Basic ABA Training
Discrete Training
● An effective way to teach new skills by breaking them
down into simple responses
1. Get the student’s attention
2. Give an instruction or ask a question
3. Help the student by using prompts
4. Reinforce the student’s response
5. Fade your prompts
6. Reinforce independent responses
7. Introduce distractor trials
Prompting
● Anything you do that helps a student respond correctly
1. Choose a prompt
○ Manual guidance
○ Modeling
○ Visuals
○ Pre-recorded prompt
○ Verbal model
○ A prompt is effective when the student responds
correctly. Choose a response that leads to a correct
response every time.
2. Use a prompt
○ Ask the student to do something
○ Start with the most help necessary for the student
to get it correct
○ Fade assistance until the student responds on their
own
○ Increase praise and rewards as student responds
more independently
3. Correct errors
○ If the student doesn’t respond correctly go back to the
prompt that provided a correct response
○ Fade prompts until the student can give the correct
response independently
Reinforcers
● Anything you give the student after they respond that
makes them more likely to respond correctly again
1. Types of reinforcers
○ Praise
○ Snacks
○ Toys
○ Enjoyable Activities
○ Fun physical interactions
○ Break from work
○ Tokens that lead to a reward
2. How to identify potential reinforcers
○ Watch student and look for what they play with
○ Note what the student chooses first, next, last
○ The student will repeat the behavior in order to get
the reinforcer
○ The student will look for the reinforcer
○ The student engages with the reinforcer
○ The student smiles when given the reinforcer
3. How to vary reinforcers
○ Vary and add to the list
○ Ask the student what they want to work for
○ Look for a theme (cars)
○ Encourage student to try other things
○ Expose student to new reinforcers
○ Pair praise with food and fade the food
○ Earn certain number of tokens before earning
reinforcer
4. When to reinforce
○ Ask student to do something
○ Present reinforcer immediately after
○ Give only after correct response
○ Make sure to give praise and describe the correct
response
5. How to reinforce less over time
○ Reinforce even with prompts
○ As you fade prompts, provide better rewards
○ Best rewards are for independent responses
○ As student become more independent only reinforce
every few responses
Incidental Teaching
● An effective way to teach by capturing the student’s
interests
1. Setup the environment to encourage interest in an activity
or item
2. Watch for the student to show interest in the item or
activity
○ Reach, point, say something about it, ask, look at it
3. Ask and prompt a response related to the activity or item
○ Ask student to read the word
○ Ask student to count
○ Ask student to name location of the item
○ Ask student to give quantity of money
○ Prompt student to ask for the activity or item
○ Prompt student to ask a question
4. Reward the student with the item or activity
5. Fade prompts until the student responds correctly and
independently
Generalization
● Teach the student to apply skills in daily life beyond the
teaching environment
● Stimulus Generalization - Teach the student to give the
same response to a variety of stimuli
1. Teach the student to use the same response when
presented with various materials
○ Picture
○ Toy
○ Puzzle
○ Video
○ To maintain motivation ask the student to perform a
task they already know
2. Teach the student to use the same response when
presented with various instructions
○ Point to
○ Which one
○ Find the
3. Teach the student to use the same response in varied
locations
○ On the floor
○ At the desk
○ On bean bags
○ At the table
4. Teach the student to use the same response with varied
people
○ When testing, do not prompt the student
○ Can use incidental teaching to generalize
● Response Generalization - Teach the student to respond to
the same stimulus in a variety of ways
○ Hello
○ Hi
○ Hey
Maintenance
● Help the student continue to use learned skills
1. Determine if your student if maintaining the skill
○ Schedule follow up testing sessions once a week for a
few weeks then once a month after that
○ If the skill is not maintained, reteach the skill
2. Incorporate the learned skill into play activities
3. Incorporate the learned skill into real life situations
4. Incorporate the learned skill into more complex skill
○ Use natural rewards that the student will encounter
in daily life - praise and items related to the response
Record Results
● Record results on your students progress to determine
when it’s time to teach your student new skills.
1. Determine when it is time to test.
○ When the student responds correctly and
independently it may be time to test.
○ Keep teaching until the student demonstrates correct
responses without assistance.
2. Test the student.
○ Wait until the next day
○ You can print a data sheet
○ Provide no prompting or reinforcement
○ Record correct response
○ If the student does not respond or responds
incorrectly then mark it as incorrect
○ If the student gets 5 or more correct responses in a
row, you may stop the test.
○ If the student gets some correct and incorrect keep
going until you reach 10 trials
○ To keep the student motivated, ask the student a
question they have already mastered. Do not score
these trials.
3. Record results
○ Go to the Lessons Page and click “Record Results”
○ Select the date
○ Enter test scores
○ 90% or more on 2 trials you can go to the next lesson
4. Interpret the Results
○ If the results are improving, you should continue
teaching.
○ If the results are not improving, the student may
need more time or you may need to change the way
you are teaching or teach a prerequisite skill first.
○ Try to identify the kind of problem the student is
having
i.
Attending
ii.
Search for lesson and add to it
iii.
Increase the student’s motivation
Problem Behavior
● Reduce or prevent any behavior that is disruptive,
interferes with learning, or is socially stigmatizing.
1. Identify the problem behavior.
a. Define the problem behavior in observable terms.
2. Identify potential reasons why your student is engaging in
problem behavior.
a. Wants an item
b. Sensory
c. Escape or avoidance behavior
d. Attention
3. Assess the problem behavior
a. Take a log of what happened before and after the
problem behavior.
4. Potential ways to reduce the problem behavior
a. Do not provide the item until he demonstrates
appropriate behavior.
b. Teach the student to wait for the item
c. Offer an alternative
d. Continue to present the task
e. Provide rewards for completing the task
f. Provide more frequent and immediate rewards
g. Teach the student to request help or breaks
h. Redirect the student for other sensory input
i. Do not provide attention to the problematic behavior
j. Reward only appropriate behavior
k. Teach the student way to ask for attention
● Extinction Burst - The problem behavior may increase
temporarily if the student does not get what they want
(escape, attention etc.)
● Engage again when the student resumes appropriate
behavior.
● To minimize an extinction burst, provide opportunities for
the student to be rewarded.
Teaching Complex Skills - Part I
● Learn how to use a task analysis to break a complex skill
down into multiple steps.
1. Conduct a task analysis
● Breaks a complex skill into all its components
● Complete all the steps yourself and compile steps
into a list
2. Individualize the task analysis
● Individualize the task analysis according to the
student’s capabilities
● May need more or less steps to tie their shoes
● Some steps may need to be broken down even more
Teaching Complex Skills - Part II
● Learn how to teach your student a complex skill by linking
small steps together into a long chain
1. Forward Chaining
○ Begin by prompting the first step of the skill
○ When the student completes the first step
independently, prompt the second step
○ Then teach each additional step in the chain until they
can complete all the steps independently
○ Provide praise and a reward
2. Backward chaining
○ Teach the steps of the skill in reverse order by
starting with the final step
○ When they are able to complete the last step in the
chain prompt the penultimate step
○ As the student masters each step, continue to teach
each step in reverse order until the student can
complete the chain independently
○ Provide praise and a reward
3. Total task teaching
○ Teach all steps at the same time
○ Guide the student for each step and provide praise for
each step
○ Fade prompts across teaching trials
○ Fade prompts completely until the student can
complete the task independently
Teaching Complex Skills - Part III
● Learn about the different components needed to teach
your student complex skills
1. Prompt the student
2. Reinforce the student’s responses
a. Fade reinforcement
3. Correct errors
a. Have the student correct themselves before moving
on to the next step
4. Vary teaching strategies for older students
a. Use rewards that are age appropriate
5. Promote independence
a. Use a picture schedule
b. Use a text schedule
Advanced ABA Training
● BACB - Behavior Analysis Certification Board
○ BCBA - D
■ Board Certified Behavior Analyst Doctoral
■ Most advanced credential
■ Earned a doctorate degree in a related field
■ Is already a BCBA
○ BCBA
■ Board Certified Behavior Analyst
■ Requires a Masters degree in a related field
■ Completed specific coursework in ABA
■ Completed designated number of supervision
and training hours
■ Earned a passing grade on the BCBA exam
○ BCaBA
■ Board Certified Assistant Behavior Analyst
■ Requires a Bachelor's degree in related field
■ Completed specific coursework in ABA
■ Completed designated number of supervision
and training hours
■ Earned a passing grade on BCBA exam
■ Can not practice independently
■ May supervise RBT
○ RBT
■ Registered Behavior Technician
■ 40 hour RBT Training
■ Complete and pass the Initial Competency
Assessment
■ Demonstrate proficiency on Renewal
Competency Assessment tasks
● Interview and observation
■ Pass the RBT exam by Pearson
● Maintain appropriate boundaries
● Measurement
● Assessment
● Skill acquisition
● Behavior reduction
● Documentation and reporting
● Code of conduct and scope of practice
Measurement
● Prepare for, gather, and graph data
Assessment
● Determine progress, preferences, skills, behavior
Skill Acquisition
● Use a variety of ABA-based teaching strategies
● Teach a wide range of skills
○ Academic
○ Self-care
○ Vocational
○ Leisure
○ Daily living
○ Social
● Prepare for teaching interactions by setting up the
environment
● RBTs do NOT design teaching procedures or behavior plans,
your job is to implement
Supervisor
● Assigns tasks and responsibilities to the RBT
● Employed by same organization
● Designs skill acquisition and BIP
● Requirements Coordinator
○ RBT has a BCBA supervisor
○ Requirements are being met
● Annual completion of competency assessment
● Renewal application and fee
● Good ethical standing
● On-going supervision
Intro to Applied Behavior Analysis - ABA
● “The science in which tactics derived from the principles of
behavior are applied to improve socially significant
behavior and experimentation is used to identify the
variables responsible for the improvement of behavior.”
