1
Materials
Data
Book
2003 Edition
Cambridge University Engineering Department
2
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS IN SI UNITS
Absolute zero of temperature
Acceleration due to gravity, g
Avogadro’s number, N A
Base of natural logarithms, e
Boltzmann’s constant, k
Faraday’s constant, F
Universal Gas constant, R
Permeability of vacuum, µo
Permittivity of vacuum, εo
Planck’s constant, h
Velocity of light in vacuum, c
Volume of perfect gas at STP
– 273.15 °C
9. 807 m/s2
6.022x1026 /kmol
2.718
1.381 x 10–26 kJ/K
9.648 x 107 C/kmol
8.3143 kJ/kmol K
1.257 x 10–6 H/m
8.854 x 10–12 F/m
6.626 x 10–37 kJ/s
2.998 x 108 m/s
22.41 m3/kmol
CONVERSION OF UNITS
Angle, θ
Energy, U
Force, F
Length, l
Mass, M
Power, P
Stress, σ
Specific Heat, Cp
Stress Intensity, K
Temperature, T
Thermal Conductivity, λ
Volume, V
Viscosity, η
1 rad
See inside back cover
1 kgf
1 lbf
1 ft
1 inch
1Å
1 tonne
1 lb
See inside back cover
See inside back cover
1 cal/g.°C
1 ksi in
1 °F
1 cal/s.cm.oC
1 Imperial gall
1 US gall
1 poise
1 lb ft.s
57.30 °
9.807 N
4.448 N
304.8 mm
25.40 mm
0.1 nm
1000 kg
0.454 kg
4.188 kJ/kg.K
1.10 MPa m
0.556 K
4.18 W/m.K
4.546 x 10–3 m3
3.785 x 10–3 m3
0.1 N.s/m2
0.1517 N.s/m2
1
CONTENTS
Page Number
Introduction
Sources
3
3
I. FORMULAE AND DEFINITIONS
Stress and strain
Elastic moduli
Stiffness and strength of unidirectional composites
Dislocations and plastic flow
Fast fracture
Statistics of fracture
Fatigue
7
Creep
Diffusion
Heat flow
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
8
8
II. PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Melting temperature
Density
Young’s modulus
Yield stress and tensile strength
Fracture toughness
Environmental resistance
Uniaxial tensile response of selected metals and polymers
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
III. MATERIAL PROPERTY CHARTS
Young’s modulus versus density
Strength versus density
Young’s modulus versus strength
Fracture toughness versus strength
Maximum service temperature
Material price (per kg)
16
17
18
19
20
21
IV. PROCESS ATTRIBUTE CHARTS
Material-process compatibility matrix (shaping)
Mass
Section thickness
Surface roughness
Dimensional tolerance
Economic batch size
22
23
23
24
24
25
2
V. CLASSIFICATION AND APPLICATIONS OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Metals: ferrous alloys, non-ferrous alloys
Polymers and foams
Composites, ceramics, glasses and natural materials
26
27
28
VI. EQUILIBRIUM (PHASE) DIAGRAMS
Copper – Nickel
Lead – Tin
Iron – Carbon
Aluminium – Copper
Aluminium – Silicon
Copper – Zinc
Copper – Tin
Titanium-Aluminium
Silica – Alumina
29
29
30
30
31
31
32
32
33
VII. HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS
TTT diagrams and Jominy end-quench hardenability curves for steels
34
VIII. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SELECTED ELEMENTS
Atomic properties of selected elements
Oxidation properties of selected elements
36
37
3
INTRODUCTION
The data and information in this booklet have been collected for use in the Materials Courses in
Part I of the Engineering Tripos (as well as in Part II, and the Manufacturing Engineering
Tripos). Numerical data are presented in tabulated and graphical form, and a summary of useful
formulae is included. A list of sources from which the data have been prepared is given below.
Tabulated material and process data or information are from the Cambridge Engineering Selector
(CES) software (Educational database Level 2), copyright of Granta Design Ltd, and are
reproduced by permission; the same data source was used for the material property and process
attribute charts.
It must be realised that many material properties (such as toughness) vary between wide limits
depending on composition and previous treatment. Any final design should be based on
manufacturers’ or suppliers’ data for the material in question, and not on the data given here.
SOURCES
Cambridge Engineering Selector software (CES 4.1), 2003, Granta Design Limited, Rustat
House, 62 Clifton Rd, Cambridge, CB1 7EG
M F Ashby, Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, 1999, Butterworth Heinemann
M F Ashby and D R H Jones, Engineering Materials, Vol. 1, 1996, Butterworth Heinemann
M F Ashby and D R H Jones, Engineering Materials, Vol. 2, 1998, Butterworth Heinemann
M Hansen, Constitution of Binary Alloys, 1958, McGraw Hill
I J Polmear, Light Alloys, 1995, Elsevier
C J Smithells, Metals Reference Book, 6th Ed., 1984, Butterworths
Transformation Characteristics of Nickel Steels, 1952, International Nickel
4
I. FORMULAE AND DEFINITIONS
STRESS AND STRAIN
σt =
F
A
σn =
F
Ao
 l
 lo
ε t = ln 
ν =−
εn =
l−lo
lo
σ t = true stress
σ n = nominal stress
ε t = true strain
ε n = nominal strain
F = normal component of force
Ao = initial area
A = current area
l o = initial length
l = current length
Poisson’s ratio,



lateral strain
longitudinal strain
Young’s modulus E = initial slope of σ t − ε t curve = initial slope of σ n − ε n curve.
Yield stress σ y is the nominal stress at the limit of elasticity in a tensile test.
Tensile strength σ ts is the nominal stress at maximum load in a tensile test.
Tensile ductility ε f is the nominal plastic strain at failure in a tensile test. The gauge length of
the specimen should also be quoted.
ELASTIC MODULI
G=
E
2 (1 +ν )
K=
E
3 (1 − 2ν )
For polycrystalline solids, as a rough guide,
Poisson’s Ratio
ν≈
1
3
Shear Modulus
G≈
3
E
8
Bulk Modulus
K ≈ E
These approximations break down for rubber and porous solids.
5
STIFFNESS AND STRENGTH OF UNIDIRECTIONAL COMPOSITES
E II = V f E f + ( 1 − V f ) E m
 V f 1−V f
E⊥ = 
+
Ef
Em





