Introduction to
Flight
Seventh Edition
John D. Anderson, Jr.
Curator for Aerodynamics, National Air and
Smithsonian Institution
Professor Emeritus
University of Maryland
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CONTENTS
About the Author
iii
Preface to the Seventh Edition
xiii
2.1.2
Density
2.1.3
Temperature
2.1.4 Flow
Preface to the First Edition
xvii
2.2
The First Aeronautical
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
Introduction
1
1
Very Early Developments
3
George Cayley (1773-1857)—
The True Inventor of the Airplane
The
Interregnum—From
Otto Lilienthal
1853 to 1891
Percy
Pilcher
Anatomy
of the
Anatomy
of
1948) Wright—Inventors of the First
Airplane
The Aeronautical
Wrights,
27
Triangle—Langley,
and Glenn Curtiss
1.10 The Problem of
Summary
Propulsion
Higher
45
of
a
2.1.1
Space
36
The Standard
3.1
and Review
49
107
112
Hydrostatic Equation
113
3.3
Relation Between
3.4
54
58
110
Atmosphere
Geopotential
116
Pressure, Temperature, and Density
125
Historical Note: The Standard
128
Atmosphere
3.7
115
Definition of the Standard
Atmosphere
Physical Quantities
58
105
Definition of Altitude
3.6
Pressure
93
106
3.2
3.5
Flowing Gas
83
Vehicle
and Geometric Altitudes
Chapter 2
Fundamental
Airplane
Chapter 3
Altitudes
2.1
67
72
102
Summary
Problems
52
Thoughts
65
Historical Note: The NACA and
NASA
46
and Review
Bibliography
Fundamental
a
Perfect Gas
20
Aeronautics Comes to America
1.11 Faster and
Volume
a
19
Wilbur (1867-1912) and Orville (1871-
1.12
Specific
2.6
(1867-1899)—Extending
1.8
Practical
of State for
Bibliography
1.7
The
Discussion of Units
17
The Glider Tradition
1.9
2.4
2.9
61
63
2.5
13
(1848-1896)—The Glider
and Streamlines
Aerodynamic
Equation
2.8
6
60
2.3
2.7
Sir
Man
1.6
Engineers
Velocity
The Source of All
Forces
Chapter 1
59
Summary
and Review
Bibliography
Problems
130
132
132
vii
viii
Contents
Chapter 4
Basic
4.25 Historical Note: Osborne
Aerodynamics
134
4.1
Continuity Equation
4.2
Incompressible
Flow
and
139
4.27
Equation
4.4
A Comment
146
4.5
Elementary Thermodynamics
4.6
Isentropic
4.7
Energy Equation
4.8
Summary
4.9
Speed
4.10
Low-Speed
of
142
4.11.1
Airfoils, Wings, and Other
Aerodynamic Shapes 288
173
174
191
Compressible
Flow
4.11.4
Summary
211
211
4.12.1 More about
Compressible
4.12.2 More about
Equivalent Airspeed
Flow
211
Compressibility
4.16 Results for
Laminar
Layer
Viscous Flow
a
4.20 Flow
Summary
Drag
Boundary
5.5
Infinite
Finite
5.6
Pressure Coefficient
5.7
Obtaining
5.8
Compressibility
Effects
on
Skin
245
248
251
of Viscous Effects
versus
290
4.23 Historical Note: The Pitot Tube
4.24 Historical Note: The First Wind
315
Wings
316
Lift Coefficient from
Coefficient
294
322
CP
Correction for Lift
326
Critical Mach Number and Critical
Drag-Divergence
327
Mach Number
339
Drag (At Supersonic Speeds)
