that is below the minimum elevation. Figure 15-16 shows how the vertical scale is set up. Notice that the profile is projected 90° from the profile line on the map. STEP 3 Project a line from the location where every contour line crosses the profile line on the contour map (see Figure 15-17). SCALE: 1" = 20' 110 STEP 1 Draw a straight line on the contour map at the 105 100 95 90 SCALE: 1" = 100' FIGURE 1516 Project the profile 90° from the start of the profile line. Set up the vertical scale. Label the vertical scale and the elevation of each contour along the vertical scale. Draw a horizontal line at each contour interval. Label the horizontal scale. PROFILE LINE PROFILE LINE 98 90 ˚ 106 98 98 90 SCALE: 1" = 20' 110 106 105 100 98 90 95 90 SCALE: 1" = 100' FIGURE 1515 Draw a straight line on the contour map at the location of the desired profile. FIGURE 1517 Project a line 90° from the location where every contour line crosses the profile line. 294 Architectural Drafting and Design EXCAVATION AT 100' ELEVATION PROFILE LINE 98 98 90 ˚ 106 106 98 90 SCALE: 1" = 20' 90 98 110 105 100 FIGURE 1519 Site plan location for the desired level excavation at 100'. 95 90 SCALE: 1" = 100' FIGURE 1518 Draw the profile by connecting the points where every two vertical and horizontal lines of the same elevation intersect. STEP 4 Draw the profile by connecting the points where every two vertical and horizontal lines of the same elevation intersect, as shown in Figure 15-18. DRAWING GRADING PLANS If you have a specific location on a site where a level excavation must take place for the proposed construction, you can lay out a grading plan. The grading plan shows the elevation of the site after excavation. This plan shows where areas need to be cut and filled. This is referred to as cut and fill. Cut and fill is the excavation process involving the removal of earth, which is the cut, and moving earth to another location, which is the fill. Figure 15-19 shows the site plan location for the desired level excavation. The following steps can be used to draw the grading plan for a level construction site: One unit of rise to one unit of run is specified as 1:1 (see Figure 15-20). The actual angle of repose for cuts and fills is normally determined by approved soil engineering or engineering geology reports. The slope of cut surfaces can be no steeper than is safe for the intended use and cannot exceed 1 unit vertical in 2 units horizontal (1:2). Alternative designs may be allowed if soil engineering and/or engineering geology reports state that the site has been investigated and give an opinion that a cut at a steeper slope is stable and does not create a hazard ORIGINAL PROFILE 1 LEVEL EXCAVATION 1 CUT CUT 1 1 STEP 1 Determine the angle of repose, which is the slopes of cut and fill from the excavation site measured in feet of horizontal run to feet of vertical rise. FILL ANGLE OF REPOSE FIGURE 1520 Angle of repose. Chapter 15: Site Plan Layout 295 EXCAVATION AT 100' ELEVATION EXCAVATION AT 100' ELEVATION 94 94 96 96 98 104 98 94 94 106 96 106 98 102 98 102 98 96 104 98 106 106 102 104 FIGURE 1522 To establish the cut and fill, mark where the elevations of the parallel lines around the excavation match the corresponding elevations of the contour lines. STEP 4 Connect the points established in Step 3, as shown in Figure 15-23. The cut and fill areas can be shaded or left unshaded. EXCAVATION AT 100' ELEVATION 94 96 98 FILL FILL 98 98 94 96 CUT CUT 106 102 104 106 98 90 to property. Fill slopes cannot be constructed on natural slopes steeper than 1 unit vertical in 2 units horizontal (1:2). In order to provide a bond with the new fill, the ground surface must be prepared to receive fill by removing vegetation, previous unstable fill material, topsoil, and other unsuitable materials. Other requirements include soil engineering where stability, steeper slopes, and heights are issues. Soil engineering can require benching the fill into sound material and specific drainage and construction methods. A bench is a fairly level step excavated into the earth material on which fill is placed. Any grading plan with a cut and fill design must be properly engineered. A civil engineer is responsible for the proper design and construction. STEP 2 Draw parallel lines around the excavation site, with each line representing the elevation at the cut and fill. If the angle of repose is 1:1 and the contour interval is 2', then these parallel lines are 2' from the level excavation site. This is determined by multiplying rise times contour interval (1 × 2 = 2 in this example). Look at Figure 15-21. STEP 3 The elevation of the excavation is 100'. Elevations above this are considered cuts, and elevations below this are fills. To establish the cut and fills, mark where the elevations of the parallel lines around the excavation match the corresponding elevations of the contour lines, as shown in Figure 15-22. 98 104 FIGURE 1521 Draw parallel lines around the excavation site, with each line representing the elevation at the cut and fill. 106 102 98 106 106 90 104 90 102 FIGURE 1523 Complete the cut and fill drawing by connecting the points. The cut and fill areas can be labeled, and they can be shaded or left unshaded. 296 Architectural Drafting and Design CADD APPLICATIONS Using CADD to Draw Site Plans INTRODUCTION There are CADD software programs specifically designed for drawing site plans. Also available are complete CADD mapping packages that allow you to draw topographic maps, terrain models, grading plans, and land profiles. It all depends on the nature of your business and how much power you need in the CADD mapping program. One of the benefits of CADD over manual drafting is accuracy. For example, you can draw a property boundary line by giving the length and bearing. The computer automatically draws the line, and labels the length and bearing. Continue by entering information from the surveyor’s notes to draw the entire property boundary in just a few minutes. Such features increase the speed and accuracy of drawing site plans. A residential site plan, drawn using CADD mapping software, is shown in Figure 15-24. The needs of the commercial site plan are a little different from the residential requirements. The commercial CADD site plan package uses the same features as the residential application and, additionally, has the ability to design street and parking lot layouts. The commercial CADD drafter uses features from symbol libraries, including utility symbols; street, curb, and gutter designs; landscaping; parking lot layouts; titles; and scales. A commercial site plan is shown in Figure 15-25. 47' 3Ø' 35' 21' 33.25' 3Ø'-6"⫾ 12Ø' 73.ØØ' 9Ø.ØØ 85.ØØ' 99.ØØ' 45'-Ø"⫾ 96.Ø3' ELEVA VATION: UPPER RIDGE CORNER NORTHWEST R SOUTHWEST CORNER NORTHEAST R CORNER SOUTHEAST CORNER A AVERA GE HEIGHT 85.ØØ' LINE OF DECK 1Ø7.ØØ"⫾ 102.ØØ⫾ 73.ØØ' LINE OF DECK 9'-Ø" 6'-6" TO RESIDENCE MIN. 13'-Ø" ' LINE OF RESIDENCE LINE OF UPPER FLOOR 6'-6" 9Ø.ØØ' LINE OF 2Ø'-Ø" FRONT SETBACK 2Ø'-Ø" MIN. 21'-Ø" MIN. 99.ØØ' LINE OF FOOT BRIDGE LINE OF P PARKING BRIDGE PROPERTY R LINE CL S. W. MICHAEL AARON PLOT 1" FIGURE 1524 A CADD-drawn site plan. COURT PLAN 1Ø'-Ø" Chapter 15: Site Plan Layout 297 CADD APPLICATIONS 334 336 SCALE: 1" = 40' S.E. 122nd AVE. PAD A PHASE 2 FF 336.0 334 PAD C PHASE 2 FF 334.0 RD . 332 332 YS ID E 330 32 8 FF 327.17 32 8 32 332 6 32 8 BUILDING A RETAIL FF 330.17 330 334 332 338 336 334 330 PAD B PHASE 2 FF 335.0 340 342 S. E. SU NN FF 333.17 32 6 330 BUILDING B GROCERY FF=325.5 BUILDING E DRUGSTORE FF 330.0 BU 32 4 IL R DI FF ETA NG 32 IL D 6.6 7 BUILDING C RETAIL FF 325.5 324 322 320 FIGURE 1525 A CADD-drawn commercial site plan. Courtesy Soderstrom Architects. 6 32 298 Architectural Drafting and Design CADD APPLICATIONS FIGURE 1526 A topographic site plan to be used for developing a terrain model. ArchiCAD images courtesy of Graphisoft, planned by architects Csaba Szakál and Geörgy Péchy. DEVELOPING A CADD TERRAIN MODEL CADD programs are available that allow you to include site work, landscaping, roads, driveways, retaining walls, and construction excavation as part of the project. A terrain model can be created from survey data or from a topographic site plan. A terrain model is a three-dimensional (3D) model of the earth surface or terrain, and is also referred to as a digital terrain model (DTM). A digital terrain model of a topographic surface uses information on height, slope, aspect, breaks in slope, and other topographic features. Figure 15-26 shows an example of a topographic site plan to be used for developing a terrain model. The CADD program recognizes the contour lines or survey data and creates a 3D model in wireframe or as a 3D-terrain model, as shown in Figure 15-27. The terrain model can be viewed from any angle to help you fully visualize the contours of the site. Additionally, the terrain model can be used for any of the following design applications: • Define borders and property lines. • Find the elevation at any point, contour line, surface object, or feature and modify the elevation to determine how this affects the model. • Modify the terrain model by editing the contour shapes. • Define and display building excavation sites, roads, and other features. • Show and calculate cut and fill requirements. • Display the model in plan or 3D view. FIGURE 1527 The CADD program recognizes the contour lines from the site plan in Figure 15-26 and creates (A) a 3D wireframe model or (B) a 3D-terrain model. ArchiCAD images courtesy Graphisoft, planned by architects Csaba Szakál and Geörgy Péchy. When the site is designed as desired, the 3D rendering of the house can be placed on the site, as shown in Figure 15-28. This is an excellent way to demonstrate how a client’s home will look when it is finished. CADD LAYERS FOR SITE PLAN DRAWINGS The American Institute of Architects (AIA) CADD Layer Guidelines establish the Civil (C) category of layers, which uses a level-one C discipline designator. This designation is used to group civil content or drawings prepared by a civil engineering contractor, such as the objects on a site plan. For example, the C-ESMT layer is used to draw easement lines. Level-two designations are also available, and can be used to further classify specific civil drawing content. The designation CU (Civil Utilities) is used when it is necessary to place utility objects, such as sewer lines, in a specific category. An S (Site) level-two designation is also available and can be used with the Civil designator (CS) or a noncivil discipline. For example, the AS (Architectural Site) designation is used to distinguish site content drawn by the architect or architectural designer. Figure 15-29 lists several common civil drafting layers for site plan applications. Chapter 15: Site Plan Layout 299 CADD APPLICATIONS FIGURE 1528 When the site is designed as desired, a 3D rendering of the house can be placed on the site. ArchiCAD images courtesy Graphisoft, planned by architects Csaba Szakál and Geörgy Péchy. Additional layers are used to categorize drawing content related to, or sometimes shown on, site plans. The Survey/Mapping category uses a level-one V discipline designator to group content associated with surveying, such as the survey of a site, or drawings created by the surveyor. For example, the V-CTRL-BMRK draws a benchmark control point located during a survey. Survey and mapping layers often use the same major and minor groups as civil layers, because much of the information used to prepare a civil drawing comes from a survey. Example The Landscape category uses a level-one L designation to contain objects associated with a site landscape, or drawings prepared by a landscape architect or designer. For example, trees are drawn on the L-PLNT-TREE layer, an irrigation system is drawn using an L-IRRG layer, and walkways are drawn on an L-WALK layer. Landscape plans generally show the suitable plants for the site, and specify the plants by their proper Latin names and sometimes their common names. The architect or designer often sends the site plan computer drawing file to the Purpose Name Line Type Line Weight Dimensions C-ANNO-DIMS Continuous 0.25 mm Borders and title blocks C-ANNO-TTLB Continuous 0.70 mm Buildings and primary structures C-BLDG Continuous 0.50 mm Drain fields C-DFLD DASHED 0.35 mm Driveways C-DRIV Continuous 0.35 mm Easements C-ESMT Continuous 0.35 mm Fences C-FENC FENCELINE2 0.35 mm Underground natural gas lines C-NGAS-UGND GAS_LINE 0.35 mm Power line poles C-POWR-POLE Continuous 0.35 mm Property lines C-PROP PHANTOM 0.50 mm Roads C-ROAD Continuous 0.35 mm Underground sanitary sewer lines C-SSWR-UGND DASHED 0.35 mm Index contour lines C-TOPO-MAJR Continuous 0.50 mm FIGURE 1529 Examples of common CAD site plan line formats. Based on the U.S. National CAD Standard recommended line weights and AIA CAD Layer guidelines. 300 Architectural Drafting and Design CADD APPLICATIONS landscape architect or designer where the file is used to specify the size, type, and location of the plants. Details for maintaining the plants, such as a water sprinkler system and other care requirements, are also provided on the landscape plan. Figure 15-30 shows a CADD landscape plan without detailed plant information given on the drawing. In this case, the plant information is given in a set of written specifications. ■ curb line LOT AREA 88321 sf. property line retaining wall N SITE PLAN 1 1" = 5Ø'-Ø" LANDSCAPE FIGURE 1530 A landscape plan showing the location of all trees and plantings. Plant types can be included on the landscape plan or in separate documents. Courtesy Soderstrom Architects. GOING GREEN 301 Designing an Ecosystem The content for this Going Green feature is taken in part from Mascord Efficient Living, Building a Sustainable Lifestyle. ECOSYSTEM The ecosystem is important to our lifestyles and it is fragile. An ecosystem is an ecological community that functions as a unit with its environment. Site disturbance from construction practices unbalance the local system in ways that may not be apparent at first glance. Minor site changes can have a large impact locally and regionally. Clearing landscape for construction can cause problems with the management of stormwater, dust, and erosion. The site can become unstable, and landslides can occur if the ground becomes saturated and cannot deal with stormwater. In addition, local stormwater systems can be flooded with runoff containing dust, debris, and silt. Plants imported for landscaping can be invasive and may not blend with local conditions, causing the home owner unnecessary maintenance costs. Plant species introduced into areas where they are not native can negatively impact local species. A strong invasive species can eradicate a more delicate native species, and possibly remove a food source for local wildlife. Care is needed when working with the site to prevent unnecessary disturbance of local systems, and to reduce costs associated with clearing and re-landscaping areas. Mature plants are well established, and need less attention than freshly planted seedlings. A well-designed, climate-appropriate landscape offers substantial environmental and economical benefits. Trees and other vegetation control erosion, protect water supplies, provide food and habitat for wildlife, and clean the air. Planting trees, shrubs, bushes and hedges can also be an effective way to provide shade and reduce your heating and cooling costs. Parallel to understanding how your landscape works as an ecosystem, approach your landscape with its unique visual appeal in mind. The sights, textures, and scents of your home’s landscape might prove to be the most beautiful and inspiring of all your home’s efficient features. and let more heat in during the winter. Alternately, the properties of dense evergreen trees or shrubs can provide continuous shade and serve to disperse winds. Shading and evapotranspiration from trees reduce surrounding air temperatures by as much as 9°F. Because cool air settles near the ground, air temperatures directly under trees can be as much as 25°F cooler than air temperatures above. Evapotranspiration is the process by which a plant actively moves and releases water vapor. Xeriscaping Xeriscaping is a term for low-water-use landscaping, whereas designs using native plants are called naturescaping. Xeriscape gardens have typically been implemented in areas of the country where there is a hotdry climate. However, busy home owners everywhere are finding the ease of a low-maintenance garden appealing. Xeriscaping and naturescaping reduce the need for watering, weeding, fertilizing, and spreading chemicals. Xeriscape design does not need to consist of cactus-like plants, rocks, and bark dust. Good design concentrates on locating plants where the species can thrive naturally and using defined areas of irrigation for water conservation rather than eliminating water use altogether. Mixing drought-tolerant plants with well-chosen areas of irrigated plants can produce a beautifully colored and varied garden, with low-maintenance and low-water requirement. For example, instead of a large lawn expanse with a highvolume sprinkler system, use a smaller lawn, bordered with drought-tolerant plants. Add a side flower bed planted with well-chosen species using an appropriately sized irrigation system. This provides a much more interesting landscape with a colorful array of flowers while using a lot less water—with less maintenance. Figure 15-31 shows an example of xeriscaping and naturescaping. Shading Properly using landscape shade requires you to understand the size, shape, and location of the moving shadow that your landscaping elements cast throughout the year, and as they mature. Landscaping elements can be used to block sun from windows and shade your walls and walkways from hot summer rays, providing a method to reduce the cooling needs of your home. Trees can be selected with appropriate sizes, densities, and shapes for almost any shading application. Deciduous trees, for example, can be planted to block solar heat in the summer FIGURE 1531 An example of xeriscaping and naturescaping. Courtesy of Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc. 302 GOING GREEN Designing an Ecosystem (Continued) Naturescaping Insects The use of native plants in your landscape can balance the ecosystem of the garden, because native plants have evolved over time to be tolerant of their surroundings. Native plants can provide correct nutrients to balance the soil, provide food for local wildlife, prevent the intrusive behavior of weeds, and also prevent erosion. However, you do not need to limit yourself to native plants when designing a landscape. Irises, roses, lavender, lamb’s ears, Oriental poppy, Dusty Miller, and tulips are all examples of plants that should survive in a low-maintenance garden without overpowering native species. The greatest pleasure of having a xeriscaped and naturescaped garden is being able to enjoy the landscape without spending too much time mowing, pruning, weeding, and fertilizing. Insects can be beneficial and are often an essential part of a garden ecosystem. Most plants can survive losing more than 25% of their leaf surface. If the soil is healthy, many plants outgrow the pests or diseases that afflict them, and there may be a delay between the initial damage caused by pests and the arrival of beneficial insects that can control them. To determine if an insect is a pest or a beneficial addition to your landscape ecosystem, refer to gardening books or take a sample to a nursery/garden center that has a knowledgeable staff. Hydrozoning Hydrozoning involves arranging flowers and plants into areas that need similar amounts of water and nutrients. Watering requirements are more easily managed if plants can be placed in defined areas of foliage with similar needs. Keeping thirsty plants away from your house also prevents you from needing to soak the foundation wall when watering. Irrigation When designing an automatic irrigation system, make sure to use smart, programmable sprinkler systems with moisture sensors that allow you to measure the amount of water your garden needs at any given time. Typically, these systems also allow you to control irrigation from a central shut-off valve. Include a reliable rain sensor so you do not water when raining. Combine this system with a rain and wastewater collection system to maximize efficiency. Choose landscaping elements that are appropriate to the local climate and require minimal additional water. The varying root systems of grass, trees, and flowers all have different water requirements. Group plants according to the amount of water they need, and design the irrigation system to accommodate the specific plants. Pesticides Pesticides and fertilizers used on landscaping end up in the water system. Since many pesticides are highly toxic to fish and other aquatic life, even a small amount can be harmful and continues into the food chain. If you determine that a pest or disease problem requires intervention, make sure to use the safest method possible. There are many ways to control pests without using pesticides. For example, set up covers for vegetables, put out traps for slugs, and remove aphids, with water jets, while watering your plants. Healthy Soil Healthy soil is the foundation for thriving plants and a healthy lawn. Healthy plants naturally resist diseases and pests, and require less care. Adding organic material to the soil improves drainage and provides food to the microscopic creatures that provide plant nutrients. Add 2 to 3 inches of compost or aged manure every year by turning it into the soil and reuse it as mulch around plants. Yard Space In addition to visual appeals, your yard and garden can also serve a functional purpose by designating a section of your yard space for planting herbs, spices, fruits, and vegetables that pay back over time by reducing the amount of produce you need to buy. You can keep it simple by starting out with a few simple herbs. Your garden will mature quickly and become sustainable. Chapter 15: Site Plan Layout 303 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES See CD for more information The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you find information related to site plan layout. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address www.autodesk.com Company, Product, or Service AutoCAD Civil 3D, Land Desktop, Survey, Utility Design www.softplan.com www.eaglepoint.com www.graphisoft.com www.bentley.com www.carlsonsw.com Building and rendering applications Civil design solutions Design building series, virtual building MicroStation, Geopak Solutions for surveying, civil engineering, building, and mining applications See CD for more information Site Plan Layout Test QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 15 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines. Question 15–9 Is it true or false that one of the advantages of CADD over manual drafting is accuracy? Question 15–10 Identify at least one difference between residential and commercial site plans. Question 15–11 Define contour lines. Question 15–12 Describe the control point survey. Question 15–13 Describe the radial survey. Question 15–1 What influences the size of the drawing sheet recommended for site plans? Question 15–14 What is the transit station? Question 15–2 What four factors influence scale selection in drawing a site plan? Question 15–16 What is the distance to station point 0 + 40? Question 15–3 List five elements of information that should be determined before starting a site plan drawing. Question 15–17 What is the distance to station point 1 + 60? Question 15–4 Why are construction lines helpful in site plan layout? Question 15–5 Information used to prepare a site plan may come from one or more of several available sources. List four possible sources. Question 15–6 List at least six types of information that should be determined before the site plan can be completed. Question 15–15 Explain how a grid survey is set up. Question 15–18 Explain the difference between index and intermediate contour lines. Question 15–19 Define profile. Question 15–20 Why is the vertical profile scale exaggerated? Question 15–21 In addition to the elevation of the excavation site, what does the grading plan show? Question 15–22 Define angle of repose. Question 15–7 Define setbacks. Question 15–23 What are field notes? Question 15–8 If you are using a CADD system to draw a site plan, what would be a typical prompt in drawing a 154.92' property line with a N 88°06'14" W bearing? Question 15–24 Why is the horizontal scale of the profile the same as the map scale? Question 15–25 In a grid survey, what is used to label the vertical lines? 304 Architectural Drafting and Design PROBLEMS DIRECTIONS: 1. Use an 8 1/2" × 14" drawing sheet unless otherwise specified by your instructor. 2. Select an appropriate scale. 3. Minimum front setback is 25'–0". 4. Minimum rear-yard setback is 25'–0". 5. Minimum side-yard setback is 7'–0". 6. Select, or have your instructor assign, one or more of the plot plan sketches or drawings that follow. 334 . 43' EL 108' Problems 15–1 through 15–7 Begin the selected site plan problem(s) by drawing the given information. The site plan will then be completed after you have selected a residential design project(s) in Chapter 18. Two evaluations are recommended: ● Site plan without structures, drives, and utilities. ● Complete site plan after selection and placement of structures, drives, and utilities. Structures selected in Chapter 18. EL 86' 50° 00' 20" E A B AREA ACCEPTABLE FOR SEPTIC SYSTEM AREA UNACCEPTABLE FOR SEPTIC SYSTEM E 333.44' SOUTH BROOKS LN. R = 10' E 147 . 8' N EL 104' E 54.8' 167 . 8' A 15' PROVIDE WATER WELL 100' MINIMUM TO SEPTIC SYSTEM 652 . 46' N 89° 26' 35" W 652 . 65' N 89° 31' 45" W B UTILITY ALLEY 15' EL 100' 54.8' MANCHESTER DRIVE S TAX LOT 2300, LOT 12 CLARKES ESTATES SECTION 17, T. 4 S., R. 3E., SALT LAKE MERIDIAN, TOOELE COUNTY, UTAH R = 10' S LOT 17, BLOCK 3, PLAT OF GARTHWICK, YOUR CITY, COUNTY, STATE PROBLEM 15-1 PROBLEM 15-2 E N 0° 48' 30" W EL 91' E EL 90' UR 138 . 83' EL 84' S G W N 0° 48' 40" W JASAN ROAD EL 86' S E 2' '4 4.5 11 15 S 86' 00' 10 "E 202.98' S 68' 40' 44" W N 89' 49' 16" W 209.15' 30' G W LOT 15 BLOCK 3 BARRINGTON HEIGHTS YOUR CITY, COUNTY STATE LOT 7, BLOCK 2, KYLEE ESTATES SECTION 12, T. 12 N., R. 14 E., LOUISIANA MERIDIAN, RAPIDES PARISH, LOUISIANA PROBLEM 15-3 ' S 12 W P.O.B. 25 9" OL L 1' 1" KN NORTH '4 7' 45 .3 ER ° 1 N2 40 14 C L RIV S CO N EL 88' ' 59' 17" W 79.4 3' T ' 19" E N 84° 44 ' 313 . 30 S 85° 219 . 6 4' 12' 3 7" E 138 . 87' PROBLEM 15-4 Chapter 15: Site Plan Layout 305 P.O.B. S 86' 37' 50" E S 487.19' W 4' 11 1.1 7' S2 45 24 N 44' 54' 36" W 30' ' ' 29.05 2 .1 W N 12' 59' 17" E 76' P.O.B. LOT 25 BLOCK 4 BARRINGTON HEIGHTS YOUR CITY, COUNTY STATE PROBLEM 15-5 PROBLEM 15-6 N 31° 59' 23" E 159.17' PROBLEM 15-7 153.62' E Ø' N 34° 42' 27" E VIEW DRIV R 197Ø.Ø PROPERTY LINE NORTH HARBOR " L 87.58' LOT 23 OF TRACT # 366Ø BLOCK # 144 HARBOR VIEW ESTATES YOUR CITY, COUNTY, STATE d 2° 32' 5Ø d 2° 23' 24" L 8Ø.ØØ' R 1917.87' PROPERTY LINE SETTING SUN DRIVE EAST 190.63' W 7'25" S73'1 LOT 29 BLOCK 1 ASHDOWN WOOD YOUR CITY, COUNTY STATE 0' 0. 16 21 ' 8" .46 0' 0 324 3' 5 NORTH 42 N2 '3 0" ' N ' 05 E DRIV ON GT IN RR 70' BA R=1 ' .25 135 "W ST. JAMES PLACE RADIUS LENGTH: 75.31' NORTH 44 '5 4' 51 36 .1 "E 2' CL N5 5' 3 7' 0 10 7" 0' W RT C OU ALLEN DAVID ' RB 7.35 =9 Ø' L 27.Ø R=3 73'-Ø' ID K 784.62' 1" PLOT 3Ø'-Ø" LEGAL: LOT 18 OF HIGHPOINTE IN THE N.E. 1/4 OF SEC. 34, T15, R2E W.M. HAPPY VALLEY, CLACKAMAS, COUNTY OREGON 15' PUBLIC SANITARY SEWER EASEMENT SANITARY MANHOLE PLAN S 71° 16' 25" E LINE OF DECK ABOVE 57" 43' 3Ø" BAC SET 15' 1Ø' SIDE-YARD SETBACK 24" MAX DEC. RETAINING WALL ENTRY DECK F.F. 194.88' UPPER FIN FL. 175' ØØ" LOWER FIN FL. 184' ØØ" 5'-Ø' RETAINING WALL ENTRY FIN FL. 135' ØØ" S 1Ø' RD E-YA 6' 0.1 22 48" HIGH MAX RETAINING WALL GARAGE FIN FL. 138' ØØ" 48" HIGH MAX RETAINING WALL 4" CONC DRIVEWAY OVER GRAVEL FILL 24" MAX DEC. RETAINING WALL CRAWL SPACE 24" AND 48" HIGH RETAINING WALLS TO BE RAILROAD TIE OR DEC. STONE VERIFY WITH OWNER CU FACE OF 7' 1° S4 7.5 18 43.47' "W 2Ø' FRONT-YARD SETBACK 32'-Ø' NOR TH ' 49 PROBLEM 15-8 33 Ø" 3° 10'- S4 63.15' 306 Architectural Drafting and Design Problem 15–8 Draw the complete site plan shown. 195 200 195 K S 21° 16' 25" E 185 1" 1Ø'-Ø" GRADING PLAN 264.67' 190 LINE OF DECK ABOVE 57" 43' 3Ø" BAC SET 15' 1Ø' SIDE-YARD SETBACK 14" MAX DEC. RETAINING WALL ENTRY DECK F.F. 194.88' UPPER FIN FL. 153' ØØ" LOWER FIN FL. 184' ØØ" 5'-Ø' RETAINING WALL 48" HIGH MAX RETAINING WALL GARAGE FIN FL. 138' ØØ" 48" HIGH MAX RETAINING WALL 205 ' RD E-YA ' SID 1Ø 2 16 20. 24" MAX DEC. ENTRY FIN FL. RETAINING 188' ØØ" WALL CRAWL SPACE 4" CONC DRIVEWAY OVER GRAVEL FILL 185 180 24" AND 48" HIGH RETAINING WALLS TO BE RAILROAD TIE OR DEC. STONE VERIFY WITH OWNER 190 2Ø' FRONTYARD SETBACK 5' 1° S4 180 43.41' LEGAL: LOT 18 OF HIGHPOINTE IN THE N.E. 1/4 OF SEC. 34, T15, R2E W.M. HAPPY VALLEY, CLACKAMAS, COUNTY OREGON 15' PUBLIC SANITARY SEWER EASEMENT SANITARY MANHOLE "W 200 URT N CO ALLE DAVID 973 URB ' L= 22.ØØ R=3 C FACE OF NOR TH ' 49 33 3° PROBLEM 15-9 S4 63.15' Chapter 15: Site Plan Layout 307 Problem 15–9 Continue the drawing started in Problem 15–8 by drawing the complete grading plan using the layout for this problem as a guide. This page intentionally left blank www.kevinmillerphoto.com SECTION 4 The Floor Plan This page intentionally left blank CHAPTER 16 Floor Plan Symbols I N T R O D U C T I O N The floor plans for a proposed home provide the future home owner with the opportunity to evaluate the design in terms of livability and suitability for the needs of the family. In addition, the floor plans quickly communicate the overall construction requirements to the builder. Symbols are used on floor plans to describe items that are associated with living in the home, such as doors, windows, cabinets, and plumbing fixtures. Other symbols are more closely related to the construction of the home, such as electrical circuits and material sizes and spacing. One of the most important concerns of the drafter is to carefully combine all of the symbols, notes, and dimensions on the floor plan so the plan is uncluttered and easy to read. In addition to knowing the proper symbols to use, architects, designers, and architectural drafters should be familiar with standard products that the symbols represent. Products used in the structures they design such as plumbing fixtures, appliances, windows, and doors are usually available from local vendors. Occasionally, some special items must be ordered far enough in advance to ensure delivery to the job site on time. By becoming familiar with standard products, you also become familiar with their cost. Knowing costs allows you to determine if the product you consider using is affordable within the owner’s budget. WALL SYMBOLS Floor plans that are easy to read are also easy to build, because there is less likelihood of construction errors than with unorganized, cluttered plans. Figure 16-1 shows a typical complete floor plan. The floor plan is a representation of an imaginary horizontal cut made approximately 4' (1220 mm) above the floor line. The relationship of the structure to the floor plan is shown in Figure 16-2. This example shows projecting the bottom of the wall onto the floor plan. Residential floor plans are generally drawn at a scale of 1/4" = 1'–0" (1:50 metric). Architectural templates are available with a wide variety of floor plan symbols at the proper scale. Opinions vary with regard to how walls are drawn on a floor plan. Practices range from drawing all exterior walls thicker than interior walls, for contrast, to drawing all exterior and interior walls the same thickness for convenience and because with manual drafting it is difficult to draw exact thicknesses. When the thickness of walls is drawn to the exact construction dimensions, the material used establishes these values. Exterior walls can be built using 2 × 4 or 2 × 6 studs. Exterior walls of a home are generally framed using 2 × 6 studs to accommodate insulation requirements. The garage can be framed using 2 × 6 or 2 × 4 studs depending on structural needs and desired CADD APPLICATIONS A common practice with CADD applications is to draw the floor plan walls the exact thickness of the construction materials. This is because the CADD system is extremely accurate for drafting. Some architectural CADD programs ask you to specify the exact construction materials and then set up the wall symbols to match. CADD programs are also valuable for establishing information from the drawings. For example, a command such as DISTANCE can be used to determine the exact dimension between walls for the length of a cabinet to be built in that location. This is another reason for making the drawing accurate. ■ 311 312 FIGURE 161 Complete floor plan. Courtesy TKP Architects PC, Golden, Colorado. Architectural Drafting and Design Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols 313 FIGURE 162 The floor plan is a representation of an imaginary horizontal cut made approximately 4' (1220 mm) above the floor line. This example shows the project on of the bottom of the walls onto the floor plan. insulation thickness. Garage walls can be framed using 2 × 4 studs as a cost-saving measure for basic residential construction. Custom homes and structural requirements generally use 2 × 6 studs for garage wall framing. Studs are the vertical construction members used for framing walls and partitions, and the nominal size of the construction member before milling is 2 × 4 or 2 × 6. The milling process makes the finished member 1 1/2" × 3 1/2" or 1 1/2" × 5 1/2". The metric equivalents of these lumber dimensions are 40 × 90 mm and 40 × 150 mm. Exterior and interior construction materials are then applied to the studs. A wide variety of exterior materials are used in architectural design, including horizontal and vertical wood siding and stucco. Stucco is a type of plaster made from Portland cement, sand, water, and coloring agents. Exterior siding materials vary in thickness, and should be determined by the specific material used. This example uses 1/2" thick exterior material. Interior finish material can also vary, though drywall and plaster are commonly used. Drywall is an interior wall covering installed in large sheets made from gypsum board. Plaster is a mixture of sand, cement, and water over a wire mesh used to cover walls and ceilings. This example uses 1/2" thick interior material. Typical exterior and interior construction is shown in Figure 16-3. This text recommends drawing exterior and interior walls with contrasting thicknesses, such as 6" (150 mm) exterior and 4" (100 mm) interior when using manual drafting; drawing the exact wall thickness is recommended 314 Architectural Drafting and Design 7" 5" 1/2" GYPSUM EXTERIOR INTERIOR 1/2" GYPSUM EXTERIOR INTERIOR 2X6 STUD (5 1/2") 2X4 STUD (3 1/2") 1/2" SHEATHING SIDING 1/2" SHEATHING SIDING TYPICAL 2 × 6 EXTERIOR WALL TYPICAL 2 × 4 EXTERIOR WALL 2X6 AS NEEDED 9 1/2" 1/2" GYPSUM EXTERIOR INTERIOR EXTERIOR 1/2" GYPSUM BOTH SIDES 6 1/2" 2X4 STUD 4" MASONRY 1/2" SHEATHING TYPICAL 2X4 STUDS 1" AIR SPACE EXTERIOR WALL WITH MASONRY VENEER INTERIOR 4 1/2" INTERIOR WALLS FIGURE 163 Typical exterior and interior construction. when a CADD system is used. The actual practice should be confirmed with your instructor or company to determine the preferred practice. The samples in this textbook are typically drawn using CADD with text that closely matches high-quality architectural hand lettering, in an effort to maintain quality and demonstrate the best possible drafting representation. Drawing Exterior Walls Exterior wood-frame walls are generally drawn 6" thick at a 1/4" = 1'–0" (1:50 metric) scale for manual drafting, and drawn at the exact wall thickness when using CADD (see Figure 16-4). The wall thickness depends on the type of construction. If the exterior walls are to be concrete or masonry construction with wood framing to finish the inside surface, they are drawn substantially thicker, as shown in Figure 16-5. The Figure 16-5 example shows a concrete construction wall with furring constructed inside for use with a finish material. Exterior frame walls with masonry veneer construction applied to the outside surface are drawn an additional 5" (approximately 125 mm) thick with the masonry veneer represented as 4" (100 mm) thick over a 1" (25 mm) air space and 6" (150 mm) wood-frame walls, as seen in Figure 16-6. Masonry veneer walls consist of a single nonstructural external layer of masonry, such as brick or stone, separated by an air space from the structural framing such as wood, steel, or masonry. Furring is generally small strips of wood or metal that are applied to a wall or other surface to act as a fastening piece for the finishing material. Drawing Interior Partitions Interior walls, known as partitions, are commonly drawn 4" (100 mm) thick when using manual drafting, or to the exact material dimensions, such as 4 1/2" (114 mm), with CADD. The 4 1/2" (115 mm) dimension is the 2 × 4 (50 × 100) stud with 1/2" (12 mm) drywall on each side, as shown in Figure 16-3. The wall thickness dimension is calculated with these values: 3 1/2" + 1/2" + 1/2" = 4 1/2". Drywall refers to any materials used for interior stud covering that do not need to be mixed with water before application. The terms wallboard, plasterboard, and gypsum are also used. Gypsum is commonly used to make drywall. When gypsum is heated and the Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols 315 FIGURE 164 Partial floor plan showing exterior walls and interior partitions. Courtesy Piercy & Barclay Designers, Inc., CPBD. water is removed, the resulting product is plaster of paris. This is covered by paper to make drywall sheets. Walls with 2 × 6 (50 × 150) studs are generally used behind a water closet (toilet). This wall, commonly known as an 8" nominal wall, is used to house a soil stack that is 4" in diameter. The soil stack is a vertical soil pipe carrying the discharge from the toilet fixture. The soil stack is too big to be placed in the cavity of a 2 × 4 stud wall. This applies if the water closet is on an upper floor where the soil stack must run down the wall below. There is no need for the increase in stud size if the water closet is on the main floor, because the soil stack connects directly into the sewer line below the slab or crawl space. There is also a soil vent that runs up the wall and vents out the roof. The soil vent, also called the stack vent or waste vent, allows vapor to escape and ventilates the system. The soil vent can be in a standard 2 × 4 stud wall because it normally measures 1 1/2" in diameter. An additional plumbing discussion is provided in Chapter 20. 316 Architectural Drafting and Design 8" CONC. WALL DARK-WALL SHADING 2 X 4 FURRING W/1" AIR SPACE OR 2 X 4 D.F.P.T. STUDS @ 16" O.C. LIGHT-WALL SHADING FIGURE 167 Wall shading. FIGURE 165 Concrete exterior wall. BRICK VENEER OVER 1" AIR SPACE W/15# FELT & 26 GA. METAL TIES @ 24" O.C. EA. STUD. FIGURE 166 Exterior masonry veneer. WALL SHADING AND MATERIAL INDICATIONS Several shading methods are used to make walls stand out clearly from the rest of the drawing. Some drafters shade walls very dark for accent; others shade the walls lightly for a more subtle effect, as shown in Figure 16-7. Other wall shading techniques include closely spaced thin lines, wood-grain effect, and the use of color. Office practice that requires light-wall shading can also use thick wall lines to help accent the walls and partitions so they stand out from other floor plan features. Thick wall lines are also used to accent walls on the plan when no wall shading is used. Figure 16-8 shows how walls and partitions appear when outlined with thick lines. This method is not FIGURE 168 Thick lines used on walls and partitions. No wall shading is used. used when dark wall shading is used, because the darker shading results in walls and partitions that stand out clearly from other floor plan features. Some architectural drafters prefer to draw walls and partitions unshaded with a thick outline. Drawing Partial Walls Partial walls are used as room dividers in situations where an open environment is desired. For example, a partial wall can be used as a guardrail at balconies or next to a flight of stairs. Partial walls require a minimum height of 36" above the floor and are often capped with wood or can have decorative spindles that connect to the ceiling. Partial walls can be differentiated from other walls by drawing wood grain or by using very light shading; partial walls should be defined with a note that specifies the height, as shown in Figure 16-9. CADD APPLICATIONS CADD drawings create different line weights by placing each drawing element on its own layer. The wall layer is then set to print or plot as thick lines. CADD programs also offer the flexibility of leaving the walls open or filled as desired. With some architectural CADD programs, you can select either option. With a standard CADD program, you can use commands that are designed to fill areas. ■ Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols 317 LOFT 36" HIGH GUARDRAIL DINING 48" HIGH ROOM DIVIDER W/ OAK CAP OPEN TO LIVING RM. BELOW FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION GUARDRAIL AT LOFT OR BALCONY FIGURE 169 Partial wall used as a partition wall or room divider. 4" MA X PICTORIAL 36" HIGH GUARDRAIL 4" MAX DECK Drawing Guardrails Guardrails are generally constructed with horizontal rails or vertical posts, and are used for safety at balconies, lofts, stairs, and decks over 30" (762 mm) above the next lower level. Residential guardrails, according to International Residential Code (IRC), should be noted on floor plans as being at least 36" (915 mm) above the floor and should include another note specifying that the intermediate rails should not have more than a 4" (100 mm) open space. The minimum space helps ensure that small children do not fall through or become trapped between the rails or posts. Decorative guardrails are also used as room dividers, especially at a sunken area or to FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION PICTORIAL GUARDRAIL AT DECK FIGURE 1610 Guardrail representations. create an open effect between two rooms. Guardrails are commonly made of wood, steel, or wrought iron. Creatively designed guardrails add a great deal to the aesthetics of the interior design. Figure 16-10 shows guardrail designs and how they are drawn on a floor plan. CADD APPLICATIONS Drawing Floor Plan Walls Using CADD Using CADD to lay out the walls of a floor plan is essential in the development of construction documents. Available programs range from simple CADD drafting packages that draw two-dimensional (2D) lines to represent walls to complex modeling programs that create three-dimensional (3D) wall objects. Most CADD programs provide basic tools used to create lines and arcs that are parallel, providing the representation of a wall in a floor plan view. For example, drawing a single line and copying it parallel to the initial line is a traditional method for drafting floor plan walls. As lines are drafted, the wall intersections must be manually cleaned up to give the appearance of walls in a floor plan. The addition of door and window symbols also requires that the wall lines be broken to add these symbols to the floor plan (see Figure 16-11). Many of the advanced CADD architectural programs use tools that represent real-world building objects. Oftentimes, these real-world building objects display the FIGURE 1611 Traditional 2D CADD drafting practices use a series of parallel lines to represent walls in a floor plan. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN. 318 Architectural Drafting and Design CADD APPLICATIONS wall as 2D parallel lines as they appear in a typical floor plan view. These same objects include 3D properties that allow the wall to be displayed in an elevation, section, and 3D modeling view. By drawing a single wall object, multiple displays of the wall can be obtained automatically for any view, as shown in Figure 16-12. A few benefits can be obtained by using advanced CADD programs that create real-world building objects such as walls. Some of these benefits include the following: • Real-world wall types such as brick, wood, metal studs, and concrete are often available or can quickly be defined and drawn in the floor plan. • Automatic wall intersection cleanup saves time “cleaning up” the floor plans. • Ends of walls are automatically capped, eliminating the need to add a line at the end of two parallel lines. • Curved walls are quickly created with appropriate building materials. • The insertion of doors and windows creates a relationship between the items automatically creating the “hole” where a door or window is placed. This eliminates the need for manually trimming and erasing line work. • The walls and other floor plan features are parametric, which means that changes to the wall type, materials applied, or sizes, cause the wall types to be updated automatically. • Building material lists are easier to compile when materials have been added to the walls in the floor plan. • Information about the walls such as surface area and wall height can be obtained quickly and automatically placed in a schedule. • Renderings of a building can be created by applying the desired materials. • Elevations and sections are generated automatically. ■ FIGURE 1612 Using real-world building objects, walls can be drawn to display 2D floor plan walls, 2D elevation and section walls, and 3D walls for model views. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN. DOOR SYMBOL REPRESENTATIONS Exterior doors are drawn on the floor plan with the sill shown on the outside of the house. The sill is commonly drawn projected about 1/16", although it can be drawn flush depending on individual company standards. A sill is the framing member that forms the bottom edge of an exterior door or window opening (see Figure 16-13). The main entry door is usually at least 3'−0" (915 mm) wide, although a 2'−8" (813 mm) minimum door width is allowed by code. An exterior door from a garage or utility room is usually 2'−8" (813 mm) wide, although Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols 319 3" MIN. DRAWN WITH FLUSH SILL DRAWN WITH PROJECTED SILL PICTORIAL FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION FIGURE 1613 Exterior door. 3'−0" is a good width if space permits. Exterior doors are typically solid wood or hollow metal with insulation. Doors can be smooth or slab, or they can feature decorative panels on the surface or in their construction. Doors are typically 6'−8" (2032 mm) high, although 8'−0" (2438 mm) doors are available. Refer to Chapter 9 for a review of code requirements for exterior doors. The interior door symbol, as shown in Figure 16-14, is drawn without a sill. Interior doors should swing against a wall into the room being entered. Interior doors are typically placed at a minimum of 3" (80 mm) from a corner, or at a maximum of 24" (600 mm) from the corner, allowing for furniture placement behind the door, if desired. Increasing the 3" minimum from a corner is important when using wide casing, which is common in custom home design. Casing is the trim around doors and windows. Common minimum interior door sizes are: ● 2'−8" (800 mm): Utility rooms ● 2'−8" (800 mm) to 2'−6" (760 mm): Bedrooms, dens, family rooms, and dining rooms ● 2'−6" (760 mm) to 2'−4" (700 mm): Bathrooms ● 2'−4" (700 mm) to 2'−0" (600 mm): Closets (or larger for bifold and bipass doors) Metric door sizes vary from 600 mm to 1000 mm depending on use and location. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) specifies a minimum opening 36" (915 mm) wide for wheelchair access. This is a clear, unobstructed dimension measured to the edge of the door at 90º, if the door does not open 180°. The larger-sized door is normally used in more expensive homes with wider halls; smaller-sized doors are usually used in homes where space is limited. Interior doors can have a flush surface or have raised panels or glass panels depending on the desired architectural design. Pocket doors are commonly used when space for a door swing is limited, as in a small room (see Figure 16-15). Pocket doors should not be placed where the pocket is in an exterior wall or there is interference with plumbing or electrical wiring. Pocket doors should follow the same size guidelines as interior swinging doors. Pocket doors are more expensive to purchase and install than standard interior doors, because the pocket door frame must be built while the house is being framed. The additional cost is often worth the results, when design factors require a pocket door. A common economical wardrobe uses the bipass door, as shown in Figure 16-16. Bipass doors normally range in width from 4'−0" through 12'−0" (1200 through 3660 mm) in 1' (300 mm) intervals. Pairs of doors are usually adequate for widths up to 8' (2400 mm). Three panels are usually provided for doors between 8' and 10' wide, and four panels are normal for doors wider than 10'. Bifold wardrobe or closet doors are used when complete access to the closet is required. Sometimes bifold doors are used on a utility closet that houses a washer and dryer or other utilities (see Figure 16-17). Bifold wardrobe doors often range in width from 4'−0" (1200 mm) through 9'−0" (2700 mm), in 6" (150 mm) intervals. Double-entry doors are common where a large formal foyer design requires a more elaborate entry than can be achieved by one door. The floor plan symbol for 3" MIN. FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION DOOR SHOULD SWING AGAINST WALL FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION FIGURE 1614 Interior door. PICTORIAL PICTORIAL FIGURE 1615 Pocket door. 320 Architectural Drafting and Design LINE OF ROD BELOW SHELF EXTERIOR PROJECTED SILL SHELF LINE FLUSH SILL FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION PICTORIAL FIGURE 1616 Bipass door. FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION PICTORIAL FIGURE 1619 Glass sliding door with exterior sill. PICTORIAL FIGURE 1617 Bifold door. double-entry and French doors is the same; therefore, the door schedule should clearly identify the type of doors to be installed. The term French doors normally refers to double exterior or interior doors that have glass panels and swing into a room (see Figure 16-18). French doors are used in place of glass sliding doors when a more traditional door design is required. Glass sliding doors are associated with contemporary design and do not take up as much floor space as French doors. French doors can be purchased with wood mullions and muntins between the glass panes or with one large glass pane and a removable decorative grill for easy cleaning, as shown in Figure 16-18. Mullions are horizontal or vertical dividers between sections of a window. Muntins are horizontal or vertical dividers within a section of a window. French doors range in OMIT SILL LINE FOR INTERIOR DOUBLE DOORS width from 2'–4" (700 mm) through 3'–6" (1060 mm) in 2" (50 mm) increments. Doors can be used individually, in pairs, or in groups of three or four. The threeand four-panel doors typically have one or more fixed panels, which should be specified. Glass sliding doors are made with wood or metal frames and tempered glass for safety. Figure 16-19 shows the floor plan symbols for representing a flush and a projected exterior sill. These doors are used to provide glass areas and are excellent for access to a patio or deck. Glass sliding doors typically range in width from 5'−0" through 12'−0" (1500 through 3600 mm) at 1' (300 mm) intervals. Common sizes are 6'−0" and 8'−0" (1800 to 2400 mm). Double-acting doors are often used between a kitchen and eating area, to swing in either direction for easy passage (see Figure 16-20). Common widths for pairs of doors range from 2'−6" (760 mm) through 4'−0" (1200 mm) in 2" increments. Dutch doors are used when it is desirable to have a door that may be half open and half closed. The top portion can be opened and used as a pass-through (see Figure 16-21). Dutch doors range in width from 2'−6" (760 mm) through 3'−6" (1060 mm) in 2" (50 mm) increments. SINGLE DOUBLE FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION FIGURE 1618 Double-entry or French doors. PICTORIAL FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION FIGURE 1620 Double-acting doors. PICTORIAL Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols 321 FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION PICTORIAL FIGURE 1621 Dutch doors. DRAWN WITH DASHED LINES TO DENOTE OPEN DOOR HEADER FIGURE 1623 Overhead garage door. Accordion doors can be used at closets or wardrobes, or they are often used as room dividers where an openable partition is needed. Figure 16-22 shows the floor plan symbol for an accordion door. Accordion doors range in width from 4'−0" (1200 mm) through 12'−0" (3600 mm) in 1' increments. Commercial doors are available for larger openings. Standard metric door sizes for all large openings such as sliding glass or double French doors vary from 1500 to 3600 mm. The floor plan symbol for an overhead garage door is shown in Figure 16-23. The dashed lines show the size and extent of the garage door when open. The extent of the garage door is typically shown when the door interferes with something on the ceiling. The garage door header is normally shown as a hidden line, and the size is labeled with a note. A header is a horizontal structural member that supports the ends of joists or rafters and the load over an opening. Garage doors range in width from 8'−0" through 18'−0" (2400 through 5400 mm). An 8'−0" door is a common width for a small single car. A size of 9'–0" (2700 mm) or 10'−0" (3000 mm) is common for a single door and accommodates a pickup truck or large van. A door 16'−0" (4800 mm) is a common double-car width. Doors are typically 7'−0" (2100 mm) high, although door heights of 8'−0" (2400 mm) or 10'−0" (3000 mm) are common for campers or recreational vehicles. Standard metric sizes for door height vary from 2400 to 5400 mm. WINDOW SYMBOL REPRESENTATIONS Window symbols are drawn with a sill on the outside and inside. A sliding window, shown in Figure 16-24, is a popular 50%-openable window. Notice that windows can be drawn with exterior sills projected or flush, and the glass pane can be drawn with single or double lines. The method used should be consistent throughout the plan and should be determined by the preference of the specific architectural office. Many offices draw all windows with a projected sill and one line to represent the glass; the type of window can then be specified in the window schedule. Windows are typically manufactured in widths ranging from 1'−0" (300 mm) through 12'−0" (3600 mm) at intervals of about 6" (150 mm). Vinyl- and aluminumframe windows generally fall within the range of these nominal sizes, but sizes of wood-frame windows are often different and should be confirmed EXTERIOR PROJECTED SILL FLUSH SILL FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION WINDOWS DRAWN WITH DOUBLE LINES PICTORIAL FIGURE 1622 Accordion door. FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION FIGURE 1624 Horizontal sliding window. PICTORIAL 322 Architectural Drafting and Design with the manufacturer’s specifications. Metric window sizes also vary and should be confirmed. The location of a window in the house and the way the window opens are factors that affect the window size. A window between 6'−0" (1800 mm) and 12'−0" (3600 mm) wide is common for a living, dining, or family room. To let the occupants take advantage of a view while sitting, windows in these rooms are normally between 4'−0" (1200 mm) and 5'−0" (1500 mm) tall. Windows in bedrooms are typically 3'−0" (900 mm) to 6'−0" (1800 mm) wide. The height often ranges from 3'−6" (1060 mm) to 4'−0". The type of window used in the bedroom is important because of emergency egress requirements in most codes. See Chapter 9 for a review. Kitchen windows are often between 3'−0" (900 mm) and 5'−0" (1500 mm) wide and between 3'−0" (900 mm) and 3'−6" (1060 mm) tall. Wide windows are nice to have in a kitchen for the added light they provide, but the number of upper cabinets may be reduced to accommodate a wider window. If the tops of windows are at the normal 6'−8" height, windows deeper than 3'−6" (1060 mm) can interfere with the countertops. Bathroom windows often range between 2'−0" and 3'−0" (900 mm) wide, with an equal height. A wider window with less height is often specified if the window is to be located in a shower area. Most bathroom windows have obscure glass. Types of Windows Casement windows can be 100% openable and are best used where extreme weather conditions require a tight seal when the window is closed, although these windows are in common use everywhere. Casement windows open from the outside vertical edge, generally using a crank mechanism (see Figure 16-25). Casement windows can be more expensive than sliding units. The traditional double-hung window has a bottom panel that slides upward, as shown in Figure 16-26, and a EXTERIOR PROJECTED SILL FLUSH SILL FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION PICTORIAL FIGURE 1626 Double-hung window. top panel that slides downward. A double-hung window operates by means of two sashes that slide vertically past each other. The sashes form a framework that holds the panes of a window in the window frame. Double-hung wood-frame windows are designed for energy efficiency and are commonly used in traditional architectural designs. Double-hung windows are typically taller than they are wide. A double-hung window usually ranges in width from 1'−6" through 4'−0" (1200 mm). It is common to have double-hung windows grouped together in pairs of two or more. A single-hung window is drawn using the same symbol as a double-hung window. The difference in type is described in the window schedule, which is discussed later in this chapter. A single-hung window has two sashes of glass; the top sash is stationary and the bottom sash is movable. Awning windows are often used in basements or below a fixed window to provide ventilation. An awning window is a single-sash window that tilts outward and up. Another common use places awning windows between two different roof levels, providing additional ventilation in vaulted rooms. These awning windows are opened with a long pole connected to the opening device. Awning windows are hinged at the top and swing outward, as shown in Figure 16-27. Hopper windows are EXTERIOR EXTERIOR PROJECTED SILL PROJECTED SILL FLUSH SILL FLUSH SILL FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION FIGURE 1625 Casement window. PICTORIAL FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION FIGURE 1627 Awning window. PICTORIAL Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols 323 EXTERIOR PROJECTED SILL FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION 12"-18" FLUSH SILL FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION PICTORIAL 18"-24" FIGURE 1628 Jalousie window. CASEMENT/ FIXED SLIDING/FIXED FIXED FIXED OVER OVER SLIDING AWNING ELEVATION VIEWS ALUMINUM FRAME 48"-60" DIMENSIONS FOR A COMMON SMALL-SIZE BAY WINDOW drawn in the same manner; however, they hinge at the bottom and swing inward. Jalousie windows are used when a louvered effect is desired, as seen in Figure 16-28. A Jalousie window has overlapping narrow glass, metal, or wooden louvers, and is operated with a crank handle for adjusting the louver angle outward. Fixed windows are popular when a large, unobstructed area of glass is required to take advantage of a view or to allow for solar heat gain. A fixed window has a single nonoperable glass pane. Figure 16-29 shows the floor plan symbols for fixed windows. Bay windows are often used when a traditional architectural style is desired. Figure 16-30 shows the floor plan representation of a bay window. Usually, the sides are drawn at a 45° or 30° angle. A bay window is constructed by extending the exterior of a structure. The bay window allows more light and provides more floor space than a window flush with the wall line. A bay DOUBLE HUNG/FIXED 6'-0" 18"-24" 3" M IN . 3" MIN. WOOD FRAME EXTERIOR PROJECTED SILL FLUSH SILL PICTORIAL FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION FIGURE 1629 Options for fixed windows. The fixed part of combination windows is shaded for reference. PICTORIAL FIGURE 1630 Bay window. window can be rectangular, polygonal, or arc-shaped. An arc-shaped bay window is called a bow window. A bay window is also called an oriel window, when it projects from an upper story and is supported by corbels. Corbel refers to the stone, brick, timber, or metal projecting out from a wall to support a structure above. The depth of the bay is often between 18" and 36" (450 to 900 mm). The total width of a bay is limited by the size of the center window, which is typically either a fixed panel, double-hung, or casement window. Large bays can have more than one window at the center and sides. Bays can be either premanufactured or built at the job site. Bay windows are designed for a specific size and location. The bay window structure commonly extends from the floor to the ceiling. The roof of the house can be extended down to cover the bay window if adequate ceiling height is available. The bay window commonly has its own roof structure, which often adds to the quality of the exterior architectural design. The bay window structure can also be framed with a bench seat if it does not extend to the floor. The actual design and size depend on the purpose and the available space. 