−1
σ ts = V f σ ff + ( 1 − V f ) σ m
y
E II = composite modulus parallel to fibres (upper bound)
E ⊥ = composite modulus transverse to fibres (lower bound)
V f = volume fraction of fibres
E f = Young’s modulus of fibres
E m = Young’s modulus of matrix
σ ts = tensile strength of composite parallel to fibres
σ ff = fracture strength of fibres
σm
y = yield stress of matrix
DISLOCATIONS AND PLASTIC FLOW
The force per unit length F on a dislocation, of Burger’s vector b , due to a remote shear stress
τ , is F = τ b . The shear stress τ y required to move a dislocation on a single slip plane is
τy =
cT
bL
where T = line tension (about 1 G b 2 , where G is the shear modulus)
2
L = inter-obstacle distance
c = constant ( c ≈ 2 for strong obstacles, c < 2 for weak obstacles)
The shear yield stress k of a polycrystalline solid is related to the shear stress τ y required to
move a dislocation on a single slip plane: k ≈ 32 τ y .
The uniaxial yield stress σ y of a polycrystalline solid is approximately σ y = 2 k , where k
is the shear yield stress.
Hardness H (in MPa) is given approximately by: H ≈ 3 σ y .
Vickers Hardness HV is given in kgf/mm2, i.e. HV = H / g , where g is the acceleration due
to gravity.
6
FAST FRACTURE
K = Yσ
The stress intensity factor, K :
πa
Fast fracture occurs when K = K IC
In plane strain, the relationship between stress intensity factor K and strain energy release rate
G is:
K =
EG
1 −ν
2
≈
(as ν 2 ≈ 0.1 )
EG
Plane strain fracture toughness and toughness are thus related by: K IC =
“Process zone size” at crack tip given approximately by: r p =
E G IC
1 −ν 2
≈
E G IC
2
K IC
π σ 2f
Note that K IC (and G IC ) are only valid when conditions for linear elastic fracture mechanics
apply (typically the crack length and specimen dimensions must be at least 50 times the process
zone size).
In the above:
σ = remote tensile stress
a = crack length
Y = dimensionless constant dependent on geometry; typically Y ≈ 1
K IC = plane strain fracture toughness;
G IC = critical strain energy release rate, or toughness;
E = Young’s modulus
ν = Poisson’s ratio
σ f = failure strength
STATISTICS OF FRACTURE


Weibull distribution, Ps (V) = exp 

For constant stress:
∫


Ps (V) = exp  −

 σ
− 
V σ o
 σ

σ o



m



m
dV 

Vo 

V 

Vo 

Ps = survival probability of component
V = volume of component
σ = tensile stress on component
Vo = volume of test sample
σ o = reference failure stress for volume Vo , which gives Ps =
m = Weibull modulus
1 = 0.37
e
7
FATIGUE
Basquin’s Law (high cycle fatigue):
∆σ N αf = C1
Coffin-Manson Law (low cycle fatigue):
∆ε pl N βf = C 2
Goodman’s Rule. For the same fatigue life, a stress range ∆σ operating with a mean stress σ m ,
is equivalent to a stress range ∆σ o and zero mean stress, according to the relationship:

∆σ = ∆σ o 1 −

σm
σ ts



Miner’s Rule for cumulative damage (for i loading blocks, each of constant stress amplitude and
duration N i cycles):
∑
i
Ni
= 1
N fi
Paris’ crack growth law:
da
= A ∆Kn
dN
In the above:
∆σ = stress range;
∆ε pl = plastic strain range;
∆K = tensile stress intensity range;
N = cycles;
N f = cycles to failure;
α , β , C1 , C 2 , A, n = constants;
a = crack length;
σ ts = tensile strength.
CREEP
Power law creep:
ε& ss = A σ n exp ( − Q / RT )
ε& ss = steady-state strain-rate
Q = activation energy (kJ/kmol)
R = universal gas constant
T = absolute temperature
A, n = constants
8
DIFFUSION
D = Do exp ( − Q / RT )
Diffusion coefficient:
Fick’s diffusion equations:
J =−D
C = concentration
x = distance
t = time
dC
dx
∂C
∂ 2C
=D
∂t
∂ x2
and
J = diffusive flux
D = diffusion coefficient (m2/s)
Do = pre-exponential factor (m2/s)
Q = activation energy (kJ/kmol)
HEAT FLOW
q=−λ
Steady-state 1D heat flow (Fourier’s Law):
dT
dx
∂T
∂ 2T
=a
∂t
∂ x2
T = temperature (K)
q = heat flux per second, per unit area (W/m2.s)
Transient 1D heat flow:
λ = thermal conductivity (W/m.K)
a = thermal diffusivity (m2/s)
For many 1D problems of diffusion and heat flow, the solution for concentration or temperature
depends on the error function, erf :
  x 