● Principles of behavior- the rules of how we all learn
○ Posting cute dog pics and getting a lot of “Likes” will
be more likely to post again because the consequence
was desirable.
○ Socially significant behavior
■ Tying shoes
■ Ask for cookies
● Data is collected before and after intervention
Seven Dimensions of ABA
● Applied
● Behavioral
● Analytic
● Technological
● Conceptually systematic
● Effective
● Generalizable
● Applied
○ Behavior change must be significant to the individual
and surrounding community
● Behavior
○ Focus on behavior that is observable and measurable
■ Raising hand
■ Giving compliment
■ Saying “Thank you”
■ Crying
■ Going out to eat
○ Emotions are more difficult to measure and are
typically not the focus
● Analytic
○ Functional relationship has been reliably
demonstrated between an environmental event and a
change in behavior
■ Praise student for raising her hand -> hand
raising increases
■ Conduct data to confirm relationship
● Technological
○ Procedures described in enough detail that anyone
can replicate and implement them
● Conceptually Systematic
○ Procedures or interventions are derived from a strong
theoretical base
● Effective
○ The change in behavior is large enough for others to
observe and appreciate
● Generalizable
○ The change in behavior is observed across a variety of
settings and is durable over time
Behavioral Excesses vs Deficits
● Behavioral Excesses - behaviors to decrease
○ Stereotypic or repetitive behaviors
○ Aggression
○ Tantrums
● Behavioral Deficits - behavior to increase
○ Language skills
○ Communication skills
○ Play skills
○ Attention skills
○ Cognitive skills
● James B. Watson - Direct observation of how behavior is
affected by prior events
○ Stimulus Response Interaction
● B.F. Skinner - Direct observation of how behavior changed
by what happened after the behavior
○ Stimulus-Response-Stimulus
■ Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence
○ Operant behavior
■ Behavior learned as a result of environmental
consequences
● Wolf, Risely, Bear
○ Positive reinforcement to help child wear his glasses
Applications of ABA
● Pediatric medicine
● Sports psychology
● Business and service organizations
Core Features of ABA
● Human behavior can be either:
○ Respondent behavior
■ Involuntary behavior that is elicited and reflexive
● Smell pepper and sneeze
● Knee kick
● Behavior is not learned
○ Operant behavior
■ Learned voluntary behavior that is controlled by
antecedent and consequence events that are
evoked
● Saying hello
● Checking social media
● Asking someone on a date
● Texting back
■ Operant behavior is observable and measurable
● MAKE IT MOO
○ ABA is mostly focused on operant behavior
○ Operant behavior is controlled by antecedent and
consequence events
○ Operant behavior is shaped by consequences
■ The Three Term Contingency
● The Three Term Contingency
○ Antecedent Stimulus -> A
○ Behavior -> B
○ Consequence Stimulus -> C
○ Stimulus -> Response -> Stimulus
● A - phone buzzes
● B - look at phone
● C - desirable photo
○ More likely to repeat behavior because of pleasurable
stimulus
● ABA seeks to identify functional relationships between
amongst observed stimuli and behavior
● Operant behavior is assessed and modified by
manipulating observable stimuli NOT ANTECEDENTS
Antecedents - what comes before the behavior or response
● Teaching materials
● Environmental setting
● The sD (Discriminative Stimulus) or instruction
Behavior - the response to the antecedent or stimulus that is
observable and measurable
● Screaming
● Answering a question
Consequence - stimulus that follows a response or behavior
● Reinforcement
● Punishment
Consequences That Influence Behavior
● Positive reinforcement
○ Behavior INCREASES when a pleasurable
stimulus/consequence follows it
○ Positive means something is added
● Negative reinforcement
○ Behavior INCREASES when an unpleasant
stimulus/consequence is removed following a
response
○ Negative means something is taken away
● Positive Punishment
○ Presentation of stimulus that leads to a DECREASE
in the behavior
● Negative punishment
○ Pleasurable stimulus is removed following a response
that leads to a DECREASE in the behavior
● Behavior change can occur by altering either the
antecedent or the consequence
Functions of Behavior
● EATS:
○ Escape
○ Attention
○ Tangible - items, toys
○ Sensory - automatically reinforcing
● Can be more than one function
Interventions Based on ABA
● Shaping
● Task analysis
● Chaining
● Discrete trial teaching
● Incidental training
● Stimulus shaping
● Stimulus fading
○ Breaking skills down into component parts
○ Identifying a functional reinforcer to increase
responding
○ Documenting through data collection and analysis
that intervention is effective
● Myths about ABA
○ ABA therapy takes place only at the desk
○ ABA is only about rote learning
An Introduction to Autism Spectrum Disorder ASD
● PERSON FIRST LANGUAGE - Person with Autism
● 1 in 59 children have ASD
● 4x more frequently in boys than girls
● 1 in 37 boys
● Does not discriminate
● No definitive cause
● Neurological disorder
● No biological marker
● Diagnosed by looking at behavioral characteristics and
developmental history
● There are no genetic conditions associated with ASD
○ Genetic disorders - Fragile x and TS
Characteristics of ASD
● Impairment or Deficit of Social Interaction
○ No eye contact
○ Does no respond to their name
○ Does not use age appropriate gestures
○ May not develop appropriate peer relationships
○ May not respond appropriately to other’s emotions
○ May not share social experiences with others
○ May demonstrate a lack of make believe or social
play
● Impairment or Deficit in Communication
○ May have limited or under developed language
○ May demonstrate difficulties in having a conversation
or use language in a repetitive manner
● Repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior and
interest
○ Repetitive body movements
○ Intense preoccupation with an item or concept
○ May develop rigid non-functional routines
○ Demonstrate unusual responses to sensory input,
such as bandages or sounds
● At risk for developing challenging behavior
○ Tantrums
○ Aggression
○ Noncompliance
○ SIB
○ Property destruction
● Late to develop spoken language or not at all
● Language may be repetitive
● Language may be idiosyncratic
● Often display challenges in social interaction
● May not initiate or sustain eye contact
● Little to no joint attention skills
○ Jointly attending to an object or event
○ Share in experience of sharing a funny toy but
pointing or looking at a person for attention
● Repetitive behavior
○ Stereotypic behavior or stereotypy
○ Repetitive motor movements
■ Flapping hands
■ Walking on toes
○ Repetitive actions with objects
■ Lining up toys
■ Spinning wheels of toy car
■ Shaking an object
■ Repetitive vocalizations
■ Imitating sounds he hears
■ May talk repeatedly about the same topic
Challenging Behaviors
● Tantrums
● Aggression
● SIB
● Noncompliance
● Property destruction
○ Can occur if the person with ASD is unable to
communicate effectively
● May pull hair until father picks him up
Diagnosing ASD
● Developmental history
● Observation
● Assessments
○ The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS)
■ Semi-structured assessment
■ Assesses communication, social interaction, and
play or imaginative use of materials
■ Used for individuals suspected of having ASD
■ Also used for individuals with other pervasive
developmental disorders
● Rely on the DSM-5 - Updated in May 2013
○ Prior to DSM update there were separate diagnosis
for:
■ Autistic Disorder
■ Autism
■ Asperger’s Disorder
■ Pervasive Developmental Disorder - Not
Otherwise Specified
○ Now one diagnosis by severity level of ASD
■ 1- requires support
■ 2- requires substantial support
■ 3- requires very substantial support
● Symptoms may be present and detectable from infancy
● The child may seem to develop typically until the age of 1416 months and then starts losing learned skills
○ These symptoms vary widely - mild to severe
Treatment for Autism
● Interventions based on ABA have the strongest scientific
support showing its effectiveness in treating individuals
with ASD
● 25 hours a week of intervention
● Intervention should be comprehensive
1. Call the child’s name and see if they respond
2. Ask the child to point to common objects and body parts
3. Point to the ceiling or door knob and see if the child
follows your point
4. Show a flashlight and see if they look at the light
5. Play with a toy and see if the child imitates you
6. Wave to the child and observe response
Learn how relationship building meets the needs of people with
an ASD
● Why relationship building is important
● Strategies to establish yourself as a reinforcer
● How to know if you have established a good relationship
Relationship Building & ASD 2 of the core features of ASD
include deficits in: social interaction and communication.