324 Architectural Drafting and Design SCHEDULES EXTERIOR FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION PICTORIAL FIGURE 1631 Garden window. A garden window, as shown in Figure 16-31, is generally a 90° bay window that extends beyond the exterior, with a glass front, sides, and roof to allow in extra natural light. The garden window is a popular style for utility rooms and kitchens. Garden windows usually project between 12" and 18" (300 to 450 mm) from the wall. Depending on the manufacturer, either the side or the top panels open. Numbered symbols used on the floor plan key specific items to charts known as schedules. As defined by the U.S. National CAD Standard, a schedule is a grouping of related items with corresponding distinguishing features, with a heading and a minimum of three columns of related information. A schedule formats information into rows and columns in order to more easily present design information. Schedules are used to describe items such as doors, windows, appliances, materials, fixtures, hardware, and finishes (see Figure 16-37). Schedules help keep drawings clear of unnecessary notes because the details of an item are off the drawing or on another sheet. The schedule heading generally uses 3/16" to 1/4" (5 to 6 mm) high text, with 1/8" (3 mm) high text used in the columns and rows. The lines used to create the schedules can all be the same thickness, or varying line thicknesses can be used for borders and between columns, depending on the desired office or school practice. Content of Schedules Skylights Consider using a skylight when additional daylight is desirable in a room, or to let natural light enter an interior room through the ceiling. Fixed or operable skylights are available. Skylights are made of plastic in a dome shape or flat tempered glass. Tempered double-pane insulated skylights are energy efficient, do not cause any distortion of view, and generally are not more expensive than plastic skylights. Figure 16-32 shows how a skylight is represented in the floor plan. Other floor plan representations and construction details are used depending on the manufacturer specifications. Confirm the correct representation with the manufacturer. There are many different ways to set up a schedule, and a schedule can include any or all of the following product information: Manufacturer’s name Product name Model number Type Quantity Size Rough opening size Color Placement of quantities on schedules varies among offices, although giving quantities is the preferred practice. During the early stages of plan development, the drafter or designer refers to manufacturer catalogs for products to be used in the design and begins to establish the schedule data. Schedule Key 24"X36" DBL GLAZE INSULATED SKYLIGHT FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION FIGURE 1632 Skylight representation. PICTORIAL When doors and windows are described in a schedule, they must be keyed from the floor plan drawings to the schedule. The key may label windows with a letter and doors with a number. You can enclose the letters or numbers in different geometric figures, such as the following: 1 2 1 A 2 B GOING GREEN 325 Windows and Energy Loss INSULATED WINDOWS Windows can be a big source of energy loss by heat escaping from the home during the winter and by allowing extra heat to enter the home during the summer. Doors can also contribute to loss of energy efficiency in the home. However, doors are generally more energy efficient than windows. There are a variety of ways to insulate windows. One common method is to use two or more panes of glass with a sealed space between. This is referred to as insulating glass. Another technique is to fill the sealed space with argon, a colorless gas that raises the window’s insulating value. Low-emissive glass, also called low-e glass, is an additional technology that improves windows’ energy efficiency. Low-e glass has a transparent coating that acts as a thermal mirror, which increases insulating value, blocks heat from the sun, and reduces fading of objects inside the house. Window frames made of wood or a combination of materials that have a thermal break installed are an advantage in terms of energy efficiency. A thermal break system is a longitudinal channel, longitudinal flange, or sidewalls that create a hollow center in which a thermal barrier is integrally formed. Insulation is rated by R-value, and windows are rated by U-value. R is the reciprocal of the U-value: 1/U = R. U-value is the coefficient of heat transfer expressed as BtuH sq ft/°F of surface area. BtuH is heat loss calculated in Btu per hour. Btu means British thermal unit, a measure of heat. The lower the U-value, the more the insulating value. The U-value of windows can also be identified by window class (CL). For example, a window with a U-value of 0.40 is CL40. The National Fenestration Rating Council The following is taken in part from the NFRC Web site. The National Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC) is a nonprofit organization that administers the only uniform, independent rating and labeling system for the energy performance of windows, doors, skylights, and attachment products. The term fenestration is any opening in a building’s envelope including windows, doors, and skylights. The NFRC Label. Adopted in 2005, the NFRC energy performance label can help you determine how well a product performs the functions of helping to cool your building in the summer, warm your building in the winter, keep out wind, and resist condensation. By using the information contained on the label, builders and consumers can reliably compare one product with another, and make informed decisions about the windows, doors, and skylights they buy. FIGURE 1633 The NFRC energy performance label. Courtesy National Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC). The NFRC label lists the manufacturer, describes the product, provides a source for additional information, and includes ratings for one or more energy performance characteristics (see FIGURE 1633). All energy performance values on the label represent the rating of windows and doors as whole systems, which includes glazing and frame. Refer to FIGURE 1633 as you review the following information found on the NFRC label: U-Factor. U-factor measures how well a product prevents heat from escaping. The rate of heat loss is indicated in terms of the U-factor (U-value) of a window assembly. U-factor ratings generally fall between 0.20 and 1.20. The insulating value is indicated by the R-value, which is the inverse of the U-value. The lower the U-value, the greater a window’s resistance to heat flow and the better its insulating value. Solar Heat Gain Coefficient. Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) measures how well a product blocks heat caused by sunlight. The SHGC is the fraction of directly transmitted and absorbed solar radiation admitted through a window and then released inward. SHGC is expressed as a number between 0 and 1. The lower a window’s solar heat gain coefficient, the less solar heat it transmits in the house. Visible Transmittance. Visible Transmittance (VT) measures how much light comes through a product. The 326 GOING GREEN Windows and Energy Loss (Continued) visible transmittance is an optical property that indicates the amount of visible light transmitted. VT is expressed as a number between 0 and 1. The higher the VT, the more light that is transmitted. Air Leakage. Air Leakage (AL) is indicated by an air leakage rating expressed as the equivalent cubic feet of air passing through a square foot of window area (cfm/sq ft). Heat loss and gain occur by infiltration through cracks in the window assembly. The lower the AL, the less air that passes through cracks in the window assembly. Condensation Resistance. Condensation Resistance (CR) measures the ability of a product to resist the formation of condensation on the interior surface of the product. The higher the CR rating, the better the product is at resisting condensation formation. While this rating cannot predict condensation, it can provide a credible method of comparing the potential of various products for condensation formation. CR is expressed as a number between 0 and 100. TUBULAR DAYLIGHTING DEVICES One of the key components of any floor plan is to determine accurate and adequate lighting needs. Daylighting is often a major consideration. Utilizing natural light in addition to or in place of artificial lighting may be a decision that is made based on safety considerations, aesthetic preferences, environmental practices, cost efficiency, or even health benefits and retail sales. However, daylight is not always readily available within every space, especially in small rooms, corridors, and multiple-story buildings. Daylighting is the use of various design techniques to enhance the use of natural light in a building. A natural lighting option that is often selected for its compact size, technologically advanced abilities, and flexibility is the Tubular Daylighting Device (TDD). Figure 16-34 shows an example of a Tubular Daylighting Device. The standard model is a passive system consisting of a transparent, roof-mounted dome with a self-flashing curb, reflective tubing, and a ceiling-level diffuser assembly that transmits the daylight into interior spaces. The following features of TDDs are particularly critical. Even though the differences in these components may seem minor, slight variances can make the difference between a poorly lit space and a well-designed, environmentally conscious interior. Capture For the TDD to effectively bring daylight into interior spaces, sunlight capture must occur at the roof level. FIGURE 1634 A Tubular Daylighting Device is an ideal product for bringing sunlight into any interior space. Image courtesy Solatube International, Inc. With various technologies used to capture daylight in TDDs, the differences begin at the dome. Products can range in technology from simple thermally formed, clear plastic domes to more advanced systems that employ optics to maximize light collection. Transfer From the dome level, daylight is captured and then transferred through optical tubing, transporting daylight from the rooftop aperture to the ceiling diffuser. TDD systems use reflective tubing to duct daylight into the buildings’ interior spaces. One benefit of TDDs, as opposed to other daylighting methods, is the flexibility of the tubing, with some models allowing angles anywhere from 0° to 90° and the tube runs in excess of 90' (27.4 m). Essentially, the goal of the tubing is to maximize the ability of the light to travel down the tube, while minimizing the light lost during transport. Delivery Diffusion is the point where all the components of the system work together to bring the highest quality daylight into the interior space. Varying lens technologies are available for TDDs, from basic prismatic designs to highly engineered Fresnel lenses. Figure 16-35 showcases a proprietary Fresnel diffuser that evenly disperses large quantities of daylight. A Fresnel lens is GOING GREEN 327 Windows and Energy Loss (Continued) Popular applications for Tubular Daylighting Devices include single- and multifamily residential spaces, schools and libraries, retail stores, restaurants, hotels, office buildings, industrial properties (warehouses and manufacturing), and health care and institutional facilities. With the proper use of TDDs, spaces of any size can be daylit for optimum lighting conditions, which is demonstrated in Figure 16-36. FIGURE 1635 This TDD diffuser brings in crystal clear daylight and provides the highest light dispersion with a unique view of the sky. Image courtesy Solatube International, Inc. a type of lens originally developed for lighthouses. The design allows the construction of lenses of large aperture and short focal length without the weight and volume of material required in conventional lens design. Compared to earlier lenses, the Fresnel lens is much thinner, allowing the passage of more light over much longer distances. More advanced TDDs offer optical modulation systems, allowing users to control light output, much like they would with some electric light models. Some devices can be integrated into lighting control systems, while others offer a wall-mounted rocker switch, allowing building inhabitants to modulate the daylight themselves or set scene level controls. Figure 16-38 shows how the symbols key to the schedules. As an alternative method, you may consider using a divided circle for the key. Place the letter D for door or W for window above the dividing line and the number of the door or window, using consecutive numbers, below the line, as shown: W 1 W 2 D 1 D 2 The exact method of schedule presentation depends on individual company standards, but most companies use a similar format, and a consistent format should be used throughout a set of drawings. FIGURE 1636 The Beijing Science and Technology University gymnasium installed 168 Tubular Daylighting Devices as part of the first ever “Green Olympics.” Image courtesy Solatube International, Inc. Schedules are also used to identify finish materials used in different areas of the structure. For commercial buildings, the room is normally identified by name, by room number, or by both name and room number. Figure 16-39 shows a typical interior finish schedule. Door and window sizes can be placed on the floor plan next to their symbols. This method, shown in Figure 16-40, is used by some companies to save time. Although this method is easy, it cannot be used when specific data must be identified. The sizes are the numbers next to the windows and doors in Figure 16-40. The first two numbers indicate the width. For example, 30 means 3'−0". The second two numbers indicate the height. For example, 68 means 328 Architectural Drafting and Design WINDOW SCHEDULE 8'-0 3/4 3 5'-0 7/8 1 4' 5' W 2 N 5 CSM. 4'-0 3/4 3 5'-0 7/8 2 4' 36 W 2 N 3 CSM. 4'-0 3/4 3 3'-6 1/2 2 36 36 2 N 3 CSM. 3'-6 1/2 3 3'-6 1/2 2 6' 4' G 64 SLDG. 6'-0 1/2 3 4'-0 1/2 1 DINING 5' 36 G 536 SLDG. 5'-0 1/2 3 3'-6 1/2 4 FAMILY 4' 36 G 436 SLDG. 4'-0 1/2 3 3'-6 1/2 1 4' 2' A 41 AWN. 4'-0 1/2 3 2'-0 7/8 3 PAINT W 4 N 5 CSM. BROCADE 8' 5' SPRAY 2 CEIL. SMOOTH VERIFY TEXTURE JOB BUILT WALLS PAINT 1' 5' FLOOR PAPER A B C D E F G H J ROOM CONCRETE QUAN. TILE MODEL HARDWOOD SIZE CARPET SYM VINYL ROUGH OPEN INTERIOR FINISH SCHEDULE ENTRY FOYER KITCHEN LIVING MSTR. BATH BATH #2 MSTR. BED A BED #2 DOOR SCHEDULE TYPE BED #3 UTILITY SYM SIZE QUAN. 1 2 3 4 5 6 3' 68 S.C. RP. METAL INSULATED 1 3' 68 S.C. FLUSH METAL INSULATED 2 2 8 68 S.C. SELF CLOSING 2 2 8 68 HOLLOW CORE 5 2 6 68 HOLLOW CORE 5 2 6 68 POCKET SLDG. 2 FIGURE 1639 Finish schedule. 6'−8". A 6040 window specification means the window is 6'−0" wide by 4'−0" high, and a 2868 door means the door is 2'−8" wide by 6'−8" high. Standard door height is 6'−8". Some drafters use the same system in a slightly different manner by presenting the sizes as 28 × 68, meaning 2'−8" wide by 6'−8" high; or by giving B FIGURE 1637 Window and door schedules. 20 6040 4 30 6040 B 3 2 1 68 A 28 A 68 A 2 3° X 4° DOOR S TY QUAN. SIZE 1 1 3° B 1 6° X 4° 2 3 C 3 6° X 3° 3 1 D 2 3° X 4 4 2 FIGURE 1638 Method of keying windows and doors from the floor plan to the schedules. 8 SIZE 6 30 WINDOW SCHE QUAN. 28 FIGURE 1640 Simplified method of labeling doors and windows. Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols CLEAR ERP1 CLEAR/ RUBY ERP2 EER6* EER41 CLEAR ERP3 EER3 AMBER ERP4 EER8 NA 2'8" 329 ERP5 EER18 NA 2'8" ERP6 EER42* CLEAR ERP7 EER44* NA 6'6" *Deadlocks on 2'8" 6-panel Embossed Doors must have a 2 3/8" backset. **Deadlocks on 2'8" 6-panel Embossed Doors with half-glass lites must have a 2 3/8" backset and a 2" rose. FIGURE 1641 Excerpt from a page of a door catalog. Courtesy Ceco Entry Systems, a United Dominion Company. actual dimensions, such as 2'–8" × 6'–8". Metric sizes are given in millimeters (mm) and vary as discussed throughout this chapter. This simplified method of identification is better suited for development housing in which the manufacturer of doors, windows, and other items is not specified in the plans. These details are included in a description of materials or specification sheet for each individual house. The principal reason for using this system is to reduce drafting time by omitting schedules. The building contractor may be required to submit alternative specifications to the client so actual items are clarified. When you are preparing a set of residential plans, give specific details about doors and windows regarding standard size, material, type of finish, energy efficiency, and style. This information is available through vendors’ specifications. As an architectural drafter, you should get copies of vendors’ specifications from manufacturers that have products available in your local area. Figure 16-41 is a typical page from a door catalog that shows styles and available sizes. Figure 16-42 is a page from a window catalog that describes the sizes of a particular product. Notice that specific information is given for the rough opening (framing size), finish size, and amount of glass. Vendors’ catalogs also provide construction details and actual specifications for each product, as shown in Figure 16-43. FIGURE 1642 Excerpt from a page of a window catalog. Courtesy Pella Corporation. FIGURE 1643 Vendor catalog detail. Courtesy Pella Corporation. 330 Architectural Drafting and Design CADD APPLICATIONS U.S. National CAD Standard for Schedules The U.S. National CAD Standard recommends schedules contain the parts shown in Figure 16-44 and described as follows: Heading—The heading identifies the main subject or title of the schedule. Mark Column—The first column on the left is the mark column. The mark is the same as the key and can use the same text, number, or symbol format described earlier. Two mark columns can be used for additional identification in large or wide schedules. Item Description Column—This column provides the name or identification of each item in the schedule. Distinguishing Feature Column—Distinguishing features are characteristics that describe the items found in the schedule. There can be more than one distinguishing feature column depending on the complexity of the schedule. Notes Column—This column is usually found on the right side of the schedule and provides remarks, and unique or special descriptions about items in the schedule. A note can be descriptive words, complete sentences, or key letters or numbers referring to or FIGURE 1644 Schedule components recommended by the U.S. National CAD Standard. cross-referencing general notes on the drawings or in specifications. It is often best to use the key letter or number method to reference the notes to general notes or specifications in order to save space on the schedules. Schedules can be as simple or complex as needed. The example shown in Figure 16-44 is a basic schedule FIGURE 1645 The WALLS column is expanded to identify the required finish on the north (N), east (E), south (S), and west (W) walls. The letters in the columns below refer to separate notes or specifications describing the specific finish requirements. FIGURE 1646 Schedules can be expanded further when additional information needs to be provided. The N, E, S, and W columns expand to include material (MATL), finish (FIN), and color (CLR). The codes provided under each sub-identifier are correlated with the Material Key, Finish Key, and Color Key. Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols 331 CADD APPLICATIONS format with single-column identifiers. You can expand one or more columns as needed. For example, the WALLS column in Figure 16-45 is expanded to identify the required finish on the north (N), east (E), south (S), and west (W) walls. The letters in the columns below refer to separate notes or specifications describing the specific finish requirements. Schedules can be expanded further when additional information needs to be provided. Figure 16-46 shows the N, E, S, and W columns expanded to include material (MATL), finish (FIN), and color (CLR). The codes provided under each sub-identifier are correlated with the Material Key, Finish Key, and Color Key shown in Figure 16-46. USING CADD TO GENERATE SCHEDULES The traditional method of creating CADD schedules included the drafting of line work to create the schedule grids, and using text commands to manually place text within grid boxes to create the schedule of information. This process is a tedious drafting task that creates a schedule that must be manually coordinated, checked, and updated as the project design is developed and modified. Other methods of CADD schedule creation include the use of spreadsheet software such as Microsoft Excel. Schedules can be formatted with the graphics and formulas within the spreadsheet program then imported into the CADD application where they become part of the construction documents. This process also requires the manual coordination and management of the information within the schedule to ensure that the information is correct on the final documents. Advanced CADD applications use object-oriented CADD, which automates the task of schedule creation. Object-oriented CADD refers to the CADD applications’ ability to create real-world building objects within a building model. From these “real-world” objects, information can be obtained by querying the objects, thus pulling out relative information and adding it dynamically into a schedule format as shown in Figure 16-47. This automatic method of schedule creation is seamless in the development of information, and provides accurate information. For example, if doors are added to a CADD building model, any information about those doors such as the door type, width, height, and material can be queried by the schedule and incorporated into the schedule table. Because of objectoriented CADD, any changes made to the doors, or the addition or deletion of a door, is automatically tracked by the schedule, constantly providing up-to-date, accurate information about the design. ■ FIGURE 1647 Advanced CADD applications use object-oriented CADD, making the creation of a schedule automatic. Information can be obtained by querying real-world objects, thus pulling out relative information and adding it dynamically into a schedule format. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN. 332 Architectural Drafting and Design CABINETS, FIXTURES, AND APPLIANCES ON FLOOR PLANS LAZY SUSAN SINK WITH GARBAGE DISPOSAL RANGE RANGE DW RANGE DW PARALLEL LINES UPPER CABINETS HATCH LINES UPPER CABINETS FIGURE 1649 Alternative floor plan symbols for upper cabinets. 