C( x , t ) = f erf 

  2 D t 
or
  x 

T ( x , t ) = f erf 

  2 a t 
A characteristic diffusion distance in all problems is given by x ≈
characteristic heat flow distance in thermal problems being x ≈
D t , with the corresponding
at .
The error function, and its first derivative, are:
erf ( X ) =
X
2
π
∫0
( )
exp − y 2 dy
d
[ erf ( X )] =
dX
and
2
π
(
exp − X 2
)
The error function integral has no closed form solution – values are given in the Table below.
X
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
erf ( X )
0
0.11
0.22
0.33
0.43
0.52
0.60
0.68
0.74
X
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
∞
erf ( X )
0.80
0.84
0.88
0.91
0.93
0.95
0.97
1.0
Ferrous
Natural
Composites
Metal
Polymer
Technical
Porous
Ceramics
Glasses
Non-ferrous
Metals
Bamboo (*)
Cork (*)
Leather (*)
Wood, typical (Longitudinal) (*)
Wood, typical (Transverse) (*)
Aluminium/Silicon Carbide
CFRP
GFRP
Borosilicate Glass (*)
Glass Ceramic (*)
Silica Glass (*)
Soda-Lime Glass (*)
Brick
Concrete, typical
Stone
Alumina
Aluminium Nitride
Boron Carbide
Silicon
Silicon Carbide
Silicon Nitride
Tungsten Carbide
Cast Irons
High Carbon Steels
Medium Carbon Steels
Low Carbon Steels
Low Alloy Steels
Stainless Steels
Aluminium Alloys
Copper Alloys
Lead Alloys
Magnesium Alloys
Nickel Alloys
Titanium Alloys
Zinc Alloys
77
77
107
77
77
525
450
563
957
442
927
927
1227
2004
2397
2372
1407
2152
2388
2827
1130
1289
1380
1480
1382
1375
475
982
322
447
1435
1477
375
602
1647
1557
592
1227
1227
1427
2096
2507
2507
1412
2500
2496
2920
1250
1478
1514
1526
1529
1450
677
1082
328
649
1466
1682
492
-
102
102
127
102
102
- 627
n/a
n/a
-
-
-
Tm (oC)
Flexible Polymer Foam (VLD) (*)
Flexible Polymer Foam (LD) (*)
Flexible Polymer Foam (MD) (*)
Rigid Polymer Foam (LD) (*)
Rigid Polymer Foam (MD) (*)
Rigid Polymer Foam (HD) (*)
Butyl Rubber (*)
EVA (*)
Isoprene (IR) (*)
Natural Rubber (NR) (*)
Neoprene (CR) (*)
Polyurethane Elastomers (elPU) (*)
Silicone Elastomers (*)
ABS (*)
Cellulose Polymers (CA) (*)
Ionomer (I) (*)
Nylons (PA) (*)
Polycarbonate (PC) (*)
PEEK (*)
Polyethylene (PE) (*)
PET (*)
Acrylic (PMMA) (*)
Acetal (POM) (*)
Polypropylene (PP) (*)
Polystyrene (PS) (*)
Polyurethane Thermoplastics (tpPU) (*)
PVC
Teflon (PTFE)
Epoxies
Phenolics
Polyester
112
112
112
67
67
67
– 73
– 73
– 83
– 78
– 48
– 73
– 123
88
–9
27
44
142
143
– 25
68
85
– 18
– 25
74
120
75
107
-
n/a
n/a
n/a
177
177
177
171
157
171
– 63
– 23
– 78
– 63
– 43
– 23
– 73
128
107
77
56
205
199
– 15
80
165
–8
– 15
110
160
105
123
For full names and acronyms of polymers – see Section V.
(*) glass transition (softening) temperature
n/a: not applicable (materials decompose, rather than melt)
(Data courtesy of Granta Design Ltd)
1
Polymer Foams
Thermoset
Thermoplastic
1
Polymers
Elastomer
Tm (oC)
All data are for melting points at atmospheric pressure. For polymers (and glasses) the data indicate the glass transition (softening)
temperature, above which the mechanical properties rapidly fall. Melting temperatures of selected elements are given in section VIII.
II.1 MELTING (or SOFTENING) TEMPERATURE, Tm
II. PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
9
10
Ferrous
Natural
Composites
Metal
Polymer
Technical
Porous
Ceramics
Glasses
Non-ferrous
Metals
Bamboo
Cork
Leather
Wood, typical (Longitudinal)
Wood, typical (Transverse)
Aluminium/Silicon Carbide
CFRP
GFRP
Borosilicate Glass
Glass Ceramic
Silica Glass
Soda-Lime Glass
Brick
Concrete, typical
Stone
Alumina
Aluminium Nitride
Boron Carbide
Silicon
Silicon Carbide
Silicon Nitride
Tungsten Carbide
Cast Irons
High Carbon Steels
Medium Carbon Steels
Low Carbon Steels
Low Alloy Steels
Stainless Steels
Aluminium Alloys
Copper Alloys
Lead Alloys
Magnesium Alloys
Nickel Alloys
Titanium Alloys
Zinc Alloys
0.6
0.12
0.81
0.6
0.6
2.66
1.5
1.75
2.2
2.2
2.17
2.44
1.9
2.2
2.5
3.5
3.26
2.35
2.3
3
3
15.3
7.05
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.6
2.5
8.93
10
1.74
8.83
4.4
4.95
-
-
-
-
-
0.8
0.24
1.05
0.8
0.8
2.9
1.6
1.97
2.3
2.8
2.22
2.49
2.1
2.6
3
3.98
3.33
2.55
2.35
3.21
3.29
15.9
7.25
7.9
7.9
7.9
7.9
8.1
2.9
8.94
11.4
1.95
8.95
4.8
7
ρ (Mg/m3)
II.2
1
Flexible Polymer Foam (VLD)
Flexible Polymer Foam (LD)
Flexible Polymer Foam (MD)
Rigid Polymer Foam (LD)
Rigid Polymer Foam (MD)
Rigid Polymer Foam (HD)
Butyl Rubber
EVA
Isoprene (IR)
Natural Rubber (NR)
Neoprene (CR)
Polyurethane Elastomers (elPU)
Silicone Elastomers
ABS
Cellulose Polymers (CA)
Ionomer (I)
Nylons (PA)
Polycarbonate (PC)
PEEK
Polyethylene (PE)
PET
Acrylic (PMMA)
Acetal (POM)
Polypropylene (PP)
Polystyrene (PS)
Polyurethane Thermoplastics (tpPU)
PVC
Teflon (PTFE)
Epoxies
Phenolics
Polyester
0.016
0.038
0.07
0.036
0.078
0.17
0.9
0.945
0.93
0.92
1.23
1.02
1.3
1.01
0.98
0.93
1.12
1.14
1.3
0.939
1.29
1.16
1.39
0.89
1.04
1.12
1.3
2.14
1.11
1.24
1.04
-
-
0.035
0.07
0.115
0.07
0.165
0.47
0.92
0.955
0.94
0.93
1.25
1.25
1.8
1.21
1.3
0.96
1.14
1.21
1.32
0.96
1.4
1.22
1.43
0.91
1.05
1.24
1.58
2.2
1.4
1.32
1.4
ρ (Mg/m3)
1 For full names and acronyms of polymers – see Section V
(Data courtesy of Granta Design Ltd).
Polymer Foams