● Importance of Relationship Building Good relationships
address the core deficits in a client with ASD.
● I can model appropriate communication and social skills.
● The time we work together will be more enjoyable.
● Building a good relationship increases productivity and
learning during the time you spend with a client.
● Our willingness to work and be productive increases when
we are with people we like to be around.
● Relationship building helps to establish you as a reinforcer.
● When you become the reinforcer that increases behavior
in the client you are working with, you will also notice that
you have to use fewer contrived reinforcers during the
sessions.
● How to Establish Myself as a Reinforcer
○ 1. Pair myself with preferred activities
○ 2. Make activities better when I am involved
○ 3. Give access to preferred activities
○ 4. Be consistent
○ 5. Show enthusiasm
○ 6. Show care and respect
● Pairing Myself with Preferred Activities
○ By pairing myself with preferred activities the client
already enjoys, I become an example of a
■ conditioned reinforcer: a stimulus that acquires
its reinforcing value through its pairing with
already reinforcing conditions.
○ Pairing myself means I am present or involved in
activities the client already enjoys.
○ Passive: watching a favorite cartoon with a client.
○ Active: playing with toys or a favorite game together.
Or, providing and eating a favorite snack together.
● Relationship Building Make Activities More Fun
○ When I am Involved I can involve myself in an activity
by adding to the aspects of the activity that the
learner enjoys.
○ For example: Pushing them on a swing
○ Adding to the excitement by making anticipating
sounds, like an excited countdown
○ Overtime, they will prefer to do the activity with me
rather than alone.
● Give Access to Preferred Activities
○ When beginning to build a relationship with a client, I
should not withhold access to the activities they enjoy.
○ Provide very frequent access to items or activities.
○ Sometimes I will provide items and activities as a
reinforcer, but I should also allow free access to said
activities so I am not associated only with work
demands.
● Be Consistent
○ Being consistent in my interactions and expectations
helps build a trusting relationship.
○ Be consistent in my mood, tone of voice, and facial
expressions .
○ Keep the amount of work tasks consistent from
session to session.
● Show Enthusiasm
○ Being enthusiastic lets my client know that I enjoy
being with him or her.
○ I can: Be excited and celebrate success.
○ Give praise and acknowledge accomplishments.
○ Pair my smile with preferred activities.
● Show Care & Respect
○ Showing care and respect is crucial.
○ Always use language and a tone of voice I would want
used with me.
○ Many learners with ASD may not have the
communication to tell me when they are feeling
upset, unwell, or frustrated.
○ It is important that I notice outward signs of distress
and show concern.
○ Seek guidance from a supervisor and report mood
and changes in affect to a parent or supervisor.
○ When discussing challenging behavior, I should avoid
talking about the student’s challenges in front of
them.
● When Should I Use These Strategies
○ I will dedicate time to build a strong and positive
relationship in the beginning before I start placing
demands, but also use these strategies all the time
during every session.
○ Some strategies may be used less frequently over
time, such as pairing myself with preferred activities.
○ But others should never be faded: showing
enthusiasm, being consistent, and showing respect.
● How Will I Know if I Have Established a Good Relationship
○ Changes you might notice:
■ Client and myself will smile and laugh together
more often.
■ Client and myself will look forward to sessions
even more.
■ The client will display less challenging behavior
and be more productive during our sessions
together.
The Basics of Reinforcers
● Anything you give the student after a response that
makes the student more likely to respond again
● Types of Reinforcers
○ Praise
○ Snacks
○ Toys
○ Enjoyable activities
○ Fun physical interactions
○ Breaks
○ Token system
● How to Identify Potential Reinforcers
○ Observe student’s interest
● How to Know You Have an Effective Reinforcer
○ The student will repeat the behavior to get the
reinforcer
○ Looks for the reinforcers
○ Smiles when given the reinforcer
○ Engages with the reinforcer
● How to Vary Reinforcers
○ Establish a list and vary and extend the reinforcers
to maintain motivation
○ Try variations on a theme, such as cars.
○ Encourage the student to try other activities
○ Expose your student to new things
○ Pair praise with food and eventually fade the food
until your praise is the reinforcer
● When to Reinforce
○ Ask the student to do something
○ Present the reinforcer immediately after when the
response is correct
○ Give praise with the reinforcer and describe the
behavior being reinforced
● How to Reinforce Less Over Time
○ Reinforce the response even with prompts
○ As you fade the prompts provide better rewards
○ The best rewards are for independent responses
○ Do not reinforce for every response once the behavior
is independent.
Reinforcement
● Reinforcement is one of the most important behavioral
processes.
● Part 1 Definition:
○ Reinforcement is a process whereby behavior is
followed by some consequence and as a result of this
consequence, behavior is strengthened or is more
likely to occur again in the future.
○ Example: willingly done chores + allowance = more
willingly done chores
● Two Keys to the Definition of Reinforcement:
○ 1. It is a process.
○ 2. The effect on behavior is strengthened.
● Recall from Applied Behavior Analysis:
○ Operant behavior: is controlled by antecedent and
consequent events.
○ Consequences: either strengthen or weaken behavior.
○ Reinforcement: behavior is strengthened
● The Process of Reinforcement with in the 3 term
contingency
○ A= Antecedent
○ B= Behavior
○ C= Consequence
● A few examples where we focus on the behavior and the
consequence:
○ Dog whines + gets food = more dog whining, then the
process of Reinforcement has occurred if whining is
strengthened
○ Bill plays his guitar + audience claps and cheers= Bill
to play his guitar again in the future, if the playing of
his guitar playing is strengthened, then the process of
reinforcement has occurred.
○ Child cries + gets doll = more crying
● Part 2
● Two types of reinforcement
○ Two types of reinforcement are positive and negative
stimuli, with the result of behavior being
strengthened
○ Positive + adding stimuli strengthening behavior
○ Negative - removal of stimuli strengthening behavior.
○ If you add something desirable following a behavior
and the behavior is strengthened this is an example
of positive reinforcement.
○ If you remove something undesired following a
behavior and the behavior is strengthened this is an
example of negative reinforcement.
○ Negative (-) reinforcement and punishment are NOT
the same. (-) Negative reinforcement strengthens
behavior, punishment weakens behavior.
○ Behavior + consequence = more behavior = positive
reinforcement
○ Behavior – consequence = more behavior - -negative
reinforcement.
■ Example: A student completes worksheet quickly
gets + positive reinforcement in the form of
praise from the teacher = student working
quickly again in the future, behavior of working
quickly is strengthened (pleasurable stimulus
presented)
■ Turn radio knob that controls the volume - loud
music is removed= behavior of turning the knob
is followed by the removal of a stimulus (loud
music), behavior is strengthened, then the
process of negative reinforcement has occurred.
○ Positive reinforcement is the addition of Pleasant
Stimulus.
○ Negative reinforcement is the removal of Unpleasant
Stimulus.
● Extinction: Is a process whereby a reinforcer is no longer
provided contingent on a response.