5-SHELVES PICTORIAL BRM DISHWASHER REFR OBJECT LINE UPPER CABINETS UPPER CABINETS In conjunction with kitchen cabinets, locate fixtures such as sinks, butcher-block cutting board countertops, lighting, and appliances such as the range, refrigerator, dishwasher, trash compactor, and garbage disposal. Figure 16-48 shows the floor plan view of kitchen cabinets, fixtures, and appliances. The upper cabinets are generally shown with hidden (dashed) lines. However, this practice can vary between architectural offices. Some offices show upper cabinets using a solid line, some use a series of parallel lines, and some hatch the area where the upper cabinets are located. Each of these options is shown in Figure 16-49. This textbook prefers using the hidden line to represent upper cabinets. The range should have a hood with a light and fan. You should note how the fan vents. Some ranges do not require a hood because they vent through the floor or wall. Vent direction should be specified on the plan. Some homes have a range cooktop with a built-in oven or an oven and microwave unit. There are many options available in kitchen designing. The width of the range and refrigerator can vary between 30" and 54". Decide on the size you want from a vendor’s catalog. Label the garbage disposal with a note or with the abbreviation GD. Houses with septic tanks should review DW RANGE PREFERRED HIDDEN LINE UPPER CABINETS Kitchen Floor Plans L.S. DW DW RANGE Cabinets are found in kitchens, baths, dressing areas, wardrobe closets, utility rooms, bars, and workshops. Specialized cabinets such as desks or built-in dressers can be found in bedrooms, kitchens, offices, and dens. In general, the cabinets drawn on the floor plans are built-in units that are permanent. UPPER CABINETS PANTRY W/ 5-SHELVES UPPER CABINETS BASE CABINETS RANGE WITH OVEN L.S. REFRIGERATOR DASHED LINES WHEN NOT A BUILT-IN UNIT OPTIONAL LAZY SUSAN FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION FIGURE 1648 Kitchen cabinets, fixtures, and appliances. FIGURE 1650 Small kitchen pantry. Kitchen pantries can also be big enough to walk into with a standard swing interior door. Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols 333 manufacturer specifications to determine if a garbage disposal is acceptable. Pantries are popular and can be drawn as shown in Figure 16-50. A pantry can also be designed to be part broom closet and part shelves for storage, or it can be large enough to walk into. The size depends on available space and the needs of the home owner. Figure 16-51 shows a typical floor plan representation and cabinet sizes for a kitchen layout. mirror above. Bathroom sinks can be round, oval, rectangular, or other fashion shapes and designs, and they are available in a variety of materials and sizes. Confirm the desired sink specifications from manufacturer catalogs. The shower can be smaller or larger than the one shown in Figure 16-52, depending on the manufacturer. Verify the size for a prefabricated shower unit during the design process. Custom showers, built on the job, can be any size or design. They are usually lined with tile, marble, or other materials. The common size of a prefabricated tub is 30" × 60", but larger and smaller ones are available. A large variety of tub shapes and sizes are available from different manufacturers. Figure 16-53 shows a variety of products that are available for use when something special is required in a bathroom design. Verify the availability of products and manufacturer specifications as you design and draw the floor plan. Figure 16-54 shows the floor plan representation of a 60" × 72" raised bathtub in a NOTE: The Manual of Acts and Relevant Regulations, published for the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), specifies dimensions and design for people with disabilities. Bathroom Floor Plans Bathroom cabinets and fixtures are shown in several typical floor plan layouts in Figure 16-52. The vanity can be any length, depending on the space available. The term vanity, used in an architectural application, is generally a bathroom cabinet containing a sink with a VERIFY AVAILABLE SIZES DOUBLE SINK 32" X 21" 32" 800mm TC GD 3" 15" RECOMMENDED 375 MINIMUM mm 24" 600mm LAZY SUSAN 20" - 30"Ø LS FOOD BAR, HEIGHT: 30" BAR CHAIR 36" TO 42" BAR STOOLS DW 4'-6" LUMINATED LIGHT PANEL. SEE ELECTRICAL PLAN. DISHWASHER 12" 300mm UPPER CABINETS 24" 600mm TRASH COMPACTOR COOKTOP WITH HOOD OR FLOOR EXHAUST FAN FROM 30" TO 48" WIDE, VENT ALL FANS TO OUTSIDE 300mm VERIFY SIZES AVAILABLE 30" 760mm 12" REFR PANTRY BROOM PANTRY VARIABLE SIZE 12" (300mm) MIN 3" (75mm) INCREMENTS 27" 675mm 36" 900mm 30" 750mm BASE CABINETS REFRIGERATOR 36" WIDE MIN. 900mm 12" 300 mm 18" 450mm PROVIDE 36" (900mm) MIN CLEARANCE TO ISLANDS LINE OF SOFFIT 24" 600mm DOUBLE OVEN OR MICRO OVER OVEN VERIFY FIXTURE AND APPLIANCE DIMENSIONS WITH PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS. VERIFY DESIGN AND DIMENSIONS FOR DISABLED ACCESS WITH THE MANUAL OF ACTS AND RELEVANT REGULATIONS FOR THE AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT. FIGURE 1651 Standard sizes of kitchen cabinets, fixtures, and appliances. BUILT-IN OR FREESTANDING RANGE AND OVEN WITH HOOD AND FAN M.C. MIRRORS KNEE SPACE 4' X 30" HIGH COUNT. 6' X 3' FIBERGL. SPA BENCH S&P LINEN WARDROBE SEAT S & DBL. POLE 24" X 48" TEMP. FLAT GLASS SKYLIGHT STEP 5' X 42" CER. TILE SHOWER OVER 1/2" W.P. GYP. BD. W/3 SHOWER HEADS MEDICINE CABINET SYMBOL 8" STEPS Architectural Drafting and Design UP - 2 334 S&P FULLY EQUIPPED BATHROOM WITH COMPARTMENTALIZED WATER CLOSET, TUB AND SHOWER, DOUBLE VANITY, BENCH, AND LINEN CLOSET 6Ø" X 72" WHIRLPOOL FIGURE 1654 Raised bathtub and solarium. SMALL BATH WITH SHOWER SMALL BATH WITH TUB OR TUB-SHOWER COMBINATION SMALL BATH OR POWDER ROOM 18"Ø OR OVAL SINK STANDARD TOILET WATER CLOSET SYMBOL STANDARD SHOWER SYMBOL 36" 36" VANITY 22" DEEP STANDARD TUB SYMBOL 5'–0" 2'–8" solarium. Often, due to cost considerations, the space available for bathrooms is minimal. Figure 16-55 shows some minimum sizes to consider. The Manual of Acts and Relevant Regulations, published for the ADA, specifies design and dimensions for people with disabilities. For example, wheelchair access requires up to 60" (1524 mm) minimum width, depending on the design used. TYPICAL BATHROOM Utility Room Floor Plans FIGURE 1652 Floor plan symbols for layout of bathroom cabinets and fixtures. FIGURE 1653 Unique bathroom products. Courtesy Kohler Co. The utility room can be a very important room in the home, and its placement should be based on the family’s needs. The utility room is also called a laundry room, and the location is often close to bedrooms where most of the laundry items are located. The design location of the utility room was discussed in Chapter 10. The symbols for the clothes washer, dryer, and laundry tray are shown in Figure 16-56. The symbols for clothes washers and dryers are drawn with dashed lines if these items are not part of the construction contract. The symbols for clothes washers and dryers are generally drawn with solid lines if they are part of the construction contract and included with the completed home. Confirm the products included with the completed home by referring to the description of materials or the specifications. Laundry utilities can be placed in a closet when only minimum space is available, as shown in Figure 16-57. Stacked washer and dryer products are available that occupy a smaller space when design square footage is limited. Ironing Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols WATER CLOSET (TOILET) 5' MIN 1524mm 18" MIN 458mm 18" MIN 458mm BIDET 21" MIN 534mm 24" MIN 610mm 21" MIN 534mm 15" MIN 381mm 30" MIN 762mm 24" MIN 610mm 30" MIN 762mm 335 URINAL TOILET BIDET COMBINATION 18" MIN BATHTUB 24" MIN 610mm PEDESTAL SINK SINK 30" MIN 762mm 30" MIN 534mm 21" MIN 534mm 30" 762mm Recommended 30" MIN 762mm 458mm POWDER ROOM HALF BATH METRIC DIMENSIONS ARE PROVIDED FOR DESIGN REFERENCE. VERIFY FIXTURE SIZES WITH PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS. VERIFY DESIGN AND DIMENSIONS FOR DISABLED ACCESS WITH THE MANUAL OF ACTS AND RELEVANT REGULATIONS FOR THE AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT AND LOCAL CODE REQUIREMENTS. FIGURE 1655 Minimum bath spaces. All dimensions are IRC minimums. The furnace and water heater are sometimes placed together in a location central to the house. They can be placed in a closet, as shown in Figure 16-59. These 5'-6" MIN. SHELF D D W FIGURE 1656 Washer, dryer, and laundry tray. W 36" CLEAR MIN. boards can be built into the laundry room cabinets, into the wall, or attached to the wall surface, as shown in Figure 16-58. Provide a note to the electrician if power is required to the unit, or provide an adjacent electrical outlet. Electrical plans are described in Chapter 19. FIGURE 1657 Minimum washer and dryer space. 336 Architectural Drafting and Design WALL ROD A SECTION A FIGURE 1658 Ironing boards. 3" MORE OR LESS DEPENDING ON JAMB DETAIL 5'-0"-6'-0" SURFACE MOUNT BUILT-IN 1524-1828mm SHELF & ROD W/ CENTER SUPPORT 24" MIN. 600mm SHELF W/H RECOMMENDED CONFIRM WITH MANUFACTURER SPECIFICATIONS AND CODES FURN. 3Ø KW 36" FIGURE 1660 Standard wardrobe closet and a walk-in wardrobe. PROVIDE 6" CLEARANCE ALL AROUND FIGURE 1659 Furnace and water heater. utilities can also be placed in a separate room, in the basement, or in the garage. companies that customize the wardrobe closet to meet the specific needs of family members. Laundry Chutes on Floor Plans When a laundry room is below the bedroom area, provide a chute from a convenient area near the bedrooms through the ceiling and into a cabinet directly in the laundry room. The cabinet should be above or next to the clothes washer. Figure 16-61 shows a laundry chute noted in the floor plan. Wardrobes and Closets on Floor Plans Wardrobes and closets, used for clothes and storage, can be utilitarian in nature, or they can be large walk-in areas with custom cabinets and a variety of functional areas for garments and shoes. Bedroom closets should be labeled CLOSET or WARDROBE. Other closets are labeled to describe their use, such as ENTRY CLOSET, LINEN CLOSET, or BROOM CLOSET. Wardrobe or guest closets should be provided with a shelf and pole. The shelf and pole can be drawn with a thin line to represent the shelf and a center line to show the pole, as in Figure 16-60. Some drafters use two dashed lines to symbolize the shelf and pole. The pole is also referred to as a rod. The pole is placed directly below the shelf with enough space to pass the hanger through easily. The height of the shelf can vary, depending on the function of the closet. For example, a shelf height of 5'−0" (1500 mm) is fine for shirts, pants, and dresses. A shelf height of 6'−0" (1800 mm) is preferred for long gowns. Wardrobe closets designed for children have shelf and rods at lower heights that vary depending on the children’s ages. Some wardrobe closets are designed with dual shelf-and-rod combinations or a shelf and rod over a set of drawers. Closet packages are available from LAUNDRY CHUTE TO UTILITY BELOW-LINE W/26 GA. METAL LAUNDRY CHUTE FROM CABINET ABOVE W FIGURE 1661 Laundry chute. D Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols COMMON SIZES OF ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES Generally, all walls and edges of masonry are thick lines, and all other lines are thin. Confirm the preferred practice with your office or instructional standards. The refrigerator, water heater, washer and dryer, dishwasher, trash compactor, built-in range/oven, and upper cabinets can be drawn with hidden lines or solid thin lines, depending on the specific office practice. Features such as the refrigerator, water heater, washer and dryer, dishwasher, trash compactor, and built-in range/oven can be drawn with thin solid lines when they are part of the construction contract and included in the finished home. Confirm this with the description of materials or specifications. Closet poles are 12" (300 mm) from the back wall and are usually drawn using center lines. Closet shelves are usually solid lines 15" (380 mm) from the back wall. The following features and product dimensions are based on common sizes and recommended minimums. Dimensions can vary depending on space available and manufacturer specifications. Establish the final design on the basis of the client’s needs and budget. Always determine the exact dimensions during the design process by using manufacturer specifications, and then confirm during construction on the basis of the actual product. Metric values are given where appropriate. Metric values are not provided for products that vary depending on the manufacturer. Room Component Dimensions ● Exterior heated walls: 6" manual drafting or exact dimensions with CADD (see Figure 16-3). ● Exterior unheated walls (garage/shop): 4" manual drafting or exact dimensions with CADD (see Figure 16-3). ● Interior walls and partitions: 4" manual drafting or exact dimensions with CADD (see Figure 16-3). ● Interior plumbing below upper-floor water closet: 6" manual drafting or exact dimensions with CADD (see Figure 16-3). ● Hallways: 36" (900 mm) minimum clearance. ● Entry hallways: 42" to 60" (1060 to 1500 mm) recommended minimum. ● Bedroom closets: 24" (600 mm) minimum depth; 48" (1200 mm) minimum width. ● Linen closets: 14" to 24" (350 to 600 mm) deep (not over 30" [760 mm]). 337 ● Base cabinets: 24" (600 mm) deep; 15" to 18" (380 to 450 mm) deep bar; 24" (600 mm) minimum deep island with 12" (300 mm) minimum at each side of cooktop; 36" (900 mm) minimum from island to adjacent cabinet for passage, 48" (1200 mm) is better on sides with an appliance. ● Upper cabinets: 12" (300 mm) deep. ● Washer/dryer space: 36" (900 mm) deep; 5'−6" (1675 mm) minimum width. ● Stairways: 36" (900 mm) minimum width; 10 1/2" to 12" (260 to 300 mm) tread. See examples later in this chapter. ● Fireplace: See examples later in this chapter. Plumbing Fixture Dimensions Kitchen sink: double, 32" × 21"; triple, 42" × 21". Confirm manufacturer style and specifications. ● Vegetable sink and/or bar sink: 16" × 16" or 16" × 21". Confirm manufacturer style and specifications. ● Laundry sink: 21" × 21". Confirm manufacturer style and specifications. ● Bathroom sink: 19" × 16", oval. Provide 9" from edge to wall and about 12" (300 mm) minimum between two sinks; 36" (900 mm) minimum width. Other sink shapes and styles are available. Confirm manufacturer style and specifications. ● Water closet space: 30" (760 mm) minimum width; 24" (600 mm) clearance in front. A water closet is a toilet or a room equipped with a toilet. The abbreviation WC can be used. ● Tub: 32" × 60" or 32" × 72". Larger prefabricated tubs and tub–shower combinations are available. Confirm manufacturer style and specifications for prefabricated tubs and tub–shower combinations. ● Shower: 36" square; 42" square; or combinations of 36", 42", 48", and 60" for prefabricated showers. A custom ceramic tile or marble shower can have any desired specifications. Confirm manufacturer style and specifications for prefabricated showers. ● Washer and dryer: 2'−4" square each (approximately). ● Appliance Dimensions ● Forced-air furnace equipment: Gas, 18" square minimum with 6" space all around. The furnace cannot go under stairs. Electric, 24" × 30" with same space requirements as gas. Always confirm exact size and installation specifications with manufacturer. 338 ● Water heater: Gas, 18" to 22" diameter. The gas water heater cannot go under stairs. Always confirm exact size and installation specifications with manufacturer. ● Refrigerator: 36" wide space, and approximately 27" deep. Provide 4" from wall, and 1" from adjacent base cabinet. Larger refrigerators are common and can be built into the cabinetry. Confirm manufacturer style and specifications. ● Stove and cooktop: 30" × 21" deep. Other sizes and styles are available. Confirm manufacturer style and specifications. ● Built-in oven: 27" × 24" deep. Other sizes and styles are available. Confirm manufacturer style and specifications. ● Dishwasher: 24" × 24". Place the dishwasher near the kitchen sink for precleaning and near upper cabinet for ease of putting away dishes. ● Trash compactor: 15" × 24" deep. Place the trash compactor near the kitchen sink, and away from the stove. Other sizes and styles are available. Confirm manufacturer style and specifications. ● Broom closet and pantry: 12" (300 mm) minimum × 24" (600 mm) deep; width increasing by 3" increments. ● Desk: 30" × 24" (760 × 600 mm) deep (minimum); out of main work triangle. ● Built-in vacuum: 24" to 30" diameter. Door Dimensions Entry: 36" × 6'−8"; 42" × 8'. ● Sliders or French: 5', 6', 8' (double); 9', 10' (triple); 12' (four-panel). ● Garage, utility, kitchen, and bedrooms on custom houses: 2'−8", 2'−10", or 3'−0". ● Bedrooms: 2'−6" or 2'−8". ● Closets and wardrobes: 2'−4", 2'−6", 2'−8", 2'−10", 3'−0", 4'−0", 5'−0", 6'−0", 7'−0", 8'−0", 9'−0", 10'−0", 11'−0", or 12'−0" depending on the size of the closet or wardrobe and the type of door used. ● Bathrooms: 2'−4" or 2'−6". ● Garage car door: 8' × 7', 9' × 8', 16' × 7', or 18 × 7'. ● Garage people door: 2'−8", 2'−10", or 3'−0". ● Window Styles and Dimensions The following factors should be considered because they can influence window sizes: Architectural Drafting and Design ● Architectural style. For example, contemporary style often uses large fixed windows, but traditional style often uses smaller double-hung or casement windows. ● Amount of light desired. ● Desired appearance. For example, compare the look of one 8' to 10' wide window versus four to six 2' wide windows. ● Type of window. For example, aluminum-frame windows are commonly manufactured in nominal even measurements such as 12", 24", 36", and 48" modules. Wood-frame window dimensions vary, depending on the manufacturer. Also, sliding and fixed windows are often sized differently from casement and double-hung windows. Dimensions of these types of windows must be confirmed and based on the manufacturer’s specifications. ● Window location and function. For example, bedroom windows require emergency egress as explained in Chapter 9. When the kitchen window is placed in a cabinet wall, its height must be selected to maintain the window at or above the base cabinet height. ❍ Living, family: 8' to 10' suggested common width. ❍ Dining, den: 6' to 8' suggested common width. ❍ Bedrooms: 4' to 6' suggested common width. ❍ Kitchens: 3' to 5' suggested common width. ❍ Bathrooms: 2' to 3' suggested common width. ❍ Sliding: 4', 5', 6', 8', 10', or 12' suggested common width.. ❍ Single-hung: 24", 30", 36", or 42". Confirm manufacturer sizes and specifications. ❍ Casement: Same as sliding. Confirm manufacturer sizes and specifications. ❍ Fixed and awning: 24", 30", 36", 42", or 48". ❍ Fixed and sliding: 24", 30", 36", 42", or 48". ❍ Fixed picture: 4', 5', 6', or 8' suggested common width. ❍ Bay: 8' to 10' total; sides, 18" to 24" wide, with 30° to 45º sides. Bay and bow windows are generally custom and can be designed to suit specific architectural applications. NOTE: This is a review of code requirements described in Chapter 9 of this textbook. ACCESSIBLE ROUTES The exterior access, or front door, cannot be located in a bedroom. At least one route is required to connect all spaces that are part of the dwelling unit. If only one route Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols is provided, it cannot pass through a bathroom, closet, or similar space. The access route is required to have a minimum width of 36" (914 mm) except at doors. Vertical changes in floor height cannot exceed 1/4" (6.4 mm). Changes in floor level up to 1/2" (13 mm) are allowed if a bevel with a slope not exceeding 1:2 is provided. Ramps cannot have a slope greater than 1:20. Floor surfaces of a turning space are allowed to have a slope no steeper than 1:48. MEANS OF EGRESS Residences are required to have a clear passage from all levels of the home to a door that leads directly to the outside, without requiring travel through a garage. ACCESS DOORS Each residence must have a minimum of one door that is at least 32" (813 mm) wide measured between the face of the door when open 90° and the stop. The minimum clear height of the door opening must be 78" (1981 mm) from the top of the threshold to the bottom of the stop. The designer can determine all other door sizes based on personal preferences or the client’s needs. The IRC allows the main entry door to be 32" (813 mm) wide, but common practice is to provide a 36" (900 mm) or larger door for an inviting entrance. 339 A shower or tub equipped with a shower head must also have a minimum ceiling height of 6'–8" (2032 mm) above a minimum area of 30" × 30" (762 × 762 mm) at the shower head. FLOOR PLAN MATERIALS Finish materials used in construction can be identified on the floor plan with notes, characteristic symbols, or key symbols that relate to a finish material schedule. The key symbol is also placed on the finish schedule next to the identification of the type of finish needed at the given location on the floor plan. Finish schedules can also be set up on a roomby-room basis. When flooring finish is identified, the easiest method is to label the material directly under room designation as shown in Figure 16-62. Other methods include using representative material symbols and a note to describe the finish materials as shown in Figure 16-63. CARPET VINYL TILE FIGURE 1662 Room labels with floor finish material noted. EMERGENCY EGRESS OPENINGS Windows are a major consideration in designing exits. Emergency egress is required in basements, habitable attics, and every sleeping room. When basements contain one or more sleeping rooms, emergency egress and rescue openings are required to be in each sleeping room. Escape can be made through a door or window that opens directly into a public street, alley, yard, or exit court. The emergency escape must be operable from the inside without the use of any keys or tools. The sill of all emergency escape bedroom windows must be within 44" (1118 mm) of the floor. Windows used for emergency egress must have a minimum net clear area of 5.7 sq ft (0.530 m2). Grade floor opening size can be reduced to 5.0 sq ft (0.465 m2). The net clear opening area must have a minimum width of 20" (508 mm) and a minimum height of 24" (559 mm). SLATE TILE BATHROOM REQUIREMENTS A distance of 21" (533 mm) is required in front of a toilet to any obstruction. A minimum clearance of 21" (533 mm) is also required in front of a bathroom sink to any obstruction, and a minimum distance of 24" (610 mm) is required in front of a shower. These sizes can often affect the layout of a small bathroom, but are rarely a problem in a custom home. FIGURE 1663 Finish material symbols. 