Thermoset
Thermoplastic
Polymers
Elastomer
DENSITY, ρ
Ferrous
Natural
Composites
Metal
Polymer
Technical
Porous
Ceramics
Glasses
Non-ferrous
Metals
Bamboo
Cork
Leather
Wood, typical (Longitudinal)
Wood, typical (Transverse)
Aluminium/Silicon Carbide
CFRP
GFRP
Borosilicate Glass
Glass Ceramic
Silica Glass
Soda-Lime Glass
Brick
Concrete, typical
Stone
Alumina
Aluminium Nitride
Boron Carbide
Silicon
Silicon Carbide
Silicon Nitride
Tungsten Carbide
Cast Irons
High Carbon Steels
Medium Carbon Steels
Low Carbon Steels
Low Alloy Steels
Stainless Steels
Aluminium Alloys
Copper Alloys
Lead Alloys
Magnesium Alloys
Nickel Alloys
Titanium Alloys
Zinc Alloys
15
0.013
0.1
6
0.5
81
69
15
61
64
68
68
10
25
6.9
215
302
400
140
300
280
600
165
200
200
200
201
189
68
112
12.5
42
190
90
68
-
-
-
-
-
20
0.05
0.5
20
3
100
150
28
64
110
74
72
50
38
21
413
348
472
155
460
310
720
180
215
216
215
217
210
82
148
15
47
220
120
95
E (GPa)
II.3
Flexible Polymer Foam (VLD)
Flexible Polymer Foam (LD)
Flexible Polymer Foam (MD)
Rigid Polymer Foam (LD)
Rigid Polymer Foam (MD)
Rigid Polymer Foam (HD)
Butyl Rubber
EVA
Isoprene (IR)
Natural Rubber (NR)
Neoprene (CR)
Polyurethane Elastomers (elPU)
Silicone Elastomers
ABS
Cellulose Polymers (CA)
Ionomer (I)
Nylons (PA)
Polycarbonate (PC)
PEEK
Polyethylene (PE)
PET
Acrylic (PMMA)
Acetal (POM)
Polypropylene (PP)
Polystyrene (PS)
Polyurethane Thermoplastics (tpPU)
PVC
Teflon (PTFE)
Epoxies
Phenolics
Polyester
0.0003
0.001
0.004
0.023
0.08
0.2
0.001
0.01
0.0014
0.0015
0.0007
0.002
0.005
1.1
1.6
0.2
2.62
2
3.5
0.621
2.76
2.24
2.5
0.896
2.28
1.31
2.14
0.4
2.35
2.76
2.07
-
-
0.001
0.003
0.012
0.08
0.2
0.48
0.002
0.04
0.004
0.0025
0.002
0.003
0.02
2.9
2
0.424
3.2
2.44
4.2
0.896
4.14
3.8
5
1.55
3.34
2.07
4.14
0.552
3.075
4.83
4.41
E (GPa)
1 For full names and acronyms of polymers – see Section V
(Data courtesy of Granta Design Ltd)
.
Polymer Foams
Thermoset
Thermoplastic
Polymers
Elastomer
1
YOUNG’S MODULUS, E
11
Ferrous
Natural
Composites
Metal
Polymer
Technical
Porous
Ceramics
Glasses
Non-ferrous
Metals
Bamboo
Cork
Leather
Wood, typical (Longitudinal)
Wood, typical (Transverse)
Aluminium/Silicon Carbide
CFRP
GFRP
Borosilicate Glass (*)
Glass Ceramic (*)
Silica Glass (*)
Soda-Lime Glass (*)
Brick (*)
Concrete, typical (*)
Stone (*)
Alumina (*)
Aluminium Nitride (*)
Boron Carbide (*)
Silicon (*)
Silicon Carbide (*)
Silicon Nitride (*)
Tungsten Carbide (*)
Cast Irons
High Carbon Steels
Medium Carbon Steels
Low Carbon Steels
Low Alloy Steels
Stainless Steels
Aluminium Alloys
Copper Alloys
Lead Alloys
Magnesium Alloys
Nickel Alloys
Titanium Alloys
Zinc Alloys
(Data courtesy of Granta Design Ltd)
12
35
0.3
5
30
2
280
550
110
264
750
1100
360
50
32
34
690
1970
2583
3200
1000
524
3347
215
400
305
250
400
170
30
30
8
70
70
250
80
-
-
-
-
-
44
1.5
10
70
6
324
1050
192
384
2129
1600
420
140
60
248
5500
2700
5687
3460
5250
5500
6833
790
1155
900
395
1100
1000
500
500
14
400
1100
1245
450
36
0.5
20
60
4
290
550
138
22
62
45
31
7
2
5
350
197
350
160
370
690
370
350
550
410
345
460
480
58
100
12
185
345
300
135
-
-
-
-
-
45
2.5
26
100
9
365
1050
241
32
177
155
35
14
6
17
665
270
560
180
680
800
550
1000
1640
1200
580
1200
2240
550
550
20
475
1200
1625
520
σts (MPa)
Flexible Polymer Foam (VLD)
Flexible Polymer Foam (LD)
Flexible Polymer Foam (MD)
Rigid Polymer Foam (LD)
Rigid Polymer Foam (MD)
Rigid Polymer Foam (HD)
Butyl Rubber
EVA
Isoprene (IR)
Natural Rubber (NR)
Neoprene (CR)
Polyurethane Elastomers (elPU)
Silicone Elastomers
ABS
Cellulose Polymers (CA)
Ionomer (I)
Nylons (PA)
Polycarbonate (PC)
PEEK
Polyethylene (PE)
PET
Acrylic (PMMA)
Acetal (POM)
Polypropylene (PP)
Polystyrene (PS)
Polyurethane Thermoplastics (tpPU)
PVC
Teflon (PTFE)
Epoxies
Phenolics
Polyester
0.01
0.02
0.05
0.3
0.4
0.8
2
12
20
20
3.4
25
2.4
18.5
25
8.3
50
59
65
17.9
56.5
53.8
48.6
20.7
28.7
40
35.4
15
36
27.6
33
-
-
0.12
0.3
0.7
1.7
3.5
12
3
18
25
30
24
51
5.5
51
45
15.9
94.8
70
95
29
62.3
72.4
72.4
37.2
56.2
53.8
52.1
25
71.7
49.7
40
σy (MPa)
0.24
0.24
0.43
0.45
0.65
1.2
5
16
20
22
3.4
25
2.4
27.6
25
17.2
90
60
70
20.7
48.3
48.3
60
27.6
35.9
31
40.7
20
45
34.5
41.4
-
-
0.85
2.35
2.95
2.25
5.1
12.4
10
20
25
32
24
51
5.5
55.2
50
37.2
165
72.4
103
44.8
72.4
79.6
89.6
41.4
56.5
62
65.1
30
89.6
62.1
89.6
σts (MPa)
For full names and acronyms of polymers – see Section V.
(*) NB: For ceramics, yield stress is replaced by compressive strength,
which is more relevant in ceramic design. Note that ceramics are of the
order of 10 times stronger in compression than in tension.
1
Polymer Foams
Thermoset
Thermoplastic
1
Polymers
Elastomer
YIELD STRESS, σy, AND TENSILE STRENGTH, σts
σy (MPa)
II.4
Ferrous
Bamboo
Cork
Leather
Wood, typical (Longitudinal)
Wood, typical (Transverse)
Aluminium/Silicon Carbide
CFRP
GFRP
Borosilicate Glass
Glass Ceramic
Silica Glass
Soda-Lime Glass
Brick
Concrete, typical
Stone
Alumina
Aluminium Nitride
Boron Carbide
Silicon
Silicon Carbide
Silicon Nitride
Tungsten Carbide
Cast Irons
High Carbon Steels
Medium Carbon Steels
Low Carbon Steels
Low Alloy Steels
Stainless Steels