● Behavior that was previously reinforced is no longer
reinforced.
● Unlike reinforcement that intends to strengthen behavior,
Extinction causes behaviors to decrease over time.
● Response will decrease over time and no longer be
demonstrated.
● If challenging behavior is reliably followed by a preferred
reinforcer it will be maintained.
● If the reinforcement stops being provided the behavior will
decrease over time.
● Sometimes the behavior will increase first.
○ This is called an extinction burst.
○ This is a temporary increase in frequency that occurs
when reinforcers are no longer provided for that
behavior
● Part 3
● 2 Types of Consequence Stimuli
○ 1. Primary Reinforcers
○ 2. Secondary reinforcers
○ Primary reinforcers are those that work without any
prior learning or experience, they are required for
Survival Food, Water, Warmth, Sexual stimulation.
○ Secondary reinforcers acquire reinforcing properties
by being paired with primary reinforcers or other
secondary reinforcers.
○ Examples
■ Tangible /things: toys
■ Activities oriented events: playing a game
■ Social reinforcers: talking with others
■ Generalized reinforcers: money
● Backup Reinforcers:
○ Backup reinforcers are used with token economies.
○ A token economy uses a symbol of a token that are
earned and can then be exchanged for a back-up
reinforcer.
○ Benefit of using a token reinforcement system:
■ It can increase the time between the target
behavior and the delivery of back up
reinforcement.
● Effectiveness of a reinforcer is influenced by many factors.
● Effectiveness Factors:
○ 1. Immediacy
○ 2. Contingency
○ 3. Quality
○ 4. Magnitude
○ 5. Effort
○ 6. History
○ 7. Motivating Operations
● Immediacy: time between behavior and presentation of the
reinforcing consequence. Long time = low probability of
behavior to occur again.
○ Dolphin example: 30 minutes after the ring retrieval
has low probability of being repeated
● Contingency: rule about when a behavior will be reinforced
and when it will not be reinforced.
● A reinforcer always occurs following the response and not
in the absence of responses.
● Reinforce only behaviors you want to increase.
● Do not reinforce undesirable behaviors.
○ Example: bring plates to sink after a meal, they
should provide praise for the sink every time they
bring dishes to the sink
● Quality: Relative preference for reinforcing material
○ Example: use ice cream to get child to eat vegetables
● Magnitude: size or duration of reinforcer, needs to be big
enough to be motivating
○ Example: watching TV
● Effort: The response effort required to obtain or access the
reinforcement : too hard = no desired behavior
demonstrated
○ Example: hungry but too tired to go to restaurant
that is farther away
● History: It is Important to know what has worked in the
past and what is preferable for your specific client. What
is reinforcing for one may not be for another.
○ Example: I like salty but you like sweet. Salty snacks
will strengthen my behavior AND I like parties but
you are shy parties /will not strengthen your behavior
● Motivating operations (MO): Some event that temporarily
alters the effectiveness of a reinforcer.
● Two most common demonstrations of Motivating
Operations (MO) are Satiation or Deprivation
● Satiation is when a reinforcer has been overused and is no
longer interesting.
○ Example: I just ate a big meal so I do not want to go
food shopping
● Deprivation refers to the time prior to a training session
during which an individual does not experience or is
deprived of a reinforcer. Makes it more valuable.
○ Example: I am really hungry. I am more motivated to
go food shopping
● Part 4
● Schedules of Reinforcements
○ A schedule of reinforcement that specifies which
occurrences of a given behavior will be reinforced.
○ Reinforcement is scheduled to occur along a
continuum:
○ Extinction: no reinforcement
○ Partial/Intermittent: some responses reinforced
○ Continuous: every response reinforced
○ When teaching new skills, a continuous schedule of
reinforcement is used.
○ Over time the response is reinforced less often.
○ When the response occurs regularly over time we
move to an intermittent schedule providing the
reinforcer some but not all of the time.
● It is important to “Thin“ the schedule or reinforcement over
time because:
○ 1. The natural environment is not likely to reinforce
every response
○ 2. Research shows intermittent reinforcement will
last longer, more resistant to extinction
● Part 5
● Schedules of Reinforcement
○
Schedules of Reinforcement
Extinctio
Intermi
Contin
n
ttent
uous
Interval
Fixed Variable
Ratio
Fixed Variable
● Ratio schedules are response-based.
● The reinforcer is provided only after a specific number of
responses have occurred.
○ Example: converting documents- typing a page,
money is the reinforcer
● Ratios can be fixed: after a set or fixed number of
responses.
○ Example: FR:6= Fixed ratio 6 (number of responses
needed before reinforcer is provided) OR
● Variable: number of responses is an number, not an exact
number:
○ Example: car ignition- turn key to start car: VR3 =
variable ratio 3 (average number of responses a
reinforcer is provided)
● Part 6
● Interval Schedules:
○ Interval schedules are time based- require a time
interval to pass between the presentation of
reinforcers. The reinforcer is not delivered after the
interval has ended, but for the first response after
the interval has ended.
● Fixed:
○ Reinforcer delivered for the first response that occurs
after the interval has ended.
○ Example: string beads- 20 second intervals FI 20
second= Fixed interval 20 seconds. It doesn’t matter
how many responses occurred before 20 seconds was
over.
● Variable: When time interval is variable, reinforcer is
scheduled for the first response that occurs after a
variable amount of time passed. Time is the average
amount, not fixed.
○ Example: Mary and math worksheets, average of 4
minutes VI 4 min = Variable interval 4 minutes
○ Some intervals are variable. You may need to perform
for an undetermined changing amount of time to be
reinforced. The time passed is averaged.
● Schedule Thinning: A process in which we transition
gradually from continuous to intermittent schedules of
reinforcement.
● Ratio Thinning: gradually increase the number of
responses before reinforcer is given- do in small
increments
○ Example: saying hi: FR1 = fixed ratio 1 to VR 3 =
variable ratio 3
● Interval Thinning: gradually increase the duration of time
that must pass before the reinforcer can be delivered- do
in small increments
○ Example: sustain toy play: FI 1 min over time thin to
VI 2 min schedule of reinforcement
● Review
○ 1. Reinforcement is a process whereby behavior is
followed by some consequence. As a result of this
consequence, behavior is strengthened or is more
likely to occur again in the future.
○ 2. Reinforcement is the consequent stimulus in the
three term contingency
○ 3. Two types of reinforcement: positive and negative
○ 4. Two types of reinforcers: conditioned and
unconditioned
○ 5. Factors that influence the effectiveness of
reinforcement: immediacy, consistency, magnitude,
history, and motivating operations
○ 6. Schedule of reinforcement specifies which
occurences of a given behavior will be reinforced, and
should be thinned gradually over time
● Choosing Reinforcers and Preference Assessment
● Part 1
● To be successful in changing behavior, functional
consequences must be used.
● If we want to strengthen a behavior we use a
Reinforcement procedure.
● Remember that reinforcement is a process in which
behavior is followed by some consequence.
● Behavior is strengthened or more likely to occur again in
future.
○ A (antecedent/before)
○ B (response/behavior)
○ C (consequence/ after)
■ = Strengthened behavior/ more likely to occur
● Potential Reinforcers:
○ 1. Food
○ 2. Toys
○ 3. Activities
○ 4. Social Interaction
○ 5. Praise
● Examples of Reinforcers
○ Toys, slinky
○ Food, cookies
○ Enjoyable activities, game
○ Social interaction; praise, high fives
○ Fun physical interactions, tickles
○ Breaks
○ Coins stickers tokens etc.
● Sample reinforcement process:
○ Goal is for the student to look at the teacher and say
yes when she calls his name:
○ Present the reinforcer immediately after he does
what is asked.
○ Give the reinforcer only after they do what is asked.
○ Make sure to give praise with the reinforcer and
describe what you are praising him for
○ Initially, reinforce even if you helped or prompted him
to do what you ask.
○ As you fade your prompts offer better rewards
○ Best rewards are given for independent responses
● Important factors to consider when choosing reinforcers
include:
○ How desirable the reinforcer is: How much the learner
wants access to the reinforcer.
○ The preferences of the learner: What each learner
specifically likes and dislikes.
○ Remember each learner is different/unique and has
different preferences. To help us determine what the
learner prefers, we can use various informal and
formal methods.