340 Architectural Drafting and Design CADD APPLICATIONS Placing Material Symbols with CADD Floor plans, sections, elevations, and interior elevations often include the description of finish materials to indicate the type of material used within the building. In Figure 16-64, material patterns are displayed in the floor plan to represent wood decking, wood flooring, floor tile, and counter tile. CADD programs include tools to show these finish materials directly on a CADD drawing. These material tools are often referred to as Hatch or Fill Patterns. Material patterns are available in a variety of symbolic patterns, which can be applied to plan, section, and elevation drawings. Many additional patterns can also be found on the Internet or from manufacturer Web sites for use in your CADD program. ■ FIGURE 1664 A CADD drawing of a floor plan with material finishes delineated to represent wood decking, wood flooring, floor tile, and counter tile. Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols 341 calculation. The calculations can be soft or hard conversion. A soft metric conversion is the preferred metric construction standard that rounds off dimensions to convenient metric modules. For example, stairs 36" wide are 900 mm when soft conversion is used. Inches are converted to millimeters with the formula 25.4 × inches = mm. So 25.4 × 36" = 914.4 mm. This is rounded off using soft conversion to 900 mm, because 900 is an even metric module that is commonly used in construction. A hard metric conversion is calculated close to or exactly the same as the inch equivalent. A hard conversion of 36" is 25.4 × 36" = 914.4, and is rounded to 914 mm. This formula can be used in a situation where the code requires a guardrail 36" high, because 914 mm is safely close to 36". The design of a multistory home is often made complex by the need to plan stairs. Figure 16-65 shows several common flights of stairs. Stairs should be conveniently located for easy access. Stair components and construction are shown in plan view and sectional view in Figure 16-66. Review Chapter 9 for stair code Structural Materials on Floor Plans Structural materials are identified on floor plans with notes and symbols or on framing plans. This is discussed in detail in Chapter 32. STAIR PLANNING AND FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION This section covers the design and drafting of the floor plan representation of stairs. The discussion gives you basic information about stair design and codes and shows you different types of stairs and how they are drawn. Review Chapter 9 for additional code requirements. You will also be able to make calculations for placement of stairs on the floor plan. When it is time for you to learn about drawing stair sections and details, Chapter 39 provides you with complete information on stair construction and layout. Metric dimensions are given for design reference. Metric values vary, depending on the method of LANDING UP UP UP TREADS RISER STRAIGHT FLIGHT OR STRAIGHT PLATFORM U-SHAPE UP 6" MIN UP UP WINDERS L-SHAPE FIGURE 1665 Stair types. SPIRAL 342 Architectural Drafting and Design 34" HIGH HANDRAIL DN 14R 34" HIGH HANDRAIL 36" HIGH GUARDRAIL UPPER FLOOR PLAN 34" HIGH HANDRAIL STORAGE CLOSET UP 14R 34" HIGH HANDRAIL 5/8" TYPE 'X' GYPSUM AT ALL USABLE STORAGE LOWER FLOOR PLAN STAIRWELL OPENING RISER RISERS PLATE SHOE TREAD SOLID BLOCK FLOOR JOIST HEADER NAILER 5/8" TYPE 'X' GYPSUM HEADER STUDS SILL ANGLE 30˚-35˚ 11'-4 1/2" TOTAL RUN STAIR SECTION A SOLID BLOCK TOP PLATES STRINGERS 7 3/4" 7" MIN 8 1/4" MAX. B 34" MIN. 38" MAX. OF E N I L 10 1/2" 9" MIN 12" MAX NOSING IL 8'- 11 5/8" TOTAL RISE TREAD N HA A DR 8'- 1 1/8" RISER RUN 6'-8" MIN. HEADER NOTE: THE DIMENSIONS PROVIDED IN THIS EXAMPLE ARE FOR THE STAIR DESIGNED FOR THE HOUSE DISPLAYED THROUGHOUT THIS TEXT. MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM DIMENSIONS ARE ALSO GIVEN FOR REFERENCE WHERE APPROPRIATE. GENERAL CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL NAMES ARE GIVEN HERE FOR REFERENCE ONLY. ACTUAL SIZES AND SPECIFICATIONS ARE GIVEN IN CHAPTER 39 “STAIR CONSTRUCTION AND LAYOUT.” FIGURE 1666 Stair floor plan representations and stair cross section with stair components and minimum requirements labeled. This stair is also the stair design that is used in the sample architectural design displayed throughout this textbook. (A) Full stair section. (B) Partial section with the tread and riser terminology. Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols requirements. Properly designed stairs have several important characteristics, such as the following: ● Minimum stair width is 36" (900 mm) but more, such as 48" to 60" (1200 to 1500 mm), is preferred if space is available. ● Stair tread depth should be 10" to 12" (250 to 300 mm) with 10" (254 mm) minimum. ● Individual risers can range between 6" and 9" (150 and 220 mm) in height. Risers should not vary more than 3/8" (10 mm). A comfortable riser height is 7 1/4". ● The stair angle should be between 30° and 35° when measured from the floor (see Figure 16-66). ● Landings at the top and bottom of stairs should be at least equal in depth to the width of the stairs. ● A clear height of 6'–8" is the minimum amount of headroom required for the length of the stairs. A height of 7'–0" is preferred. ● The stairs shall have a handrail that measures between 34" and 38" (860 and 965 mm) above the nosing, as shown in Figure 16-66. ● Guardrails at landings above stairs, at balconies, at lofts, or at any area above another floor shall be at least 36" (914 mm) high above the floor and have openings no greater than 4" (102 mm). NOTE: Stair Design Calculations The stair design shown in Figure 16-66 meets code requirements with 7 3/4" rise and 10 1/2" run. This is the same stair used in the model house in the chapters throughout this textbook. In addition to minimum and maximum code requirements, other stair design criteria are used by architectural professionals. These stair design formulas can be used as a guide to creating ideal stairs. The actual stair design depends on the available space and must be within minimum and maximum code requirements. As an architectural designer, you need to carefully balance the available space with the minimum and maximum stair design requirements. This balance is often difficult to accomplish. A sample stair design formula is 2R + T = 24" to 25" where R = riser dimension and T = tread dimension, without nosing. If the stair shown in Figure 16-66 has 7 3/4" risers and 10 1/2" treads, the formula 2 × 7 3/4" + 10 1/2" = 26" puts this stair design over the 25" recommended maximum. This is acceptable because it is within code requirements, but stairs designed with risers closer to 7 1/4" are more comfortable. Another stair design formula is R + T = 17" to 17 1/2". The stair design in Figure 16-66 is 7 3/4" + 10 1/2" = 18 1/4". This also is beyond the acceptable boundaries recommended by this formula, but inside the code requirements. 343 An additional formula can be used to check the acceptability of the stair design. This formula is R × T = 70" to 75". The stair in Figure 16-66 is 7 3/4" × 10 1/2" = 81 3/8", which is also beyond the guidelines recommended by the formula. The example stair meets code requirements but is not an ideal stair design. When space conditions cause you to design a stair that is less than perfect, then you need to decide if additional space should be designed into the building to help create better stairs. Sometimes this is possible, but in many cases the economics force you to limit square footage. These are issues that should be discussed with your clients if the home is a custom design. Even if you end up designing less than perfect stairs, you must be sure to be within the code requirements. Review Chapter 9 for code requirements. A final check of stair design can be found when you draw the stair section after studying Chapter 39. Stair characteristics, stair calculation, construction, and drawing stair sections are discussed in Chapter 39. Handrails are placed at a blank wall along a flight of stairs to be used for support. Handrails should run the entire length of the stairs, even though the stairs are enclosed between two walls. Stairs with more than three risers require handrails. Handrails should be between 34" and 38" (860 and 965 mm) high above the nosing with 34" preferred. Guardrails are placed where there is no protective wall. They serve the dual purpose of protecting people from falling off the edge of the stairs and providing a rail for support. Stairwells, or stair openings in the floor, should be enclosed with strong railings extending 6" (150 mm) past the edge of the first step. Guardrails should be 36" (915 mm) high from the floor and have no opening over 4" (100 mm) between rails. Stairs on Floor Plans Stairs are shown on floor plans by the width of the tread, the direction and number of risers, and the lengths of handrails or guardrails. Abbreviations used are DN (down), UP (up), and R (risers). A note of 14R means there are 14 risers in the flight of stairs. Stair layouts depend on the amount of space available, comfort, and code requirements. Use the following suggestions as you create the floor plan stair layout: ● There is always one less run than rise, where the run is the horizontal distance of a set of steps or the measurement describing the depth of one step, and the rise is the amount of vertical distance between one tread and another (see Figure 16-66). ● The average set of stairs has 14 to 15 risers between two floors. 344 Architectural Drafting and Design ● To calculate the length of stairs, multiply the length of a tread by the number of runs. For example, stairs with 14 risers have 13 runs. If each individual run is 10" (254 mm), then 10" × 13R = 130" (254 × 13R = 3302 mm), or 10'−10" is the total run. ● If you use the stairs in Figure 16-66 as an example, the total run is 11'−4 1/2" (346.1 mm). This is calculated as: 13R × 10 1/2" = 11'−4 1/2" (13R × 266.7 = 3467.1 mm). ● Keep in mind that landings take up more space, and they should be as deep as the stairs are wide. For example, if a 36" (900 mm) wide stairway must have a landing, the landing should measure 36" × 36" (900 × 900 mm) minimum. 36" Figure 16-67 shows a common straight stair layout with a wall on one side and a guardrail on the other side. Figure 16-68 shows a flight of stairs with guardrails all around at the top level and a handrail running down the stairs. Figure 16-69 shows stairs between two walls. Notice also that the stairs are drawn broken with a long break line at approximately midheight if you are looking at a stair that is rising or intersecting up and down stairs. If the stair is going down, as in Figure 16-67, the break line can be omitted and the stairs drawn the full extent. Figure 16-70 shows stacked stairs with one flight going up and the other down. This situation is common when access from the main floor to both the second floor and basement or second and third floors is designed for the same area. DN 14R 5/8" TYPE 'X' GYPSUM UNDER STAIRS @ ALL USABLE STORAGE DN 14R 34" HANDRAIL FIGURE 1669 Stairs between two walls. 34" HANDRAIL UP 14R DN 14R 34" HANDRAIL FIGURE 1670 Stairs up and down in the same area. Stairs with winders and spiral stairs can be used to conserve space. Winders are used to turn a corner instead of having a landing. Tapered winder treads must not be any smaller than 6" (150 mm). See Chapter 9 for minimum requirements. Spiral stairs and custom winding stairs can be manufactured in several designs. Figure 16-71 shows the plan view of winder and spiral stairs. A sunken or raised living room or family room is often a popular design feature. When a room is either 34" RAIL USED AS FIRE PROTECTION UNDER STAIRS 36" GUARDRAIL U FIGURE 1667 Stairs with a wall on one side and a guardrail on the other. 5/8" TYPE 'X' GYPSUM UNDER STAIRS @ ALL USABLE STORAGE P 15R 36" GUARDRAIL 34" HANDRAIL 36" MIN. RAIL FIGURE 1668 Stairs with guardrails all around. UP 14R SPIRAL STAIRS DN 14R 34" HANDRAIL STAIRS WITH WINDERS FIGURE 1671 Winder and spiral stairs. Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols 345 LIVING DINING DOWN STEPS 36" GUARDRAIL UP 2 1 STEP FIGURE 1672 Sunken or raised rooms. sunken or raised, there is at least one step into the room. The steps are noted with an arrow, as shown in Figure 16-72. The few steps up or down do not require a handrail unless the floor levels are more than 30" (760 mm) apart. The guardrail shown in Figure 16-72 is for decoration only in this case. The ADA specifies the use of a ramp for wheelchair access. The ramp should have a slope of 1:12 for 30" (762 mm) maximum rise and 30' (9 m) of horizontal run. HALLWAYS ON FLOOR PLANS Hallways in buildings are designed to provide access to various areas. Hallways can be long or short, depending on the area being accessed. The length and number of hallways should be kept to a minimum because they use up valuable living space. Sometimes hallways are a unique part of the design, such as an art gallery or a hallway with a sitting alcove, providing more than simple access to rooms. CADD APPLICATIONS Designing and Drawing Stairs with CADD Standard 2D CADD programs used to draft lines can be used in a floor plan stair layout. This can be done by drawing the riser lines, copying or offsetting the risers a specified tread depth distance, and then drawing the stair edges to quickly create a 2D stair. Many specialized CADD programs for creating buildings and architecture include stair-generation tools. On many of these tools, easy-to-use stair design routines allow the quick generation of straight, U-shaped, L-shaped, spiral, and custom stair designs. Often the use of parametric design tools allows you to enter design data for the stair such as: • • • • • • Floor-to-floor height. Tread depth. Riser height. Stair length. Railing type. Stringer specifications. The term parametric refers to “smart” relationships between the parts of the stair such as the treads, risers, floor-to-floor height, landing, stringers, and stair width. When the values of these stair parts are adjusted, the other parts work with or react to the value modifications and make changes automatically based on set parameters or rules. For example, based on design rules used in a parametric stair, a floor-to-floor value change causes the number of risers and treads to adjust. These design rules can be developed to match local building codes. Parametric stairs often give you the ability to create a 2D stair for plan view drawings, elevations, and sections, and 3D stairs for modeling and visualization views. Figure 16-73 provides an example of a parametric stair created in 2D plan view and automatically generated into the 3D model view stair. ■ 346 Architectural Drafting and Design CADD APPLICATIONS UP FIGURE 1673 Parametric stairs can be automatically drawn based on specifications that you provide. This figure provides an example of a parametric stair created in 2D plan view and automatically generated into the 3D model view stair. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN. Hallways should be 36" (900 mm) minimum width. Hallways in custom homes can be as wide as 48" to 60" (1200 to 1500 mm) depending on the available space and design requirements. Hallways leading from a grand foyer entrance can be wider, depending on the custom architectural design. Metric dimensions vary, depending on hard or soft conversion as previously discussed. FIREPLACES ON FLOOR PLANS Fireplaces are commonly constructed using masonry, but prefabricated fireplaces made of steel can be installed in a masonry or wood-frame structure. Masonry fireplaces are constructed of brick or stone and the firebox is constructed with fire brick. Fire brick is brick made of refractory ceramic material that resists high temperatures. The masonry fireplace floor plan representation uses section lines, also called hatch lines, placed at a 30º to 45º angle. Figure 16-74 shows common terminology associated with a masonry fireplace. The dimensions shown on the fireplace floor plan symbol in Figure 16-74 are recommended minimums. Figure 16-75 shows several typical fireplace floor plan representations. Common fireplace opening sizes in inches are shown in the following table: Opening Width Opening Height Unit Depth 36" 24" 22" 40" 27" 22" 48" 30" 25" 60" 33" 25" Steel Fireplaces Fireplace fireboxes made of steel are available from various manufacturers. The floor plan representation of a steel fireplace framed in masonry is shown in Figure 16-76. These prefabricated fireplaces are popular because of their increased efficiency. Some units add to 347 4'-8" TO 5'-4" 8" MIN. 15° MASONRY 36" 12" UNLINED 8" LINED Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols FIRE BRICK 4" 18" MIN FIGURE 1676 Manufactured firebox framed in masonry. SCREENED CLOSABLE VENT WITHIN 24" FLOOR LEVEL OR RAISED HEARTH 4" 4'-0" 12" 2'-0" 3'-0" FIGURE 1674 Single masonry common and minimum fireplace dimensions, not generally shown on the plan. SEE MFG INSTALLATION SPECIFICATIONS. VENT-FREE GAS FIREPLACE. NOTE MAY ALSO READ: DIRECT-VENT GAS, SELF-VENTING GAS, OR VENT-FREE GAS FIREPLACE FIGURE 1677 Manufactured firebox in wood frame. BACK-TO-BACK DOUBLE CORNER FIREBOX FIREPLACE STRUCTURE DIMENSION A OPENING SIZE IN INCHES DOUBLE FACED SEE-THROUGH THREE FACED SWEDISH FIGURE 1675 Floor plan representations of a typical masonry fireplace. their efficiency with fans that are used to circulate air around the firebox and into the room. There are also insulated fireplace units made of steel that can be used with wood-framed chimneys. These units are often referred to as zero-clearance fireplaces, where the insulated metal fireplace unit and flue can be placed next to or with a small air space from a woodframed structure. Verify building code clearances and vendor specifications before designing a home with a zero-clearance fireplace. The popularity of steel fireplaces has increased, due to their low construction cost compared to masonry fireplace and chimney construction (see Figure 16-77). Figure 16-78 shows some common sizes of available fireplace units. 28 32 36 40 48 60 FACE BRICK A HEARTH FIGURE 1678 Prefabricated fireplace opening sizes. Courtesy Heatilator, Inc. Direct-Vent, Self-Venting, and Vent-Free Gas Fireplaces Where environmental restrictions on wood-burning fireplaces exist, manufactured direct-vent, self-venting, and vent-free gas fireplaces are available for the architectural design. These fireplaces provide a gas fire around realistic-looking ceramic logs, without the mess and labor involved in burning wood. These systems are commonly designed with safety features such as control panels, thermostatic controls, and remote controls. These fireplaces do not affect indoor air quality, which makes them a good choice for energy-efficient construction. They are also economical, making them 348 Architectural Drafting and Design a consideration when the cost of a masonry fireplace is not feasible. Direct-vent fireplace models have a chimney that is vented through the roof or out the wall and extended above the roof exposed or in a framed enclosure. Direct-vent fireplaces are generally sealed-combustion heaters. The doors open only for maintenance. The exhaust gases exit through the center, and combustion air is drawn into the fireplace through the outer chamber. The air is heated in passages behind the metal firebox, and the room air does not come into contact with the flames. Heat radiates through the glass doors and is forced by convection or fans around the firebox and into the room. The self-venting units can be vented directly out the wall behind the fireplace. The vent-free fireplaces are installed without a flue. Any zero-clearance, wood-burning, direct-vent, self-venting, or vent-free gas fireplace must be designed, installed, operated, and maintained in strict compliance with manufacturer specifications and building and fire code specifications and regulations. Information about possible code restrictions and installation requirements should be established with local building and fire officials before specifying these on the design. Automatic switches might be specified to allow shut-off if the unit overheats. Improper installation can cause an explosion, carbon monoxide poisoning, or excessive condensation inside the building. Confirm the manufacturer specifications and provide the model number and other specific information next to the fireplace symbol on the floor plan or in a general note. The gas supply should also be shown with a symbol and a note, similar to the example in Figure 16-79. CLEANOUT ACCESS C.O. FIGURE 1680 Fireplace cleanout. Fireplace Cleanout Provide a cleanout when you can have easy access to the base of the fireplace. The cleanout provides a small door in the floor of the firebox that allows ashes to be dumped into a hollow cavity built into the fireplace below the floor. Access to the fireplace cavity to remove the stored ashes is provided from the basement or outside the house. Figure 16-80 shows a fireplace cleanout noted in the plan view. Wood Storage Fireplace wood can be stored near the fireplace. A special room or an area in the garage adjacent to the fireplace can be ideal for wood storage. A wood storage compartment built into the masonry next to a fireplace opening can also be provided for storing a small amount of wood. The floor plan representation of such a wood storage box is shown in Figure 16-81. Combustion Air Gas-Burning Fireplace Natural gas can be provided to the fireplace, either for starting the wood fire or for fuel to provide flames on artificial logs. The gas supply should be noted on the floor plan, as shown in Figure 16-79. Building codes require that combustion air be provided to the fireplace. Combustion air is outside air supplied in sufficient quantity for fuel combustion. The air is supplied through a screened duct that is built by masons from the outside into the fireplace combustion chamber. By providing outside air, this venting device prevents the fireplace from using the heated air from the GAS WOOD STORAGE 4 X 1Ø HDR 8" 14" RAISED HEARTH 12" HIGH HEARTH FIGURE 1679 Gas supply to fireplace. FIGURE 1681 Wood storage. 