Aluminium Alloys
Copper Alloys
Lead Alloys
Magnesium Alloys
Nickel Alloys
Titanium Alloys
Zinc Alloys
(Data courtesy of Granta Design Ltd)
Natural
Composites
Metal
Polymer
Technical
Porous
Ceramics
Glasses
Non-ferrous
Metals
II.5
5
0.05
3
5
0.5
15
6.1
7
0.5
1.4
0.6
0.55
1
0.35
0.7
3.3
2.5
2.5
0.83
2.5
4
2
22
27
12
41
14
62
22
30
5
12
80
14
10
-
-
-
-
-
7
0.1
5
9
0.8
24
88
23
0.7
1.7
0.8
0.7
2
0.45
1.5
4.8
3.4
3.5
0.94
5
6
3.8
54
92
92
82
200
280
35
90
15
18
110
120
100
KIC (MPa√m)
0.005
0.015
0.03
0.002
0.007
0.024
0.07
0.5
0.07
0.15
0.1
0.2
0.03
1.19
1
1.14
2.22
2.1
2.73
1.44
4.5
0.7
1.71
3
0.7
1.84
1.46
1.32
0.4
0.79
1.09
-
-
0.02
0.05
0.09
0.02
0.049
0.091
0.1
0.7
0.1
0.25
0.3
0.4
0.5
4.30
2.5
3.43
5.62
4.60
4.30
1.72
5.5
1.6
4.2
4.5
1.1
4.97
5.12
1.8
2.22
1.21
1.70
For full names and acronyms of polymers – see Section V.
Flexible Polymer Foam (VLD)
Flexible Polymer Foam (LD)
Flexible Polymer Foam (MD)
Rigid Polymer Foam (LD)
Rigid Polymer Foam (MD)
Rigid Polymer Foam (HD)
Butyl Rubber
EVA
Isoprene (IR)
Natural Rubber (NR)
Neoprene (CR)
Polyurethane Elastomers (elPU)
Silicone Elastomers
ABS
Cellulose Polymers (CA)
Ionomer (I)
Nylons (PA)
Polycarbonate (PC)
PEEK
Polyethylene (PE)
PET
Acrylic (PMMA)
Acetal (POM)
Polypropylene (PP)
Polystyrene (PS)
Polyurethane Thermoplastics (tpPU)
PVC
Teflon (PTFE)
Epoxies
Phenolics
Polyester
KIC (MPa√m)
2
estimated from K IC
= E GIC /( 1 −ν 2 ) ≈ E GIC (as ν 2 ≈ 0.1 ).
Note: K IC only valid for conditions of linear elastic fracture mechanics
(see I. Formulae & Definitions). Plane Strain Toughness, GIC , may be
1
Polymer Foams
Thermoset
Thermoplastic
Polymers
Elastomer
1
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS (PLANE STRAIN), KIC
13
Ferrous
Natural
Composites
Metal
Polymer
Porous
Technical
Ceramics
Glasses
Non-ferrous
Metals
Bamboo
Cork
Leather
Wood
Aluminium/Silicon Carbide
CFRP
GFRP
Borosilicate Glass
Glass Ceramic
Silica Glass
Soda-Lime Glass
Brick, Concrete, Stone
Alumina
Aluminium Nitride
Boron Carbide
Silicon
Silicon Carbide
Silicon Nitride
Tungsten Carbide
Cast Irons
High Carbon Steels
Medium Carbon Steels
Low Carbon Steels
Low Alloy Steels
Stainless Steels
Aluminium Alloys
Copper Alloys
Lead Alloys
Magnesium Alloys
Nickel Alloys
Titanium Alloys
Zinc Alloys
Flammability
D
D
D
D
A
B
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
Fresh water
C
B
B
C
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
B
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
C
B
B
C
B
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
C
C
C
C
C
A
B
A
A
D
A
A
C
Salt water
II.6
Sunlight (UV)
B
A
B
B
A
B
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
D
B
B
D
B
C
C
A
A
B
A
C
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
C
A
C
C
B
C
E
Flexible Polymer Foams
Rigid Polymer Foams
Butyl Rubber
EVA
Isoprene (IR)
Natural Rubber (NR)
Neoprene (CR)
Polyurethane Elastomers (elPU)
Silicone Elastomers
ABS
Cellulose Polymers (CA)
Ionomer (I)
Nylons (PA)
Polycarbonate (PC)
PEEK
Polyethylene (PE)
PET
Acrylic (PMMA)
Acetal (POM)
Polypropylene (PP)
Polystyrene (PS)
Polyurethane Thermoplastics (tpPU)
PVC
Teflon (PTFE)
Epoxies
Phenolics
Polyester
Flammability
E
C
E
E
E
E
E
E
B
D
D
D
C
B
B
D
D
D
D
D
D
C
A
A
B
B
D
Fresh water
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
Salt water
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
C
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
C
B
B
C
B
A
D
B
A
C
D
C
B
A
B
B
A
A
Sunlight (UV)
For full names and acronyms of polymers – see Section V.
Ranking:
A = very good; B = good; C = average; D = poor; E = very poor.
(Data courtesy of Granta Design Ltd)
1
Polymer Foams
Thermoset
Thermoplastic
1
Polymers
Elastomer
ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE
Wear resistance
14
D
E
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
D
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
B
C
D
C
C
B
C
C
C
Wear resistance
15
II.7 UNIAXIAL TENSILE RESPONSE OF SELECTED
METALS & POLYMERS
Figure 2.1 Tensile response of some common metals
Figure 2.2 Tensile response of some common polymers
16
III. MATERIAL PROPERTY CHARTS
III.1 YOUNG’S MODULUS – DENSITY
Figure 3.1:
Young’s modulus, E , against density, ρ .
The design guide-lines assist in
selection of materials for minimum weight, stiffness-limited design. (Data courtesy of Granta
Design Ltd)
17
III.2 STRENGTH – DENSITY
Figure 3.2: Failure strength, σ f , against density, ρ . Failure strength is defined as the tensile
elastic limit (usually yield stress) for all materials other than ceramics, for which it is the
compressive strength. The design guide-lines assist in selection of materials for minimum weight,
strength-limited design. (Data courtesy of Granta Design Ltd)
18
III.3 YOUNG’S MODULUS – STRENGTH
Figure 3.3: Young’s modulus, E , against failure strength, σ f . Failure strength is defined as
the tensile elastic limit (usually yield stress) for all materials other than ceramics, for which it is
the compressive strength. The design guide-lines assist in the selection of materials for maximum