Summary
of Airfoil
Wings
347
357
Drag
359
Drag
5.15
Change
5.16
Swept Wings
5.17
Flaps—A Mechanism
5.18
Aerodynamics of Cylinders
and Spheres
400
in the Lift
Slope
363
372
381
for
High Lift
394
5.19 How Lift is Produced—Some Alternative
256
262
288
5.14 Calculation of Induced
4.22 Historical Note: Bernoulli and Euler
Tunnels
300
5.12
Boundary
Turbulent
Separation
on
Airfoil Data
5.13 Finite
Compressibility
Friction
Lift, Drag, and Moment Coefficients
5.4
5.11 Wave
242
4.19 Transition
5.3
5.10
227
228
237
4.17 Results for
Airfoil Nomenclature
Pressure Coefficient
to
a
Introduction
5.2
5.9
Supersonic
Engines 215
Layer
5.1
214
Wind Tunnels and Rocket
4.15 Introduction
4.21
197
Flow
205
4.12 Some Additional Considerations
4.18
182
188
Incompressible Flow
Supersonic
280
280
Chapter 5
166
4.11.3
275
153
Subsonic Wind Tunnels
4.14 Discussion of
and Review
Bibliography
160
Equations
4.11.2 Subsonic
Summary
Problems
4.11 Measurement of Airspeed
4.13
Development of the Boundary Layer
Concept 272
Compressible
Momentum
of Sound
and his
4.26 Historical Note: Prandtl and the
138
4.3
Flow
Reynolds
268
Number
259
Explanations
258
405
5.20 Historical Note: Airfoils and
5.20.1
The
Wright Brothers
5.20.2 British and U.S.
(1910-1920)
Airfoils
417
Wings
416
415
Contents
5.20.3 1920-1930
5.20.4
418
Early NACA Four-Digit Airfoils
5.20.5 Later NACA Airfoils
419
5.20.6 Modern
419
5.20.7 Finite
Airfoil
Work
418
6.13
420
Wings
5.21 Historical Note: Ernst Mach
and his Number
422
Supersonic Flight
5.24
Summary
426
Problems
and
Stepping-Stone
430
and Review
Bibliography
Quantitative Formulation
6.12.3
Breguet
Airplane)
Formulas
and Endurance: Jet
6.13.1
Physical Considerations
6.13.2
Quantitative Formulation
Landing
6.17
Turning Flight
6.19
Elements of Airplane Performance
6.1
Introduction: The
6.2
Equations
6.3
Thrust
6.4
6.5
of Motion
Special Considerations
Airplanes 545
for Level, Unaccelerated
6.26 Historical Note:
Supersonic
6.28
Summary
Conceptual Airplane
Drag Reduction—The
and the Fillet
Early
565
Predictions
Breguet
568
and the
Range
571
and Review
Bibliography
Problems
465
549
Design—
572
577
581
581
467
Engine
on
Power
Required
and
469
6.8
Rate of Climb
478
6.9
Gliding Flight
487
6.10 Absolute and Service
Chapter 7
Principles of Stability
Ceilings
490
7.1
Introduction
7.2
Definition of
7.2.7 Static
497
and Endurance:
Propeller-Driven
7.2.2
Considerations
499
and Control
586
586
Stability
Stability
and Control
593
Dynamic Stability
7.2.3 Control
498
Physical
(Energy
Evolution and Revolution
Altitude Effects
Range
Airplane
529
559
6.27 Historical Note: Aircraft
Reciprocating Engine-Propeller
6.11 Time to Climb
Cowling
6.25 Historical Note:
465
Available
for
of Airplane Performance
460
6.6.2 Jet
6.12.1
565
Formula
Combination
6.12
6.23 A Comment
NACA
Power Available and Maximum
6.6.7
of
Philosophy
Design 562
6.24 Historical Note:
447
457
Velocity
6.7
440
Polar
Required for Level, Unaccelerated
Flight
6.6
Drag
Thrust Available and Maximum
Power
Diagram
538
6.22 A
440
449
Velocity
512
526
and the V~n
6.21 Micro Air Vehicles
Flight
508
6.20 Uninhabited Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)
Chapter 6
Required
506
507
520
6.18 Accelerated Rate of Climb
434
435
Airplane
CA0 and CDJ
Performance
Method)
432
(Propeller-Driven
Range
6.16
500
502
6.15 Takeoff Performance
5.23 Historical Note: The X-l 5—First Manned
Hypersonic Airplane
to the Space Shuttle
6.12.2
6.14 Relations Between
5.22 Historical Note: The First Manned
ix
594
596
7.2.4 Partial Derivative
596
592
Contents
X
7.3
Moments
7.4
Absolute
7.5
the
on
Angle
Criteria for
Stability
Airplane
597
8.3
of Attack
598
8.4
Longitudinal
Orbit
600
8.4.2
658
Equation
8.4. J Force and
Static