● Part 2
● Informal assessments
● Methods for choosing reinforcers:
○ 1. Ask
○ 2. Watch
○ 3. Sample
○ 4. Offer Choices
○ 5. Try and see
● Ask: simply ask what he or she wants; the person’s
response can help you identify potential reinforcers.
● Factors to consider:
○ 1. A person’s desires may not stay the same over
time- Constantly check and ask what the learner
wants
○ 2. A person might want the item or activity only at
certain times or situations.
■ Example: A learner may like to swing, but only
on specific types of swings.
■ Gather all related information about the
reinforcers.
○ 3. If the learner can’t communicate, ask other people
who know the learner well: family members,
caregivers, therapists, teachers.
○ Watch: spend time observing the student to see
what he or she chooses to do during playtime or
leisure time. Watch the student when he or she is
spending leisure time with caregivers to identify
preferred items and activities or restricted interests.
○ Use reinforcer sampling to help the student expand
his or her range of interests.
○ Sampling involves providing a sample of some
different reinforcers that the student has not
engaged in or experienced before.
■ Example: expose students to other games during
leisure time.
○ Provide a menu of items or activities that are
available and then ask the student what he or she
wants.
○ Chosen item will be provided after targeted behavior
is demonstrated.
● Try and See:
○ Student demonstrated desire > provide different
items and activities > observe what happens to the
behavior > if the item is a reinforcer, behavior should
occur again > if it is not a reinforcer, behavior will not
likely occur again.
○ Vary and add to the reinforcer list as often as
possible. This helps the student stay motivated.
Expose students to new items and activities as well,
they can become reinforcers. If they only like food,
pair it with praise until the praise becomes enough.
● Part 3:
● Formal standard assessments procedures: refer to
standard assessment procedures used for determining a
person’s preference.
● Preference Assessments:
○ Present a variety of items in structured way
○ Measure how often items are chosen
○ Collect and analyze data
○ Item chose most often = Potential reinforcer
● Three Types of Preference Assessments: prior to
performing assessment, gather a group of items to
assess:
○ 1. Single stimulus : Present 1 item at a time.
○ 2. Paired stimulus: testing two items at a timewhich is most preferred?
○ 3. Multiple stimulus preference assessment- Present
more than two items at one time, all in a row.
● Part 4:
● Procedure for formal assessment
● 1. Single stimulus : Present 1 item at a time.
○ a. Did the child approach?
○ b. Did they engage?
○ c. Take data/notes
○ d. Repeat until all items have been tested.
● 2. Paired stimulus: testing two items at a time - which is
most preferred? Items are compared and a hierarchy of
most preferred to least preferred items is created.
○ e. Gather approx. 6-8 items then assign a number to
each item
○ f. Present 2 items at a time - one on left and one on
right
○ g. Let the child choose one and engage with it.
○ h. Remove the remaining item.
○ i. Present next pairs of items
○ j. Repeat for at least 8 trials- until all items have
been paired with each other
○ k. Review data to determine percentage of trials an
item was chosen
○ l. Create a hierarchy of how often items were chosen
○ m. The most chosen items is the most preferred
● 3. Multiple stimulus preference assessment- Present more
than two items at one time, all in a row. Items are
compared and a hierarchy of most preferred to least
preferred items is created. Use ~5-8 items
○ n. Gather items you wish to assess
○ o. Place in a straight line in front of learner
○ p. Assign each item a starting position
○ q. Ask child to choses one
○ r. Allow learner to eat/engage with item
○ s. Record which item was chosen and its position
○ t. Rearrange remaining items: item on extreme right
is moved so it becomes the first item on the left
○ u. Reassign the starting numbers
○ v. Repeat
○ w. Data reflects order of hierarchy.
○ x. The first item chosen is the most preferred, the
last item the least preferred.
● Review:
○ Success of reinforcement procedure depends on how
desireable or preferred the consequence is
○ Informal methods:
■ 1. Ask
■ 2. Watch
■ 3. Offer Choices
■ 4. Reinforcer Sampling
■ 5. Try and See
● Formal methods include conducting preference
assessments
○ Three preference assessments:
■ 1. Single stimulus
■ 2. Paired stimulus
■ 3. Multiple stimulus
Shaping
● Shaping is the process of differentially reinforcing success
approximation to a target behavior. First when teaching
new skills, we accept approximations as correct. The child
may only answer with the first sound or the first gesture,
but we provide the reinforcer. Over time we would stop
accepting the lesser response and expect a closer
approximation to our end goal.
● When first teaching the child to say “Juice”:
○ Child says “Juh” Child gets Juice
○ Overtime, child says “Juh” Child no longer is given
Juice
○ Child says “Joo” Child gets Juice
○ Eventually, child says “Juice” Child gets Juice
● When first teaching a rat to press a lever:
○ Rat may walk toward the side of the cage Rat gets
food pellet
○ Rat gets closer to the lever Rat gets food pellet
○ Rat touches lever Rat gets food pellet
○ Rat taps lever with nose Rat gets food pellet
● Reinforcing some responses but not others is called
differential reinforcement.
● Key features of shaping are:
○ Reinforcement: R+ is provided contingent on
responses.
○ Behavior is strengthened by the addition of a
pleasurable stimulus after a behavior or response.
○ Differential reinforcement is systematically
reinforcing some responses but not others. To provide
differential reinforcement the shaper (me) must
make decisions in the moment quickly, paying
attention to the child’s response. Only reinforce the
behaviors that are closest to the target response.
○ Extinction is the process of no longer providing a
reinforcer for behaviors that were demonstrated. For
example: Ju, Ooo, Jah
○ The shaper stops reinforcing the previous attempts
that are not as close to the desired end. The response
will decrease because it is no longer followed by a
reinforcer. Though I may see an extinction burst, a
slight increase in the behavior before it decreases.
○ Response variability is the increase in other
responses when extinction is in effect. The Child may
try new or other examples to get reinforced
(previously reinforced responses are no longer
reinforced).
○ Shaping is a systematic process but not a linear one.
I may often have to take a few steps back and
restart the process from time to time to keep
moving forward.
Prompting
● What is learning?
○ Learning is a change in behavior that endures over
time.
● What is shaping?
○ Shaping involves differentially reinforcing the
response that is approximate to the target. All other
responses are placed on extinction.
● Examples of behaviors to shape (using prompting):
○ Vocal behavior: sounds
○ Self care skills: brushing teeth, getting dressed
○ Leisure skills: playing ball
○ Academics: writing letters
● Starting to prompt:
○ When first teaching a new skill child may not give
correct response
○ Pay close attention to the student’s response to know
which response to first reinforce.
○ Over successful trials increase the expectations and
only reinforce the correct response.
● Using differential reinforcement:
○ Differential reinforcement is the process of changing
what you choose to reinforce.
○ Another way to shape is to change the magnitude or
the size of the reinforcer when the response is closer
to the target.
● When shaping learning I can increase my response to the
child’s behavior to strengthen the response closest to the
target. For example:
○ Cheer more for the target response
○ Provide the best reward for the best response
● One can differentially reinforce the correct target response
in multiple ways. Differential reinforcement can be
demonstrated by:
○ I can change my affect or expression
○ I can be more enthusiastic
○ I can increase my physical interaction-if preferred
○ I can provide a more salient reinforcer
○ I can switch task or provide a break
● Be careful to not dilute reinforcement by not adhering to
differential reinforcement.
● A prompt is any kind of assistance I can provide to help
the child to respond correctly.
● There are many different kinds of prompts that I can
provide:
○ Verbal: tell child how to request for an item, tell the
child the next step in a task
○ Gestural: point to correct answer, point to the correct
place
○ Modeling: do the act myself, provide a vocal model
○ Physical: help hands to move correctly, slightly hold
wrist, slightly hold elbow, then shoulder
○ Positional: Move the correct response closer to the
child.
○ Textual: provide written instruction or examples,
provide a written cue to the answer.
○ Photographic: provide a drawing, photo of desired
response.
● Watch to see which of my prompts is reliable followed.
This will inform the teacher how to continue teaching or
make changes to their teaching.
○ Use the least intrusive prompt.
○ Match prompts to the student's skill level.
● Use a consistent kind of prompt for the same response to
provide predictability and help with fading the prompt
more systematically..
● The goal of working with prompts is to remove them so
the client can perform independently.