stored energy, volume-limited design. (Data courtesy of Granta Design Ltd)
19
III.4 FRACTURE TOUGHNESS – STRENGTH
Figure 3.4: Fracture toughness (plane strain), K IC , against failure strength, σ f . Failure
strength is defined as the tensile elastic limit (usually yield stress) for all materials other than
2
/ πσ 2f , which is
ceramics, for which it is the compressive strength. The contours show K IC
approximately the diameter of the process zone at a crack tip. Valid application of linear elastic
fracture mechanics using K requires that the specimen and crack dimensions are large compared
to this process zone. The design guide-lines are used in selecting materials for damage tolerant
design. (Data courtesy of Granta Design Ltd)
20
III.5 MAXIMUM SERVICE TEMPERATURE
Figure 3.5: Maximum service temperature. The shaded bars extend to the maximum service
temperature – materials may be used safely for all temperatures up to this value, without
significant property degradation. (Note: there is a modest range of maximum service
temperature in a given material class – not all variants within a class may be used up to the
temperature shown, so caution should be exercised if a material appears close to its limit).
NB: For full names and acronyms of polymers – see Section V. (Data courtesy of Granta Design
Ltd)
21
III.6 MATERIAL PRICE (PER KG)
Figure 3.6: Material price (per kg), C m (2003 data). C m represents raw material price/kg,
and does not include manufacturing or end-of-life costs.
NB: For full names and acronyms of polymers – see Section V. (Data courtesy of Granta Design
Ltd)
Polymer Foams
•
•
•
•
•
Thermosets
•
•
•
•
•
Thermoplastics
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
(Data courtesy of Granta Design Ltd)
Natural Materials can only be machined, though
some woods are also hot formed.
Polymer Composites are shaped by dedicated
forming techniques, and are difficult to machine.
Ceramics are all processed by powder methods, and
Glasses are also moulded. Both are difficult to
machine.
Notes on other materials:
•
•
•
Titanium Alloys
Machining
•
•
•
•
•
•
Nickel Alloys
•
•
•
•
•
Aluminium, Copper, Lead,
Magnesium, Zinc Alloys
Injection
Moulding
Elastomers
Polymers
•
•
•
•
•
•
Low Alloy/Stainless Steels
•
•
•
•
•
Low Carbon Steels
Blow
Moulding
Figure 4.1b: Polymers and Foams
Non-ferrous
Extrusion
•
Sheet
Forming
•
•
Medium/High Carbon Steels
Compression
Moulding
Powder
Methods
•
•
•
•
Cast Irons
Rotational
Moulding
Ferrous
Sand
Casting
Polymer
Casting
Metals
Die
Casting
Figure 4.1a: Metals
Investment
Casting
IV.1 MATERIAL – PROCESS COMPATIBILITY MATRIX (SHAPING)
IV. PROCESS ATTRIBUTE CHARTS
Rolling/
Forging
Composite
Forming
Machining
22
23
IV.2 MASS
Metal shaping
Sand casting
Investment Casting
Rolling/Forging
Extrusion
Sheet forming
Ceramic
shaping
Polymer and
composite shaping
Die casting
Powder methods
Machining
Injection moulding
Blow moulding
Compression moulding
Rotational moulding
Polymer casting
Composite forming
10-3
10-2
0.1
1
10
102
103
104
Mass (kg)
Figure 4.2: Process attribute chart for shaping processes: mass range (kg)
IV.3 SECTION THICKNESS
Polymer and
composite shaping
Ceramic
shaping
Metal shaping
Sand casting
Die casting
Investment Casting
Rolling/Forging
Extrusion
Sheet forming
Powder methods
Machining
Injection moulding
Blow moulding
Compression moulding
Rotational moulding
Polymer casting
Composite forming
10-4
10-3
10-2
0.1
1
Section thickness (m)
Figure 4.3: Process attribute chart for shaping processes: section thickness (m)
(DATA COURTESY OF GRANTA DESIGN LTD)
24
IV.4 SURFACE ROUGHNESS
Metal shaping
Sand casting
Investment Casting
Rolling/Forging
Extrusion
Sheet forming
Ceramic
shaping
Polymer and
composite shaping
Die casting
Powder methods
Machining
Injection moulding
Blow moulding
Compression moulding
Rotational moulding
Polymer casting
Composite forming
0.1
1
10
102
Roughness (µm)
Figure 4.4: Process attribute chart for shaping processes: surface roughness (µm)
IV.5 DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCE
Polymer and
composite shaping
Ceramic
shaping
Metal shaping
Sand casting
Die casting
Investment Casting
Rolling/Forging
Extrusion
Sheet forming
Powder methods
Machining
Injection moulding
Blow moulding
Compression moulding
Rotational moulding
Polymer casting
Composite forming
10-2
0.1
1
10
Tolerance (mm)
Figure 4.5: Process attribute chart for shaping processes: dimensional tolerance (mm)
25
IV.6 ECONOMIC BATCH SIZE
Polymer and
composite shaping
Ceramic
shaping
Metal shaping
Sand casting
Die casting
Investment Casting
Rolling/Forging
Extrusion
Sheet forming
Powder methods
Machining
Injection moulding
Blow moulding
Compression moulding
Rotational moulding
Polymer casting
Composite forming
1
10
102
103
104
105
106
107
Economic batch size (units)
Figure 4.6: Process attribute chart for shaping processes: economic batch size (Data courtesy
of Granta Design Ltd)
Ferrous
Non-ferrous
Metals
Cutting tools, springs, bearings, cranks, shafts, railway track
General mechanical engineering (tools, bearings, gears, shafts, bearings)