655
Lagrange's Equation
Equation
658
Energy
660
of Motion
7.6
Quantitative Discussion: Contribution
of the Wing to
Mcg 605
8.5
Space Vehicle Trajectories—Some
Aspects 664
7.7
Contribution of the Tail
8.6
Kepler's
7.8
Total
8.7
The VIS-VIVA
8.8
Some Orbital Maneuvers
of
7.9
Pitching Moment About
Gravity 612
for
Equations
Stability
Longitudinal
the Center
Static
(Energy) Equation
616
617
Margin
681
Changes
and
8.9
Transfers: Single-Impulse
686
Hohmann Transfers
Concept of Static Longitudinal
Hyperbolic Trajectories
Control
8.9.2
Sphere of Influence
621
7.13 Calculation of Elevator Angle to Trim
8.9.3 Heliocentric
626
8.9.4 Method
7.14 Stick-Fixed Versus Stick-Free Static
7.15 Elevator
8.9.5
628
629
Hinge Moment
7.16 Stick-Free
Stability
Longitudinal
Static
7.18 Lateral Static
Stability
Stability
7.19 A Comment
8.13
636
638
Wright
Versus the European Philosophy
of Stability and Control
639
7.21 Historical Note: The
of
Flight Controls
Development
Summary
642
Earth and
Exponential Atmosphere
Application
711
to Ballistic
Entry
Entry Heating
Lifting Entry, with Application
729
to the Space Shuttle
8.18 Historical Note:
733
Kepler
of Gravitation
735
8.22 Historical Note: Manned
Space Flight (Astronautics)
Differential
715
721
647
647
Equations
737
8.21 Historical Note: Unmanned space
Flight 737
Chapter 8
8.2
711
of Motion for
8.20 Historical Note: Lagrange
645
Introduction
Planetary
8.17
643
645
Bibliography
8.1
707
8.19 Historical Note: Newton and the Law
and Review
Problems
8.15
Control
8.16
640
7.22 Historical Note: The "Tuck-Under"
Problem
to
Equations
Atmospheric Entry
Brothers
699
708
8.14 General
7.20 Historical Note: The
698
706
Spacecraft Attitude
Entry
635
697
Conies
Gravity-Assist Trajectories
8.12 Introduction
631
7.17 Directional Static
695
697
Trajectories
of Patched
8.10 Lunar Transfer
8.11
694
Interplanetary Trajectories
8.9.1
Stability
675
681
8.8.2 Orbital
7.11 Static
7.23
671
Laws
8.8.1 Plane
614
7.10 Neutral Point
7.12
609
Mcg
to
Basic
Flight
8.23
Summary
and Review
Bibliography
654
Space
742
Problems
747
746
744
Contents
Chapter 9
Propulsion
9.1
9.18
750
Problems
750
9.2
Propeller
9.3
Reciprocating Engine
9.4
Jet
9.5
Turbojet Engine
Propulsion—The
761
Thrust
771
Chapter 10
Hypersonic
10.2
779
9.7
Ramjet Engine
784
9.8
Rocket
Engine
788
9.9
Rocket
Propellants—Some
781
Engine
Considerations
795
798
801
Magnetoplasmadynamic
9.15 Historical Note:
High-Temperature Effects
Low-Density
10.2.6
Recapitulation
Flow
Summary
Problems
844
Hypersonic
and Review
859
Thruster
811
Appendix A Standard Atmosphere,
811
SI Units
Early Propeller
812
Early Development
Engine for
of the
861
Appendix B Standard Atmosphere, English
Engineering Units 871
and Conversion
Appendix C Symbols
Aviation
Factors
879
Appendix
D Airfoil Data
815
Engines
Early
Jet
817
9.17 Historical Note:
820
859
860
Internal Combustion
Engines
Hypersonic-
850
810
81.1
9.16 Historical Note: Inventors of
839
840
844
Bibliography
809
9.13.3 Arc-Jet Thruster
Development
10.5
838
10.2.5
Airplanes
9.13.1 Electron-Ion Thruster
9.14 Historical Note:
Entropy Layer
10.4 Some Comments About
Propellant Requirements for Spacecraft
Trajectory Maneuvers 806
9.13.4 A Comment
836
837
10.2.4
Flow
802
Propulsion
Hypersonic
Layers
10.3 Newtonian Law for
9.9.3 A Comment 800
Staging
of
836
10.2.3 Viscous Interaction
Propellants
Equation
832
Physical Aspects
10.2.2
Liquid Propellants
9.11 Rocket
832
10.2.1 Thin Shock
795
9.10 Rocket
Vehicles
Flow
Turbofan
9.13.2
828
10.1 Introduction
9.6
9.9.2 Solid
Equation
774
Buildup for a Turbojet
Engine
9.13 Electric
826
828
753
9.5.1 Thrust
9.12
and Review
Bibliography
Introduction
9.9.1
Summary
xi
Early History
of Rocket
Answer
Key
Index
913
909
880