● Pairing within the three term contingency
○ Stimulus + prompt = behavior = Reinforcer
○ “Stand up” + physical guidance + child stood up =
praise and snack
○ Stand up + Child Stands up = Reinforced Behavior
● Fading prompts:
○ A prompt is faded by using less assistance.
○ Fading prompts (just like within shaping)
differentially reinforce responses that require less
assistance.
○ I can change my affect or facial expression or be
more enthusiastic.
○ Provide a better quality or a larger magnitude of
reinforcement.
Discrete Trial Teaching
● DTT is a structured teaching technique based on the
principles of ABA. Skills are broken down into small
teachable component parts with each part taught
independently.
● How do we teach addition?
○ Addition = the teaching of number skills such as
identifying and labeling numbers + teach counting
skills.
○ Reading= teaching letters + teaching sounds +
sounding out multiple letters in a row to read
● DTT is a teacher directed technique, initiated and controlled
by the teacher
● On single teaching sequence is called a
______________ _________________
● The “trial” begins with the teacher providing an instruction
or question called a “Discriminative stimulus”
● Sd stands for Discriminative stimulus
● When teaching a child to:
○ Write a letter -the Sd would be
______________________
○ Blow his nose -The Sd would be
_____________________
○ Get dressed - the Sd would be
_________________________
● DTT initially occurs in structured environment to reduce
distractions such as: _______________________ or
a _______________________
● Over time it will move to a natural setting such as a play
area
● Sit near or across from each other and have materials
close and ready for quick use.
● Provide multiple opportunities or trials in a row to practice
a skill.
● Usually repeat the trial one right after another for a set
number of trials.
● Provide positive reinforcement R+ to increase the likelihood
of the action being repeated in the future.
● If the child is able to make choices allow him/her to choose
what they are working for prior to the teaching
interaction
● If the child is not yet able to choose ahead of time, you, the
teacher will choose a likely reinforcer.
● Always pair the reinforcer with praise.
● Steps of DTT
○ DTT and the 3 term-contingency
○ A antecedent (before) B child’s response C
consequence (after)
○ A = the structure environment w/ teacher sitting
near with materials close and ready, Teacher gives SD
or instructions
○ B = child’s response (correct or incorrect)
○ C Consequence = positive reinforcement R+ if correct
or error correction if not correct.
● Steps:
○ 1. Gain child’s attention
○ 2. Provide SD (“come here”)
○ 3. Child responds
○ 4. Praise plus R+ or error correction
○ 5. Short Break “Inter-trial interval “ (brief 3-5 seconds)
- collect your data - reset the materials for next trial
○ 6. Repeat
● Anyone learning a new skill is going to make mistakes
when learning something new. Errorless teaching is a
teaching technique in which a child is provided with a
prompt (anything you do to help) immediately after the Sd
is given.
● I might provide a _____________________ or a
__________________________ or a
_________________ prompt.
● When skills are new we can decrease the likelihood of a
child making several mistakes by providing a prompt
immediately after the Sd. This Errorless Teaching prevents
any mistakes.
○ 1. Gain the child’s attention
○ 2. Provide the sD
○ 3. Provide a prompt to correct answer
○ 4. Child responds
○ 5. Praise +R+
○ 6. Break/ Inter trial interval (brief 3-5 seconds) collect data- reset materials for next trial
○ 7. Repeat
● After several errorless trials I can fade my prompts
● I will provide reinforcement for the trials with less
assistance/prompts and then eventually only for the
independent trails this is called differential reinforcement.
● What happens if the child STILL makes an error? How do I
correct the error? Error Correction:
○ 1. gain attention
○ 2. Sd
○ 3. Prompt
○ 4. Error
○ 5. Demonstrate or help to do correctly
○ 6. Give Sd again
○ 7. Child response correctly
○ 8. Praise Plus R+
● Why do we repeat the same trials over? To allow for
repetition and practice in a short time frame, sometimes
called massed trials
● Once a child has responded correctly 3 times in a row I can
mix in the Sd or prompt for other responses the child
already knows.
● After a few of these I will repeat the original SD, to see if
she remembers. This is called Intermixing.
● Guidelines
○ 1. State your SD only one time (“Stand up”) be clear,
direct, consistent
○ 2. Provide R+ to strengthen the behavior pair praise
with tangible Reinforcer i.e. toy
○ 3. Use behavior specific praise “good standing up!” + R+
Incidental Teaching
● Incidental teaching was defined by Hart & Risley in 1982 as
a teaching technique whereby the child initiates the
teaching interaction to expand language skills.
● When a child expresses interest in something I can elicit
more language from the child by responding to the child’s
initiation.
● Benefits:
○ Increase the use of spontaneous language in natural
settings.
○ Promotes generalization and maintenance of acquired
language skills.
○ 3-Facilitates the acquisition of language that is
contextual across a variety of stimulus conditions
(during play, during a routine, about an object in hand
etc).
● Four main steps:
○ 1. Child initiates by showing interest in an object or
activity,
■ a. Could be vocal : asking for something or ask
for help
■ b. Could be non-verbal: pointing, reaching,
showing interest or gesture towards.
○ 2. Teacher asks for an elaboration
■ a. A question “what color is this (item you are
looking at)
■ b. Or prompt the related language like “say, I
need help”
○ 3. Child responds
○ 4. Teacher provides praise + access to item or activity
● How do we start?
● Two ways to do incidental teaching
○ 1. Capturing
○ 2. Contriving
● Be very observant and ________________ a naturally
occurring opportunity or notice opportunities to set the
environment up to create or ________________ an
opportunity for incidental teaching.
● Capturing Opportunities:
○ Capture, observe and Identify natural situations or
opportunities in the environment that expand on a
child’s interest
○ She/he reaches for or wants a specific toy/ item/
activity
○ She/he needs help with clothing or an item.
○ Be observant watch to see what child is doing
■ Child reaches for an item.
■ I can block access and provide a __________
prompt “say can I have it please”
■ When child responds and repeats me
■ Provide praise and the item or activity we were
just talking about.
● Contrived Opportunities:
○ Contrived incidental teaching moment the teacher
arranges the environment in a way that encourages
the child to make initiations
○ Examples■ I can put preferred items out of reach
■ I can put favorite toy or food in a see through
container
■ When playing together I could suddenly stop the
activity
● Contrived or Captured? Fill in the blanks with the correct
answer.
○ Child looks curiously at toy in your hand under the
table ________ Prompt
_____________________
○ Child is reaching for some blocks ________ Prompt
_____________________
○ Child cannot get his milk carton open ___________
Prompt_____________________
○ Child asks to borrow your item_________
Prompt_____________________
○ Child sees favorite toy out of reach____________
Prompt_____________________
○ Child sees cookies in see through container _______
Prompt_____________________
○ Child is missing a puzzle piece___________
Prompt_____________________
○ Playing a game and teacher suddenly
stops___________
Prompt_____________________
● Prompt Fading:
○ The goal is always independence
○ When the child learns the skill, fade your prompts,
providing less and less until the child independently
uses what the initial prompt was being taught.
○ After the child independently uses the initial
elaboration, expand for more complex responses.
○ Example■ Child sees cookies, independently says “help me
please”.
■ Teacher prompts “Tell me “It is stuck, help me,
please.””
■ Child responds
■ Provide R+ of the actual item and praise
● Behavior Specific Praise:
○ Behavior specific praise is praise that includes
restating the child’s correct response.
○ Examples■ Good I like how you said “Help me”
■ You are right you said “It is Blue”
● How do I know if Incidental teaching is working?
○ Take Data: Continuous assessment of skills
○ Graph data-graphic representation makes it easy to
see if skill is going up
○ Analyze my data, is there more language? Is there
more elaborate language?
● Incidental teaching vs. Discrete Trial Training
○ Incidental teaching and Discrete trial training are
different teaching methods.
Differences
DTT
Incidental Teaching
Teacher led
Incidental Teaching
Sd/Instruction ask question direction
Opportunity
Structured environment
Natural environment
Reinforcement is prearranged/may
Reinforcement is always the actual
be unrelated to conversation
activity/ item being requested
● Motivating Operation (MO)
○ 1. An environmental event that alters the
effectiveness of a reinforcer.
○ 2. It can also alter the current frequency of a behavior
that had been previously reinforced by that
consequence.