Steel structures (“mild steel”) – bridges, oil rigs, ships; reinforcement for concrete; automotive parts,
car body panels; galvanised sheet; packaging (cans, drums)
Springs, tools, ball bearings, automotive parts (gears connecting rods etc)
Transport, chemical and food processing plant, nuclear plant, domestic ware (cutlery, washing
machines, stoves), surgical implements, pipes, pressure vessels, liquid gas containers
High Carbon Steels
Medium Carbon Steels
Low Carbon Steels
Low Alloy Steels
Stainless Steels
Roof and wall cladding, solder, X-ray shielding, battery electrodes
Automotive castings, wheels, general lightweight castings for transport, nuclear fuel containers;
principal alloying addition to Aluminium Alloys
Gas turbines and jet engines, thermocouples, coinage; alloying addition to austenitic stainless steels
Aircraft turbine blades; general structural aerospace applications; biomedical implants.
Die castings (automotive, domestic appliances, toys, handles); coating on galvanised steel
Lead Alloys
Magnesium Alloys
Nickel Alloys
Titanium Alloys
Zinc Alloys
Aerospace engineering, automotive bodies and panels, lightweight structures and ships
Heat-treatable Alloys
Electrical conductors and wire, electronic circuit boards, heat exchangers, boilers, cookware,
coinage, sculptures
Electrical conductors, heat exchangers, foil, tubes, saucepans, beverage cans, lightweight ships,
architectural panels
Non-heat-treatable Alloys
Copper Alloys
Automotive parts (cylinder blocks), domestic appliances (irons)
Casting Alloys
Aluminium Alloys
Automotive parts, engine blocks, machine tool structural parts, lathe beds
Cast Irons
Applications
V.1 METALS: FERROUS ALLOYS, NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
V. CLASSIFICATION AND APPLICATIONS OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
26
Elastomer
Polymer Foams
Thermoset
Thermoplastic
Polymers
IR
NR
CR
el-PU
Isoprene
Natural Rubber
Polychloroprene (Neoprene)
Polyurethane Elastomers
Packaging, buoyancy, cushioning, sponges, sleeping mats
Thermal insulation, sandwich panels, packaging, buoyancy
Rigid Polymer Foam
Furniture, boats, sports goods
Flexible Polymer Foam
Electrical plugs, sockets, cookware, handles, adhesives
Non-stick coatings, bearings, skis, electrical insulation, tape
Polyester
PTFE
Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon)
Pipes, gutters, window frames, packaging
Phenolics
PVC
Polyvinylchloride
Cushioning, seating, shoe soles, hoses, car bumpers, insulation
Adhesives, fibre composites, electronic encapsulation
tp-PU
Polyurethane Thermoplastics
Toys, packaging, cutlery, audio cassette/CD cases
Ropes, garden furniture, pipes, kettles, electrical insulation, astroturf
Zips, domestic and appliance parts, handles
Aircraft windows, lenses, reflectors, lights, compact discs
Blow moulded bottles, film, audio/video tape, sails
Packaging, bags, squeeze tubes, toys, artificial joints
Electrical connectors, racing car parts, fibre composites
Safety goggles, shields, helmets; light fittings, medical components
Gears, bearings; plumbing, packaging, bottles, fabrics, textiles, ropes
Packaging, golf balls, blister packs, bottles
Tool and cutlery handles, decorative trim, pens
Communication appliances, automotive interiors, luggage, toys, boats
Electrical insulation, electronic encapsulation, medical implants
Packaging, hoses, adhesives, fabric coating
Wetsuits, O-rings and seals, footware
Gloves, tyres, electrical insulation, tubing
Epoxies
PS
PET
Polyethylene terephthalate
Polystyrene
PE
Polyethylene
PP
PEEK
Polyetheretherketone
Polypropylene
PC
Polycarbonate
PMMA
PA
Polyamides (Nylons)
POM
I
Ionomer
Polyoxymethylene (Acetal)
CA
Cellulose Polymers
Polymethyl methacrylate (Acrylic)
ABS
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
Silicone Elastomers
Bags, films, packaging, gloves, insulation, running shoes
EVA
Ethylene-vinyl-acetate
Tyres, inner tubes, insulation, tubing, shoes
Tyres, seals, anti-vibration mountings, electrical insulation, tubing
Applications
Butyl Rubber
Abbreviation
V.2 POLYMERS AND FOAMS
27
Natural
Ceramics
Metal
Technical
Porous
Glasses
Polymer
Composites
Corks and bungs, seals, floats, packaging, flooring
Shoes, clothing, bags, drive-belts
Construction, flooring, doors, furniture, packaging, sports goods
Cork
Leather
Wood
Cutting tools, drills, abrasives
Tungsten Carbide
Building, scaffolding, paper, ropes, baskets, furniture
Bearings, cutting tools, dies, engine parts
Silicon Nitride
Bamboo
Microcircuits, semiconductors, precision instruments, IR windows, MEMS
High temperature equipment, abrasive polishing grits, bearings, armour
Lightweight armour, nozzles, dies, precision tool parts
Boron Carbide
Silicon Carbide
Microcircuit substrates and heatsinks
Aluminium Nitride
Silicon
Cutting tools, spark plugs, microcircuit substrates, valves
Buildings, architecture, sculpture
Stone
Alumina
General civil engineering construction
Windows, bottles, tubing, light bulbs, pottery glazes
Soda-Lime Glass
Concrete