24"± Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols 349 room, thus maintaining indoor oxygen levels and keeping heated air from going up the chimney. Always confirm combustion air requirements and specifications with building codes. A note should be placed on the floor plan next to the fireplace that states the following: PROVIDE OUTSIDE COMBUSTION AIR TO WITHIN 24", or PROVIDE SCREENED CLOSABLE VENT TO OUTSIDE AIR WITHIN 24" OF FIREBOX. Built-In Masonry Barbecue When a home has a fireplace in a room next to the dining room, nook, or kitchen, the masonry structure can also incorporate a built-in barbecue. The floor plan representation for a barbecue is shown in Figure 16-82. A built-in barbecue can be purchased as a prefabricated unit that is set into the masonry structure surrounding the fireplace. There can be a gas or electric supply to the barbecue as a source of heat for cooking. As an alternative, the barbecue unit can be built into the exterior structure of a fireplace for outdoor cooking. The barbecue can also be installed separately from a fireplace and located in an outside cooking area. Multilevel Fireplaces In two- or three-story homes, it is common to have a fireplace structure that is constructed up through all levels with a chimney exiting at the roof. In this situation, a fireplace can be placed at each floor if the design is appropriate. The fireplace on the first floor is drawn similar to the example in Figure 16-74, except additional width is needed for the flues of all stacked fireplaces to extend to the top of the chimney. A flue is a heat-resistant, incombustible enclosed passageway in a chimney to carry combustion products from the fireplace. The flue lining within a chimney is made of square, rectangular, or round fire brick or fire clay products or round double- or triple-insulated steel for zero-clearance fireplaces. There must be a separate flue for each fireplace. This means that the fireplace structure and the chimney need to be sized large enough to accommodate the fireplaces and the flues running up in the same structure. Figure 16-83 shows the floor plan drawing of a fireplace at the main floor and the second floor, and the chimney beyond the second floor. If a third-floor fireplace is used, an additional flue is added Electric Fireplaces 4"-8" Electric fireplaces can provide the realism and ambience of conventional wood-burning and gas fireplaces with less expensive installation requirements and maintenance. These units require electrical wiring with a 110 or 220 volt outlet, depending on the unit specifications. They are generally zero-clearance, meaning they can be installed directly against wood framing. There is no ventilation required, so electric fireplaces can be designed into plans where other types of fireplaces are not suitable. Electric fireplaces are generally inexpensive to operate and are highly efficient. KITCHEN 4" SECOND-FLOOR FIREPLACE FLUE MAIN-FLOOR FIREPLACE FLUE CHIMNEY ABOVE SECOND-FLOOR FIREPLACE 4"-8" 4" FIREPLACE FLUE FROM MAIN FLOOR SECOND-FLOOR FIREPLACE 42" BARBECUE FLUSH HEARTH FAMILY FIGURE 1682 Built-in barbecue in fireplace. MAIN-FLOOR FIREPLACE FIGURE 1683 Floor plan drawing of a fireplace at the main floor, at the second floor, and beyond the second floor. 350 Architectural Drafting and Design Fireplace Opening Width Fireplace Opening Height Fireplace Depth Flue Size 24" (600 mm) 24" (600 mm) 18" (430 mm) 8" × 12" (200 × 300 mm) 32" (800 mm) 27" (680 mm) 20" (500 mm) 12" × 12" (300 × 300 mm) 36" (900 mm) 29" (730 mm) 20" (500 mm) 12" × 12" (300 × 300 mm) 40" (800 mm) 27" (680 mm) 24" (600 mm) 16" × 16" (400 × 400 mm) 60" (1500 mm) 37" (940 mm) 24" (600 mm) 16" × 20" (400 × 500 mm) to the structure. The size of each flue and the dimensions of the fireplace structure and the chimney should be given. The chimney above the second floor can taper to a smaller size than the fireplace structure, but it needs to be large enough to accommodate the flues with minimum masonry material surrounding. Installation of zero-clearance flues for metal fireplaces should be based on the manufacturer’s specifications. Flues must be designed to provide proper ventilation and draft for the fireplace. Draft is a current of air and gases through the fireplace and chimney. The size of the flue is determined by the size of the fireplace opening and the chimney height. The following table gives general guidelines for standard fireplace openings and chimney heights. Flues for custom designs and multistory chimney heights should be confirmed with the masonry contractor, masonry supply, or fireplace manufacturer. SOLID FUEL–BURNING APPLIANCES Floor Protection Combustible floors must be protected. Floor protection material shall be noncombustible, with no cracks or holes, and strong enough not to crack, tear, or puncture with normal use. Materials commonly used are brick, stone, tile, or metal. Wall Protection Wall protection is critical whenever solid fuel–burning units are designed into a structure. Direct application of noncombustible materials does not provide adequate protection. When solid fuel–burning appliances are installed at recommended distances to combustible walls, a 7" air space is necessary between the wall and floor to the noncombustible material, plus a bottom opening for air intake and a top opening for air exhaust to provide positive air change behind the structure. This helps reduce superheated air next to combustible material as shown in Figure 16-84. Solid fuel–burning appliances are items such as airtight stoves, freestanding fireplaces, fireplace stoves, room heaters, zero-clearance fireplaces, antique stoves, and fireplace inserts for existing masonry fireplaces. This discussion shows the floor plan representation and minimum distance requirements for typical installations of some approved appliances. Appliances that comply with nationally recognized safety standards are noted on the floor plan with wording such as: General Rules for Solid Fuel–Burning Appliances Verify rules for solid fuel–burning appliances with the local fire marshal or building code guidelines. The following are some considerations. DRYWALL WOOD FRAME AIR CIRCULATION MASONRY OR NONCOMBUSTIBLE 5'– 0" MIN. ICC APPROVED WOOD STOVE AND INSTALLATION REQUIRED. VERIFY ACTUAL INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS WITH VENDOR SPECIFICATIONS AND LOCAL FIRE MARSHAL OR BUILDING CODE GUIDELINES. CEILING 1" AIR SPACE HEARTH FLOOR FIGURE 1684 Air circulation around wall protection. Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols 351 Noncombustible materials include brick, stone, or tile over cement asbestos board. Minimum distances to walls should be verified in regard to vendor specifications and local code requirements. SCREENED CLOSABLE VENT WITHIN 23" OF STOVE Combustion Air Combustion air is generally required as a screened closable vent installed within 24" of the solid fuel– burning appliance. Confirm the specific requirements with manufacturer specifications and building codes. Provide an appropriate note on the drawing or in the specifications. UL APPROVED WOOD STOVE WITH BRICK FLUE AND HEARTH BRICK ARCH FIGURE 1686 Masonry alcove for solid fuel–burning stove. Air Pollution Most local areas have initiated guidelines that help control air pollution from solid fuel–burning appliances. The installation of a catalytic converter or other device is normally required. Check with local regulations and confirm manufacturer specifications. Figure 16-85 shows floor plan representations of common wood-stove installations. A design option is to construct a masonry alcove within which a solid fuel unit is installed. The floor plan layout for a typical masonry alcove is shown in Figure 16-86. 5" HIGH BRICK VENEER OVER 1" AIR SPACE 30" KITCHEN BATH FIGURE 1687 Room titles. FA M I LY 186 X 14Ø FIGURE 1688 Room title with room sizes noted. 20" IRC APPROVED WOOD STOVE W/ SCRN. CLOSABLE VENT WITHIN 24" LIVING ROOM BEDROOM ROOM TITLES ON FLOOR PLANS 5' X 5' TILE FLUSH HEARTH STONE VENEER OVER 1" AIR SPACE AND 15# FELT W/ METAL TIES @ 24" O.C. EA. STUD WOOD STOVE W/ SCRN. CLOSABLE VENT WITHIN 24" Rooms are labeled with a name on the floor plan. Generally, the lettering is larger than that used for other notes and dimensions. Room titles can be lettered using letters 3/16" or 1/4" (5 or 7 mm) high, as shown in Figure 16-87. The interior dimensions of the room can be lettered under the title using 1/8" (3 mm) text, as shown in Figure 16-88. OTHER FLOOR PLAN SYMBOLS 12" RAISED STONE HEARTH 12" TYP. FIGURE 1685 Wood stove installation. Many additional floor plan symbols are available for placement on the floor plans. Additional electrical symbols are described and illustrated in Chapter 19, and plumbing symbols are described and shown in Chapter 20. 352 Architectural Drafting and Design Attic and Crawl Space Access H.B. FIGURE 1689 Hose bibb symbol. Hose Bibb Symbol A hose bibb is an outdoor water faucet to which a garden hose may be attached. Hose bibbs should be placed at locations convenient for watering lawns or gardens and for washing a car. The floor plan symbol for a hose bibb is shown in Figure 16-89. This symbol can be shown on a separate plumbing plan, as discussed in Chapter 20. This often depends on the complexity of the design and the preferred office or instructional practice. Concrete Slab Representation Concrete slabs used for patio walks, garages, or driveways can be noted on the floor plan. A typical example is 4"-THICK CONCRETE WALK. Concrete slabs used for the floor of a garage should slope toward the front, or to a floor drain in cold climates, to allow water to drain. The amount of slope is 1/8"/ft minimum. A garage slab is noted in Figure 16-90. Calling for a slight slope on patios and driveway aprons is also common. Access is necessary to attics and crawl spaces. An attic is a floor space consisting of an open area at the top of a building just below the roof. The attic is often used for storage. A crawl space is a space between the ground and the floor of a building in which a person cannot generally walk upright. An enclosed crawl space is not accessible from the outside of the building, but crawl space access can be provided through the foundation if the design permits. The crawl space access can be placed in any convenient location such as a closet or hallway. The crawl access should be 22" × 30" (560 × 762 mm) minimum if located in the floor, as shown in Figure 16-91. Crawl space access can be shown on the foundation plan when it is constructed through the foundation wall. When it is in the foundation wall, the minimum access is 24" × 18" (610 × 460 mm). The minimum size of the attic access is 22" × 30" (560 × 762 mm), and it must have 30" (760 mm) unobstructed headroom above as you enter the attic. The attic access is commonly placed at the end of a hallway, in a walk-in wardrobe closet, or in a utility room. Figure 16-92 shows an attic access symbol and related note. The attic access can include a fold-down ladder if the attic is to be used for storage. A minimum of 30" (760 mm) must be provided above the attic access. 22" X 30" CRAWL SPACE ACCESS S&P 4" CONCRETE SLAB SLOPE 1/8" MIN/FT. TO DOOR OR TO FLOOR DRAIN. FIGURE 1691 Crawl space access note. 22" X 30" MIN. ATTIC ACCESS FIGURE 1690 Garage slab note. FIGURE 1692 Attic access symbol and related note. Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols 353 A B FIGURE 1693 (A) Prefabricated window-well floor plan symbol. (B) Cast-in-place concrete windowwell symbol. See the foundation plan and details for construction dimensions and specifications. Window Well A window well is generally a small retaining wall made of metal, plastic, concrete, masonry, or pressure-treated wood, and constructed around a basement window to hold earth away from the windows and allow for grading or planting around the exterior. Window wells can be constructed using concrete or masonry and can have a ladder inside for easy access through the opening above. Window wells can also be prefabricated metal or plastic, or precast concrete modules that are combined to form the desired width and height, and can also be installed with or without a ladder as needed. Refer to Chapter 9 for window-well ladder code requirements and other window-well codes. Window wells can be open, or have a cover or grate on top. The basic function of a window well is to provide safe egress from the basement through a window and out through the window well. A window well for a bedroom window must provide egress using the same code requirements for any bedroom window. Any habitable below-grade space must have two ways to escape in case of fire. Window wells are important for this purpose. Window wells also provide natural lighting and ventilation into a basement or other belowgrade space. Window-well drainage is an important consideration to keep rainwater or snow from entering the home. Confirm proper drainage requirements or recommendations with manufacturer specification and local building codes. A common recommendation is to have at least 12" (300 mm) of gravel below the base of the window well and have the grade above drain away from the building. Ideally, a window well should have a drainpipe that drains water to the footing drain or away from the foundation and to a storm sewer. Windowwell specifications can be noted on the floor plan using specific or general notes, in specifications, or on the foundation plan, and construction details should be provided if necessary. Figure 16-93 shows the floor plan representation of a window well. Floor Drain Symbol A floor drain floor plan symbol for a shower is shown in Figure 16-94. Floor drains should be used in any location where water can accumulate on the floor, such as the laundry room, bathroom, or garage. The easiest application for a floor drain is in a concrete slab floor. Drains can be designed in any type of floor construction, although this is more difficult in wood-frame construction. Figure 16-95 shows a floor drain in a utility room. Cross-Section Symbols The location on the floor plan where a cross section is taken is identified with symbols known as cutting-plane lines. A cross section, also called a section, is a type of 42" FIBERGLASS SHOWER OVER 1/2" W.P. GYP. BD. FIGURE 1694 Shower symbol showing floor drain. 354 Architectural Drafting and Design UTILITY SLOPE FLOOR TO DRAIN 68 FIGURE 1695 Floor drain symbol. This symbol can be square if the desired drain fixture is square. CUTTING PLANE THROUGH CENTER OF CIRCLE DRAW ARROW TANGENT TO CIRCLE AT 45°, FILL IN DARK A 5 28 A DRY A 5 SHELF WASH 4' X 3' A S W/4 X 6 HDR L/T BASIC METHOD CUTTING PLANE AND LABEL ONLY APPROXIMATE 1/2"Ø CIRCLE drawing showing an object as if it has been cut through to show interior construction methods and materials. Cutting-plane lines show the location of a cut made for the purpose of creating a sectional view at the specified location. Cutting-plane lines can be placed on floor plans, foundation plans, or any place where a section needs to be drawn to show the internal construction. These symbols are described and shown in detail in Chapter 36 through Chapter 40. Figure 16-96 shows options for the cutting-plane line symbol. The method used depends on your school or office practice and the drawing complexity. CONCLUSION Floor plans are a key element in a complete set of architectural drawings. Clients are interested in floor plans so they can see how their future home or business is laid out. As you have seen in this chapter, a large variety A 5 LETTER DENOTES SECTION IDENTIFICATION A 5 NUMBER DENOTES THE PAGE THE SECTION IS FOUND ON SYMBOL DRAWN WITH FEATURES LETTERED HORIZONTALLY OPTION 2 SYMBOL DRAWN WITH FEATURES LETTERED TO READ FROM RIGHT OPTION 1 SHEET WITH CUTTING PLANE THAT LOCATES SECTION SECTION A 12 SHEET WHERE DRAWING OF SECTION IS SHOWN OPTION 3 FIGURE 1696 Options for the cutting-plane line symbol. of symbols and drawing techniques go into preparing a floor plan. The challenge to the architectural drafter is to be sure to include all the necessary symbols and notes needed for construction while making the plan easy to read. CADD APPLICATIONS CADD Floor Plan Symbols INTRODUCTION Floor plans often contain many symbols beyond the standard architectural building features such as door, window, stair, and wall symbols. Symbols drawn on floor plans can also represent furniture, plumbing fixtures, plants, and documentation symbols such as detail bubbles, keynotes, and section marks. Drawing symbols by hand requires a template in the shape of the symbol to be drawn, time to draw the symbol, and time and effort to change hand-drawn symbols Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols 355 CADD APPLICATIONS in the event of a design change. With CADD, standard symbols are available in an electronic format that can be easily and quickly added to and modified in a floor plan. Various CADD software packages are available that provide complete symbol library templates. These CADD programs usually include symbols for windows, doors, structural elements, electrical symbols, furniture shapes, appliance and plumbing fixture symbols, and site plan symbols as shown in Figure 16-97. In addition to software symbol libraries, the Internet can be used to locate CADD symbol libraries for the specific CADD programs. All CADD programs include a function for adding symbols to a drawing. Methods range from specific insert and add commands to point and click and drag and drop. Once a symbol is added to the CADD drawing, different tools or commands can be used to modify the symbol. Tools such as moving, copying, rotating, and erasing can all be used on CADD symbols to quickly modify the floor plans. Using CADD in this manner saves time and cost when compared to the manual drafting method of adding symbols. Figure 16-98 displays some examples of a CADD floor plan with symbols added. Manufacturer Symbol Libraries Manufacturers of many architectural products such as doors, windows, plumbing fixtures, and appliances have CADD symbol libraries available for use in CADD floor plan design and drafting. Many of these symbols include the graphical representation of the manufactured item, and additional data assigned to the symbol that can be extracted and used as a bill of materials or (a) (b) (c) (d) FIGURE 1697 Many different CADD programs include libraries of symbols that can be added to floor plans and CADD models. 356 Architectural Drafting and Design CADD APPLICATIONS FIGURE 1698 This floor plan includes a number of symbols that represent furniture, doors, and windows. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN. compiled into schedules. Most of these product libraries allow you to create drawings quickly in floor plans, elevations, perspective views, and construction details. As technology improves, CADD drawings are beginning to evolve from 2D representations of real-world objects to 3D models of actual manufactured items. Manufacturers are beginning to follow this trend and include 2D and 3D symbol libraries for customers to use. Manufacturers such as Andersen Corporation, Woodwork Institute, USG Design Studio, Jeld-Wen, Kohler, and Herman Miller are examples of companies and manufacturers who have created symbol libraries for CADD drawings. Figure 16-99 displays a couple of manufacturer Web pages with their CADD content. Creating Your Own Symbol Libraries In addition to symbol libraries included with software programs, libraries of symbols on the Internet, and manufacturer-provided symbols, most CADD software programs allow you to create your own symbols. This is another benefit to CADD. A new symbol can be created, saved in a CADD library of symbols, and used later in other projects. Most architectural firms maintain libraries of custom CADD symbols that comply with company standards. In some cases, a manufacturer symbol is too specific for a design so a more generic symbol is desired. In this situation, the manufacturer symbol can be modified as needed and saved in the company symbol library to quickly create a new symbol for use on multiple drawings. Symbols are an important part of CADD drawings, whether you use symbols from the software, download symbols from a Web site, or create your own symbols. The reuse and ease of placing and modifying symbols in a CADD drawing is one of the benefits of CADD. ■ Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols 357 CADD APPLICATIONS (a) (b) FIGURE 1699 Many product manufacturers provide CADD symbols and libraries of their products for designers and drafters to use in CADD drawings. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES See CD for more information The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you research available products and floor plan design options. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address www.kitchenaid.com www.homedepot.com Company, Product, or Service Appliances Appliances, cabinets, plumbing fixtures www.lowes.com www.abracadata.com www.autodesk.com www.eaglepoint.com www.graphisoft.com www.generalshale.com Appliances, cabinets, plumbing fixtures Architectural CADD software Architectural CADD software Architectural CADD software Architectural CADD software Brick masonry products 358 www.builtinvacuum.com www.aristokraft.com www.homecrestcab.com www.kraftmaid.com www.beamvac.com www.nutone.com www.solatube.com www.optiflame.com www.heatilator.com www.heatnglo.com www.whirlpool.com www.nfrc.org www.ssina.com Architectural Drafting and Design Built-in vacuum systems Cabinets Cabinets Cabinets Central cleaning systems Communication systems Daylighting systems and Tubular Daylighting Devices Electric fireplaces Fireplaces Fireplaces and products Home appliances National Fenestration Rating Council The Stainless Steel Information Center Storage systems www.caddepot.com Use in assembling symbol libraries www.catalog.com Use in assembling symbol libraries www.waterfurnace.com Water Furnace International, Inc. www.jacuzzi.com Whirlpool bath fixtures www.andersenwindows.com Window and door fixtures www.crestlineonline.com Window and door fixtures www.marvin.com Window and door fixtures www.pella.com Window and door fixtures www.wellcraftwells.com Window wells www.whiteblockcompany.com Window wells www.schultestorage.com See CD for more information Floor Plan Symbols Test QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 16 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines. Question 16–1 Exterior walls for a wood-frame residence are usually drawn how thick? Question 16–6 Sketch the following floor plan symbols: a. Pocket door b. Bifold closet door c. Casement window d. Sliding window e. Skylight f. Ceiling beam g. Single-run stairs, up h. Hose bibb Question 16–2 Interior walls are commonly drawn how thick? Question 16–7 Letter the note that would properly identify a wall 48" high. Question 16–3 How does the floor plan symbol for an interior door differ from the symbol for an exterior door? Question 16–8 What is the required minimum height of guardrails? Question 16–4 What are the recommended spaces for the following? a. Wardrobe closet depth b. Water closet compartment c. Stair width d. Fireplace hearth depth Question 16–5 Describe an advantage of using schedules for windows and doors. Question 16–9 Provide the appropriate note used to identify a guardrail at a balcony overlooking the living room. Question 16–10 What type of door would you recommend when space for a door swing is not available? Question 16–11 Name the window that you would recommend when a 100% openable unit is required. Question 16–12 What does the note 6040 next to a window on the floor plan mean? Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols Question 16–13 What is the minimum crawl space or attic access required? Question 16–14 What is the abbreviation for garbage disposal? Question 16–15 When should the clothes washer and dryer be shown with dashed lines on the floor plan? Question 16–16 Identify in short, complete statements four factors to consider in stair planning. Question 16–17 Show the note used to identify the steps at a two-step sunken living room. 359 2. Make exterior walls 6" thick and interior walls 4" thick if using manual drafting. Draw exact thickness if using CADD. 3. Use the line and architectural lettering methods described in this textbook. Letter only the notes that are part of the drawing. Estimate dimensions when not given and increase sizes to help fill paper when appropriate. Do not draw dimensions or pictorial illustrations. Problem 16–1 Redraw Figure 16-5, Figure 16-6, Figure 16-8, and Figure 16-9. Problem 16–2 Redraw Figure 16-10. Question 16–18 What is the amount of slope for a concrete garage floor and why should it have a slope? Problem 16–3 Redraw Figure 16-13 through Figure 16-18. Question 16–19 If you are using CADD to draw a floor plan, what dimension will you use to draw the interior walls to their exact width if 2 × 4 studs are used with 1/2" gypsum on each side? Show the calculations. Problem 16–4 Redraw Figure 16-19 through Figure 16-22. Question 16–20 If you are using CADD to draw a floor plan, what dimension will you use to draw the exterior walls to their exact width if 2 × 4 studs are used with 1/2" gypsum on the inside and 1/2" sheathing and siding on the outside? Show the calculations. Problem 16–7 Redraw Figure 16-32. Question 16–21 Define header. Problem 16–10 Redraw Figure 16-51. Question 16–22 How are upper cabinets normally drawn on the floor plan? Problem 16–11 Redraw Figure 16-52. Question 16–23 List at least four factors that can influence window sizes. Problem 16–5 Redraw Figure 16-23. Problem 16–6 Redraw Figure 16-24 through Figure 16-28, and Figure 16-31. Problem 16–8 Redraw Figure 16-38. Draw the partial floor plan and door/window key symbols. Do not draw the door/window schedules. Problem 16–9 Redraw Figure 16-40. Problem 16–12 Redraw Figure 16-57, Figure 16-59, and Figure 16-63. Question 16–24 Define soft metric conversion. Problem 16–13 Redraw Figure 16-67 through Figure 16-71. Question 16–25 Define hard metric conversion. Problem 16–14 Redraw Figure 16-72. Question 16–26 How is it possible to have a satisfactory stair design that might be less than perfect? Problem 16–15 Redraw Figure 16-74 and Figure 16-75. Question 16–27 Why is stair design sometimes complex? Problem 16–16 Redraw Figure 16-76 through Figure 16-82. Problem 16–17 Redraw Figure 16-83. Question 16–28 Define flue. Problem 16–18 Redraw Figure 16-85 and Figure 16-86. Question 16–29 Why does the fireplace structure for multilevel construction with more than one fireplace need to be wider than a fireplace for a single-story building? Problem 16–19 Redraw Figure 16-90. Question 16–30 Give the flue size for a standard fireplace opening 36" W × 29" H × 20" D. Problem 16–22 Redraw Figure 16-94 and Figure 16-95. PROBLEMS DIRECTIONS 1. Draw the following problems manually or with CADD, depending on your course guidelines. Use a 1/4" = 1'–0" scale. Draw on 8 1/2 × 11" vellum for manual drafting and follow CADD guidelines given in Chapter 7. Problem 16–20 Redraw Figure 16-91 and Figure 16-92. Problem 16–21 Redraw Figure 16-93. Problem 16–23 Redraw Figure 16-96. Problem 16–24 Create your own CADD symbols to match the symbol examples provided throughout this chapter. CHAPTER 17 Floor Plan Dimensions and Notes I N T R O D U C T I O N Dimensions provide the measurements used for construction. Dimensions are found on all types of architectural drawings and are presented using lines, numerical values, and symbols, or notes and specifications. Drawings must include all the dimensions needed for construction, so workers do not have to guess about the size and location of features in the building. It can be a challenge to decide what dimensions are needed, to determine the best dimension placement, and to locate dimensions in a manner that keeps the drawings uncluttered and easy to read. This chapter provides you with the dimensioning systems and techniques used to meet these objectives. ALIGNED DIMENSIONS The dimensioning system most commonly used in architectural drafting is known as aligned dimensioning. With this system, dimensions are placed in line with the dimension lines and read from the bottom or right side of the sheet. Dimension numerals are typically centered on and placed above the solid dimension lines. Figure 17-1 shows a floor plan that has been dimensioned using the aligned dimensioning system. A dimension line is a line showing the length of the dimension, terminating at the related extension lines. Extension lines are lines showing the extent of the dimension and start with a small space from the feature being dimensioned and extend past the last dimension line. FLOOR PLAN DIMENSIONS You should place dimensions so the drawing does not appear crowded. However, this is often difficult because of the great number of dimensions that must be placed on an architectural drawing. When placing dimensions, space dimension lines a minimum of 3/8" (10 mm) from the object and from other dimension lines. If there is room, 1/2" (13 mm) is preferred. Architectural drafters often use 1" (26 mm) or more if space is available. Other drafters place the first dimension line 1" (26 mm) away from the plan and space additional dimensions equally 1/2" (13 mm) or 3/4" 360 (20 mm) apart. The minimum recommended spacing of dimensions is shown in Figure 17-2. Confirm the recommended dimension line spacing with your office or instructional standards. Regardless of the distance chosen, be consistent so dimension lines are evenly spaced and uniform throughout the drawing. Figure 17-2 also shows the recommended 1/16" (1.5 mm) space between the start of the extension line and the floor plan or feature being dimensioned. Notice the extension lines extending 1/8" (3 mm) past the last dimension line. Extension and dimension lines are drawn thin and dark so they do not detract from the overall appearance and balance of the drawing. Dimension lines terminate at extension lines with dots, arrowheads, or slash marks that are each drawn in the same direction (see Figure 17-3). The U.S. National CAD Standard recommends slash marks or filled arrowheads. The type of dimension line terminators should be the same throughout the drawing; however, slash marks are common on dimension line terminators and filled arrowheads are used on leaders for notes as described later in this chapter. Dimension numerals are drawn 1/8" (3 mm) high and are centered above the dimension line with a 1/16" (1.5 mm) space between the dimension line and the value. For all lengths over 12", the dimension units used are feet and inches. Inches and fractions are used for units less than 12". Foot units are followed by the symbol ('), and inch units are shown by the symbol ("). For example, 14'–6" means 14 feet and 6 inches. Metric dimensions are given in millimeters (mm), as discussed later in this chapter; however, metric sizes vary, depending on hard or soft conversion. Soft conversion is the preferred method, which is explained in Chapter 16 and again later in this chapter. PLACING EXTERIOR DIMENSIONS The overall dimensions on frame construction are given to the outside of the stud frame of the exterior walls. The reason for locating dimensions on the outside of Chapter 17: Floor Plan Dimensions and Notes 361 FIGURE 171 Aligned dimensions on a floor plan. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc. the stud frame is that the frame is established first, and windows, doors, and partitions are usually put in place before sheathing and other wall-covering material is applied. Another construction option is for the exterior dimensions to be to the outside face of the exterior sheathing. This depends on the preferred construction method. Figure 17-4A shows an example of the construction used where the exterior dimension is to the outside face of studs. Compare this with the outside face of the sheathing in Figure 17-4B. Your floor plan dimensioning practice is the same either way. The contractor determines the actual construction method. Stud frame is the vertical construction members of a woodor steel-frame wall, where the individual members, 362 Architectural Drafting and Design 16'-0" 10'-0" 6'-0" SPACE DEPENDS UPON AVAILABLE ROOM 3/8" TO 1" EXTERIOR DIMENSION APPROXIMATELY 1/8" FACE OF STUDS DIMENSION LINES EQUAL SPACE 3/8" MINIMUM 5'-0" 5'-0" INTERIOR EXTENSION LINES, TO CENTER OF FEATURE STUDS 1/16" EXTERIOR EXTENSION LINE, ASSUMED TO OUTSIDE FACE OF STUDS OR SHEATHING, SEE FIGURE 17-4. SHEATHING SIDING FOUNDATION WALL FIGURE 172 Recommended spacing of dimension lines, and dimensioning terminology. FACE OF SHEATHING A called studs, are usually placed between bottom and top plates that are spaced every 16" or 24" apart. The first line of dimensions on the plan is the shortest distance from the exterior wall to the center of the windows, doors, and to the interior partitions. The second line of dimensions generally gives the distance from the outside walls to the interior partitions. The third line of dimensions is usually the overall distance between two exterior walls (see Figure 17-5). This method of applying all dimensions eliminates the need for workers to add dimensions at the job site and reduces the possibility of error. The three dimensioning methods commonly used by architectural offices to dimension floor plans are center line, face-of-stud, and face-of-finish-material. EXTERIOR DIMENSION STUDS SHEATHING SIDING FOUNDATION WALL B FIGURE 174 (A) An example of the construction used when exterior dimensions are to the outside face of studs. (B) Construction used when exterior dimensions are to the outside face of sheathing. DIMENSION LINE 10'-0" EXTENSION LINE 5'-0" 5'-0" 1/8 45° CENTER-LINE EXTENSION LINE FREEHAND SLASH ALL IN THE SAME DIRECTION 10'-0" 5'-0" 1/8" A THICK SLASH IS COMMON ON MANY MANUAL AND CADD DRAWINGS SOME COMPANIES USE A DOT TO END DIMENSION LINES TO 3/16" 5'-0" 1/16 FREEHAND ARROWHEAD CADD ARROWHEADS MAY BE FILLED OR UNFILLED FIGURE 173 Methods for terminating dimension lines. The slash mark and filled arrowhead are options recommended by the U.S. National CAD Standard. Chapter 17: Floor Plan Dimensions and Notes FACE OF STUD 363 FACE OF STUD FACE OF STUD 9'-4 1/4" 3'-10 1/4" DOOR CENTER LINE WINDOW CENTER LINE Using the Center-Line Dimensioning Method The center-line dimensioning method places dimensions from the outside face of exterior stud walls to the center of interior partitions, and to the center of doors and windows. An overall dimension is placed as the last dimension. This traditional dimensioning method is shown in Figure 17-5. Using the Face-of-Stud Dimensioning Method The traditional method of floor plan dimensioning has been from the outside face of studs to the center of partition walls, windows, and doors. More recently, architectural offices have been dimensioning to face of stud for locating interior partitions. This technique establishes where the structure of the wall is laid out. Interior wall surfaces and finishes are not typically dimensioned on floor plans, but are shown in the details. Using CADD, building component sizes are drawn accurately, for example, a 2 × 4 stud actually measures 1 1/2" × 3 1/2". Interior dimensions are to the face of the stud not the center of the stud, because dimensioning to the center splits the stud in half, giving fractional dimensions. Partition center-line and fractional dimensions require field calculations that are difficult to perform and are not generally followed by builders. Typically, when dimensioning to a face of the stud, the selected side is personal preference or an office standard. Generally, you start on one side of the building at the corner, and then pick an interior partition stud face. Then all of the dimensions in the string are consistently established to the same side throughout the plan. This technique can vary depending on the features being dimensioned. For example, dimensions can be between inside stud faces where it is important to dimension the 10'-7 3/4" 5'-4 3/4" DOOR CENTER LINE WINDOW CENTER LINE FACE OF STUD INTERIOR PARTITION CENTER LINE FIGURE 175 Placing exterior dimensions from the outside face of exterior studs to the center of interior partitions, and the center of doors and windows. FACE OF STUD FIGURE 176 Placing exterior dimensions from the outside face of exterior studs to the face of studs at interior partitions, and the centers of doors and windows. open width of an area such as the partitions between a bathtub, shower, or hallway. Some companies dimension the width of the stud, such as 3 1/2", but this is unnecessary information that can be covered in a general note that indicates stud sizes, or in sections and details. The face-of-stud dimensioning method places dimensions from the exterior face of studs, to the interior face of studs, and to the centers of doors and windows as shown in Figure 17-6. Using the Face-of-Finish-Material Dimensioning Method The face-of-finish-material dimensioning method is typically not used in new construction. This method can be used in remodeling projects where interior dimensions are commonly related to the existing face of finish material. Dimensions to doors and windows are still given to their center lines (see Figure 17-7). FACE OF STUD 9'-3 3/4" 3'-9 3/4" FACE OF STUD 10'-8 1/4" 5'-5 1/4" DOOR CENTER LINE WINDOW CENTER LINE FACE-OF-FINISH MATERIAL FIGURE 177 Placing exterior dimensions from the outside face of exterior studs to the face of finish material at interior partitions, and the centers of doors and windows. This method can be used when dimensioning remodeling projects where measurements are established from existing finish material. 364 Architectural Drafting and Design PLACING INTERIOR DIMENSIONS Interior dimensions locate all interior partitions and features in relation to the face of exterior wall studs. Any of the dimensioning methods (center line, face-ofstud, or face-of-finish material) can be used for placing interior dimensions. In an effort to simplify construction and minimize field calculations, the face-of-stud method is most commonly used for new construction. Figure 17-8 shows some common interior dimensions. Notice how the dimensions relate to the face of exterior wall studs. The interior partition dimensions are given to the face of studs and can be consistently given to the same side throughout the plan. Another option is to dimension the face of studs between an opening, such as the opening framed for a bathtub, or the width of a water closet compartment as shown in Figure 17-8. When dimensioning interior features, be sure to provide workers with enough dimensions to build the house. The contractor should not have to guess where a wall or feature is located, nor should workers have to use a scale to try to locate items on a plan. Stub walls are walls that do not go all the way across a room, and are dimensioned by giving their location INDICATES TO NEXT FEATURE to a stud face and their length. Windows and doors are dimensioned to their centers, unless the location is assumed. Look at Figure 17-8 again for examples of dimensioning interior features. STANDARD FEATURE DIMENSIONS Some interior features that are considered to be standard sizes may not require dimensions, even though providing dimensions is generally a good idea to help reduce construction errors. Figure 17-9 shows a situation in which the drafter elected to omit the depth of the pantry because it is directly next to a refrigerator, which has an assumed depth of 30" (760 mm), and near a base cabinet that is typically 24" (600 mm) deep. The refrigerator width should be given because there are many different widths available. The base cabinet is not dimensioned, because such cabinets are typically 24" (600 mm) deep. When there is any doubt, it is better to apply a dimension. The refrigerator and other appliances can be drawn with dashed lines or marked with the abbreviation NIC (not in contract) if the unit is not supplied according to the contract for the home’s construction. Follow the practice of the office where you work. Other situations in which dimensions can be assumed are when a door is centered between two walls as at the end of a hallway, and when a door enters a room and the minimum distance from the wall to the door is assumed. See the examples in Figure 17-10. Some dimensions can be provided in the form of a note for standard features, as seen in Figure 17-11. The walls around a shower need not be dimensioned when a note, 36" (900 mm) square shower, defines the inside dimensions. The shower must be located and actual product dimensions verified during construction. One of the best ways to learn how experienced drafters lay out dimensions is to study and evaluate existing plans. Metric dimensions can vary depending on hard or soft conversion, as discussed in Chapter 16 and later in this chapter. BASE CABINET PANTRY FIGURE 178 Placing interior dimensions. Dimensions are placed from the face of exterior studs to the face of studs at interior partitions, and to the centers of doors and windows. Dimensions can be placed to establish an opening between the face of interior studs, such as for the width of a bathtub, water closet, or hallway. REF 36 X 30 FIGURE 179 The dimension for the location of a feature such as the depth of a pantry can be assumed when it is next to a base cabinet with a known

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