● Remember: Reinforcer = some stimulus that follows a
behavior resulting in an increase of that behavior
○ Behavior will increase if a reinforcer was effective
○ Behavior will decrease if reinforcer was not effective
at that time due to a MO
○ Examples:
■ Clean up your toys + cookie typically = higher
likelihood of cleaning up toys
■ Clean up your toys + cookie…….. BUT just ate huge
amount of cookies at a birthday party may or
may not result in cleaned up toys.
● This is an example of satiation at work.
● MOs: satiation and deprivation
● Satiation is the continued exposure or overexposure that
makes the reinforcer less effective
● If that same reinforcer is provided contingent on a
behavior, the frequency of that behavior.
○ Example:
■ clean up your toys + you can have a cookie +
cookie was eaten before request was made,
satiation may have occurred.
● Deprivation makes a reinforcer more effective if provided
contingent on a behavior and therefore increases the
likelihood of that behavior.
○ Restrictive or limited exposure to a reinforcer makes
that reinforcer more effective.
○ Increases the frequency of that behavior
● The 4 term contingency:
○ A= antecedent = the before including the Sd
○ B= the response
○ C consequence = what comes after
● 3 term contingency
○ A------------B-------------C
● Now adding fourth component
● 4 term contingency MO-----------A-------------B------------C
○ MO= an environmental variables (comes before the
Sd)
○ A - antecedent = the before- including the Sd
○ B = the response or behavior
○ C -consequence = what comes after
● I can really really want something after being deprived of
it or ___________________ sick of something.
● States of Satiation or Deprivation:
○ Food: starving or full.
○ Water: thirsty or quenched.
○ Sleep: exhausted or rested.
○ Activity: cooped up inside or social participant.
○ Oxygen
○ Sex
● What else can affect the quality of a reinforcer and thus
the frequency of behavior?
○ Being too cold or too warm
○ Pain
○ Not being able to do or get something
○ Improving the quality of something
○ Unpleasant or aversive events
● Two 2 kinds of MO’s:
○ 1. Establishing Operations (EOs)
■ Establishing operations increase the
effectiveness of reinforcement and in turn
increases the current frequency of behavior.
Being hungry/food deprivation = increase
effectiveness of food reinforcement and increase
frequency of behavior typically reinforced with
food.
○ 2. Abolishing Operations (AOs)
■ Abolishing operations decrease the effectiveness
of reinforcement and in turn decrease the
current frequency of behavior. Being full =
decreases the value of food and decreases
behaviors that are typically reinforced with food.
● Similarities Between MOs and Sds:
○ are antecedents
○ evoke behavior - make behavior happen
● Differences between MOs and Sds:
○ MOs: change the effectiveness of reinforcers. They
make them either more or less effective.
○ Sds: Signal the availability of a reinforcer that is
whether or not a reinforcer will be there when a
certain behavior occurs.
● Both MOs and Sds can be present at the same time.
MO
Sd
Behavior
Consequence
Raining
See umbrella
Use it
Stay dry
Teacher
Answer
request
questions
Hungry
Eats chips
● Skill Acquisition
EO
Sd
Behavior
Consequence
Hungry
See mom
Says “apple”
Gets apple
Missing
Sees
Asks
phone
coworker
coworker
Finds phone
EO/AO (Circle one)
● EO/AO
Cold outside
= put on a coat
● EO/AO
Just ate big meal
= eat a sandwich
● EO/AO
Dirty table
= wipe table
● EO/AO
Cloudy, raining
= sunglasses
● EO/AO
TV too loud
= volume lowered
● Problem Behaviors:
○ Behavioral excesses that result in unwanted, unsafe,
unhealthy, disruptive consequences.
○ MOs evoke or make problem behaviors occur just like
they evoke skills and desired behavior.
■ Skills: getting dressed, washing face, completing,
chores, making a snack
■ Behavior excesses: hitting, screaming, crying,
biting
● Types of Establishing Operations for Problem Behaviors:
○ 1. Deprivation of attention
○ 2. Deprivation of prefered items/activities
○ 3. Deprivation of sensory stimulation
○ 4. Aversive or unpleasant situations
MO (EOs)
Deprivation of
attention
What the person
wants
Attention
Behavior
crying
Makes Cs more
valuable
Gets attention
Deprivation of
activity
Access to activity
Deprivation of
Sensory stim
stim
Aversive or
Termination of
unpleasant
situation
situation
screaming
Arm & hand
flapping
hitting
Gets access to
activity
Gets stim
Avoidance or
escape
● Deprivation of Preferred Items or Activities
EO
Sd
Behavior
Sees teacher
cries
Teacher not
attending to
Teacher gives
attention
student
Favorite toy
Sign of
in use
tablet
Doesn’t like
touch
Consequence
grabbing
Gets device
Aunt tries to
Drops and
Sensory
hug
cries
input
Sees scab
scratches
Bored
waiting
Sensory
input
EO/AO (Circle one)
● EO/AO
lonely, no attention
= cry to get teacher
attention
● EO/AO
no tablet
= grabbed device to play
● EO/AO
busy playing
= sensory stimulation noises
● EO/AO
attention from teacher
= screaming loudly
● Behavior Chains and the 3 Term Contingency
● Behavior chain is a set of responses that when completed
in order, make a larger response (e.g., make lunch, get
dressed).
● Tasks that require steps be completed in a specific
sequence to successfully complete the whole task. Entire
tasks are depending on each step, each step is signaled by
the step before.
● 3 Term Contingency
● In a behavior chain the consequence of the
behavior/response is also the antecedent of the next
behavior.
○ A------B--------C/A---------B--------C/A--------● Task analysis is used to break down the steps of a
behavior chain.
● TA is a written list of the component responses that make
up a behavior chain.
● TAs
○ Are necessary so that the teacher knows what to
teach in exactly what order.
○ Promote consistency if multiple teachers are teaching
the same behavior chain.
○ Are used to collect data for evaluation processes.
● Create your TA before teaching a behavior chain. Each step
is a discrete response in the chain.
○ Write each step down.
○ Perform each step yourself.
○ Write down each response as you go along.
○ Show to another and get feedback.
■ I may find different versions: Wet the
toothbrush before or after applying pastes?
When shoe tying does the bunny run around the
tree or do you cross his ears?
○ Where will skills be taught?
○ What materials are necessary?
○ Are there differences depending on where you do it?
Wash hands?
Home
School
Faucet up down
2 handles hot and cold
Bar soap
Dispenser soft soap
Towel
Hand dryer
● With my specific client in mind, do I need to add or
subtract steps?
● (Me at my sink) Hand washing
○ 1. Turn on water
○ 2. Wet hands
○ 3. Get soap
○ 4. Scrub 20 seconds
○ 5. Turn water back on
○ 6. Rinse
○ 7. Dry hands
● Chaining Procedures
● 3 Kinds of Chaining
● Forward Chaining: Teach one step at a time starting at the
beginning.
○ Step 1 = praise and R+
○ Step 1-2 = praise and R+
○ Step 1-3 = praise and R+
● When first teaching how to get dressed with forward
chaining I do provide the reinforcer after the 1st step.
○ The student does not do the rest of the task
independently.
● I fade prompts until the student can do the first step
independently. I provide praise and a reward. I can then
prompt the next step and repeat adding one step at a
time.
● Backwards Chaining: Teach one step at a time starting
with the last step in the task analysis.
○ Step 1-9 assist or do for/with the child.
○ Teach step 10 using prompts = praise and a R+
○ Fade my prompts until step 10 is independent
○ Now I prompt step 9
○ Praise and R+ after step 9 and 10 are complete
○ Step 1-8 I assist, steps 9-10 = R+
○ Step 1-7 I assist, steps 8-10 = R+
○ Step 1-6 I assist, steps 7-10 = R+
○ Provide R+ after the final step of the chain.
● Write a task analysis for tooth brushing:
● Forward chaining: start with teaching the step open the
cabinet.
● Backwards chaining: start with the step closing the
cabinet.
● Total Task Chaining: Teach all steps at the same time.
○ Provide support on any step as needed.
○ Provide praise at each step along the way.
○ Reward when the last task is done.
○ Fade prompts as we go along until the student can do
each of the steps independently.
● Graduated Guidance:
○ Start with the maximum amount of guidance, then
slowly remove proximity and intensity of the
prompts. Reduce the proximity and intensity of my
prompt over time.
○ For example, help with the hand fades to tap the
elbow, fades to rest my hand on shoulder.
● How do I choose which chaining procedure?
○ Student history of success?