High performance windows, crucibles, high temperature applications
Silica Glass
Buildings
Cookware, lasers, telescope mirrors
Brick
Ovenware, laboratory ware, headlights
Borosilicate Glass
Boat hulls, automotive parts, chemical plant
GFRP
Glass Ceramic
Lightweight structural parts (aerospace, bike frames, sports goods, boat hulls and oars, springs)
Automotive parts, sports goods
CFRP
Aluminium/Silicon Carbide
Applications
V.3 COMPOSITES, CERAMICS, GLASSES AND NATURAL MATERIALS
28
29
VI.
EQUILIBRIUM (PHASE) DIAGRAMS
Figure 6.1 Copper – Nickel equilibrium diagram
Figure 6.2 Lead – Tin equilibrium diagram
30
Figure 6.3 Iron – Carbon equilibrium diagram
Figure 6.4 Aluminium – Copper equilibrium diagram
31
Figure 6.5 Aluminium – Silicon equilibrium diagram
Figure 6.6 Copper – Zinc equilibrium diagram
32
Figure 6.7 Copper – Tin equilibrium diagram
Figure 6.8
Titanium – Aluminium equilibrium diagram
33
Figure 6.9 Silica – Alumina equilibrium diagram
VII. HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS
Figure 7.1 Isothermal transformation diagram for 1% nickel steel, BS503M40 (En12)
Figure 7.2 Jominy end quench curves for 1% nickel steel, BS503M40 (En12)
34
35
Figure 7.3 Isothermal transformation diagram for 1.5% Ni – Cr – Mo steel, BS817M40 (En24)
Figure 7.4 Jominy end quench curves for 1.5% Ni – Cr – Mo steel, BS817M40 (En24)
36
VIII. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SELECTED ELEMENTS
ATOMIC PROPERTIES OF SELECTED ELEMENTS
Element
Symbol
Atomic
Number
Relative
Atomic
1
Weight
Melting
Point
(oC)
Crystal
structure 2
(at 20oC)
Lattice constants 3 (at 20oC)
a, (b) (Å)
c (Å)
Aluminium
Al
13
26.982
660
f.c.c.
4.0496
Beryllium
Be
4
9.012
1280
h.c.p.
2.2856
3.5843
Boron
B
5
10.811
2300
t.
8.73
5.03
Carbon
C
6
12.011
3500
hex.
2.4612
6.7079
Chlorine
Cl
17
35.453
– 101
–
–
Chromium
Cr
24
51.996
1900
b.c.c.
2.8850
Copper
Cu
29
63.54
1083
f.c.c.
2.5053
Germanium
Ge
32
72.59
958
d.
5.6575
Gold
Au
79
196.967
1063
f.c.c.
4.0786
Hydrogen
H
1
1.008
– 259
–
–
Iron
Fe
26
55.847
1534
b.c.c.
2.8663
Lead
Pb
82
207.19
327
f.c.c.
4.9505
Magnesium
Mg
12
24.312
650
h.c.p.
3.2094
Manganese
Mn
25
54.938
1250
cub.
8.912
5.2103
Molybdenum
Mo
42
95.94
2620
b.c.c.
3.1468
Nickel
Ni
28
58.71
1453
f.c.c.
3.5241
Niobium
Nb
41
92.906
2420
b.c.c.
3.3007
Nitrogen
N
7
14.007
– 210
–
–
Oxygen
O
8
15.999
– 219
–
–
Phosphorus
P
15
30.974
44
cub.
7.17 ( at – 35oC)
Silicon
Si
14
28.086
1414
d.
5.4305
Silver
Ag
47
107.870
961
f.c.c.
4.0862
Sulphur
S
16
32.064
119
f.c.orth.
10.437, (12.845)
24.369
Tin
Sn
50
118.69
232
b.c.t.
5.8313
3.1812
Titanium
Ti
22
47.90
1670
h.c.p.
2.9504
4.6833
Tungsten
W
74
183.85
3380
b.c.c.
3.1652
Vanadium
V
23
50.942
1920
b.c.c.
3.0282
Zinc
Zn
30
65.37
419
h.c.p.
2.6649
4.9468
Zirconium
Zr
40
91.22
1850
h.c.p.
3.2312
5.1476
1
The values of atomic weight are those in the Report of the International Commission on
Atomic Weights (1961). The unit is 1/12th of the mass of an atom of C12.
2
f.c.c. = face-centred cubic; h.c.p. = hexagonal close-packed; b.c.c. = body-centred cubic;
t. = tetragonal; hex. = hexagonal; d. = diamond structure; cub. = cubic;
f.c.orth. = face-centred orthorhombic; b.c.t. = body-centred tetragonal.
3
Lattice constants are in Ångström units (1 Å = 10–10 m)
–
+ 0.34
+ 0.40
+ 0.77
+ 0.80
Cu → Cu2+ + 2e–
O2 + 2H2O + 4e– → 4(OH)–
Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e–
Ag → Ag+ + e–
(Data courtesy of Granta Design Ltd)
Au → Au3+ + 3e–
2H2O → O2 + 4H + 4e
+ 1.42
+ 1.23
+ 0.15
Sn2+ → Sn4+ + 2e–
–
0.00
H2 → 2H+ + 2e–
+
– 0.13
Pb → Pb2+ + 2e–
+ 2e
– 0.14
Sn → Sn
2+
– 0.25
– 0.44
–
Ni → Ni
+ 2e
+ 2e
2+
Fe → Fe
–
+ 3e
Cr → Cr
2+
– 0.76
Zn → Zn2+ + 2e–
– 0.74
– 1.66
Al → Al3+ + 3e–
–
– 2.36
Mg → Mg2+ + 2e–
3+
Normal hydrogen
scale (volts)
Oxidation reaction for solution of the
metal
Standard electrode potentials (300K, molar solutions)
Cr2O3
ZnO
3SiO2 + 2N2
SiO2 + CO2
MoO2
WO3
Fe3O4
NiO
–
CO2
Pb3O4
CuO
–
Ag2O
Au2O3
Zinc
Silicon nitride
Silicon carbide
Molybdenum
Tungsten
Iron
Nickel
Most polymers
Diamond, graphite
Lead
Copper
GFRP
Silver
Gold
Nb2O5
SiO2
TiO
ZrO2
Al2O3
Chromium
Niobium
Silicon
Titanium
Zirconium
Aluminium
MgO
BeO
Beryllium
Magnesium
Oxide
Material
+ 80
–5
– 200
– 254
– 309
– 389
– 400
– 439
– 508
– 510
– 534
– 580
– 629
– 636
– 701
– 757
– 836
– 848
–1028
– 1045
– 1162
– 1182
Free energy (kJ/mol O2)
Free energy of oxidation (at 273K)
OXIDATION PROPERTIES OF SELECTED ELEMENTS
37
38
0
CONVERSION OF UNITS –
STRESS, PRESSURE AND ELASTIC MODULUS *
2
MN/m (or MPa)
lb/in2
kgf/mm2
bar
MN/m2 (or MPa)
1
6.89 x 10–3
9.81
0.10
lb/in2
1.45 x 102
1
1.42 x 103
14.48
kgf/mm2
0.102
7.03 x 10–4
1
1.02 x 10–2
bar
10
6.89 x 10–2
98.1
1
CONVERSION OF UNITS – ENERGY *
J
cal
eV
ft lbf
J
1
4.19
1.60 x 10–19
1.36
cal
0.239
1
3.83 x 10–20
0.324
eV
6.24 x 1018
2.61 x 1019
1
8.46 x 1018
ft lbf
0.738
3.09
1.18 x 10–19
1
CONVERSION OF UNITS – POWER *
kW (kJ/s)
hp
ft lbf/s
*
kW (kJ/s)
1
0.746
1.36 x 10–3
hp
1.34
1
1.82 x 10–3
ft lbf/s
7.38 x 102
5.50 x 102
1
To convert row unit to column unit, multiply by the number at the column-row intersection, thus
1 MN/m2 = 10 bar