● Use total task chaining when:
○ a) Client already knows some of the steps.
○ b) If the client learns chains quickly.
● Use forward chaining when:
○ a) Client has difficulty learning multiple steps at once,
this allows focus on each step.
○ b) Relatively easy responses are needed at the
beginning of the chain, this allows the child to be
immediately successful and build momentum for
those harder steps later in the chain.
● Use backwards chaining when:
○ a) Clients who have difficulty learning multiple steps
at once - same as forward chaining.
○ b) End of the chain results in something the child
likes i.e. “make a snack” ends with eating a snack.
Allows child to get preferred R+ more often.
● Data Collection and Evaluation
● When teaching behavior chains, data is collected on the
task analysis.
○ + For step completed (independent)
○ - For step assisted (prompted)
○ Leave blank for steps not yet addressed
● Forward chaining data collection will start at the first step
and work its way down the TA.
● Backwards chaining data collection will start with the last
step and work up the TA.
● Total task will have each step scored, some + some -.
Stimulus Control and Prompt Fading
● Types of prompts:
○ Visual
○ Verbal
○ Positional
○ Gestural
○ Physical
○ Demonstrate or model
● When something is added to help the student complete
the item correctly this is a response prompt. It is applied
directly to the response that the student is meant to be
completing.
● Physical help/guidance- physical guiding the student to
make the correct response
● Verbal instructions- Telling the student how to make the
correct response
● Modeling- Demonstrating the correct response for the
student
● A stimulus prompt is something that is added to Sd that
signals the response, (hint hint) and assists the client in
completing the response correctly.
○ Positional prompt- putting the correct response closer
to the student
○ Gestural prompt- pointing to the correct response
○ Redundancy- exaggerate the Sd to make it more
prominent
● The purpose is always to fade prompts quickly and
effectively so that the client can demonstrate
independently accurately in response to the correct or
natural stimulus.
Stimulus control
● A response is “Under stimulus control” when it occurs
more often in the presence of a particular stimulus than
in its absence.
● For example: I check my phone more often when it is
buzzing. What has stimulus control? The ringer/vibrate
● Students behave when the teacher is present but less so
when there is a sub. What has stimulus control? The
presence of the sub.
● Transfer Stimulus control from the prompt to the
naturally occurring stimulus through systematic fading.
Prompt Fading Procedures or Response Prompts
● Using a hierarchy of prompts fade back your prompts
● A. Most to least prompting: start with most help and fade
back as soon as the child is proficient with one level of
support then fade to lesser level of support.
○ 1. HOH-Physical guidance
○ 2. Gesture
○ 3. Model
○ 4. No prompts
● B. Least to most prompting: start with the least amount
prompt/help necessary and add more only if necessary.
○ 1. No prompts natural stimulus
○ 2. Model
○ 3. Gesture
○ 4. Physical guidance
● C. Graduated guidance: generally used when teaching
behavior chains. Physical prompts provided throughout the
response, changing based on the client’s needs at any step
of the TA. So I may start with supporting his elbow but
could move up to wrist then back to shoulder.
● D. Time delay. The interval between the natural stimulus
and the prompt is varied. There are 2 kinds of Time Delay
Procedures:
○ 1. Constant: set predetermined number of trials
before increase
○ 2. Progressive: time delay interval increased
systematically based on level of independence clients
demonstrate. In both cases start with 0 sec, no delay,
provide prompt after the presentation of the natural
stimulus.
● Repeat WITH PROMPT several times.
● Then present the natural cue and wait
● Let time stretch out
● If student responds correctly praise plus reward
● If student does not provide the prompt and represent wait
for response then praise +reward
Data Collection
● Measuring behavior means putting a quantitative value (#)
on behavior.
● What kind of data I take will depend on:
○ Type of behavior I am tracking?
○ Is my plan trying to increase or decrease this
behavior?
● Examples of things I might record:
○ How often they occur include: hand raising
○ Or how long something occurs: staying on task
● We measure/record data to be objective and effective; to
look and see if the procedures we are using are . Visual
representation such as a graph or _____ literally shows
behavior change.
● If my data shows an error every time, I may add a prompt
to ensure success next time. If my data shows success
every time, I may decrease or fade prompts.
● In ABA we make all our decisions based on data.
● When do we take data? On any behavior targeted.
● Targeted behaviors to increase: academic, self-care, social
interaction, and play skills.
● Targeted behaviors to decrease might include: disruptive,
self-stimulatory behavior, and aggression.
● Before my session:
○ Gather my materials. They should be portable and
easily accessible.
○ If using technology, log on or launch the app.
○ If using pen and paper, have relevant prepared data
sheets, pen, clock, timer or stopwatch. Make sure they
all work.
○ Always review the program so I know what I will be
teaching and recording data on.
● IOA
○ Interobserver Agreement is when 2 or more people
independently and simultaneously observe and record
data and report the same value after measuring the
same events. This will likely be my supervisor.
● Types Of Measurement
○ Frequency is the number of times a behavior occurs
within a given time period. This is the most common
kind of measurement.
■ Used for behaviors that have a clear beginning
and end.
■ This could be behaviors working to increase such
as: hand raising.
■ Or behaviors working to decrease such as:
hitting.
○ Duration is the length of time a behavior occurs.
■ This is used when I want to increase or decrease
the length of time a client engages in a behavior.
■ For example, to increase the length of time a
client plays appropriately with a peer. Or,
decrease the length of time tantrum behavior
occurs.
■ Set a starwatch from beginning to end.
■ Start when tantrum starts. Stop the clock when
the tantrum stops.
■ Record total time.
■ Duration is typically recorded in total minutes
and seconds within a given time period.
● Time sampling
○ My observation period is divided into short equal
intervals (10 sec, 30 sec, 1 min, 3 min intervals).
Occurrence or absence of the target behavior is
recorded during each interval.
○ I summarize the %age of intervals in which the target
behavior occurred. There are 3 types of time sampling
procedures.
● Partial Interval: I mark if the target behaviors occur at all
at any point in the interval. This requires continuous
observation.
○ We use this for behaviors that start and stop quickly
or occur in rapid succession such as self-stim.
○ Used for behavior that does not have a clear
beginning and end.
● Whole Interval:
○ I mark only if the target behavior occurs the entire
time. This requires continuous observation.
○ I use this when I want to increase the duration of
target behavior.
○ Such as increasing: engagement with a task,
remaining seated during a lesson, or time exercising.
● Momentary Time Sampling:
○ I mark only if the target behavior occurs at the very
end of each interval.
○ This does not require continuous observation.
○ I use this when looking to increase a behavior that
should be continuous AND when tracking multiple
behaviors for one client or multiple clients at the
same time.
● Measurement Procedures
○ Per opportunity is typically used with DTT.
○ I mark correct + or incorrect – for instructions given.
○ Data is summarized as the % of correct responses
during session or day, but I need a minimum of 10
trials.
● A Task Analysis lists the component steps in a behavior
chain.
○ The TA is my data sheet.
○ I record + or - for each % of steps correct (i.e. 7/10).
Data are summarized as the percentage of steps
completed correctly.
● Permanent product
○ This kind of data is used when the behavior results in
a product.
○ For example: worksheet, score on math sheet, # of
dishes in the dishwasher, writing an email.
○ The advantage here is it can be recorded/scored at a
later time allowing me to focus on the child during
the teaching sessions.
● Guidelines
○ 1. Be objective
■ a. What is the operational definition?
■ b. Be accurate
○ 2. Stay organized
■ a. Be prepared and have all the materials you
need.
■ Know what data you need to collect and how to
collect it.
○ 3. Other than permanent product, I should record data
immediately after any behavior occurs.
● What To Do With Data Collection
○ Data needs to be graphed. All decisions in ABA must
be based on data.
○ We must visually organize our data on a graph or
chart. We must look at it to see what progress has
been made or if changes need to be made to the
teaching plan.
Graphs and What They Tell Us
● Terms:
○ Data: product for measuring some aspect of behavior
○ Graph: visual format for displaying data
○ Independent variable (IV): the procedure or
intervention that is being evaluated as being a
method of changing behavior.
■ For example: positive reinforcement (i.e. praise)=
independent variable
○ Dependent variable (DV): the behavior I am
measuring/trying to change.
■ For example: child hanging up coat
● I am responsible to demonstrate that the procedures I use
are in fact causing the desired change in behavior.
● Graphs:
○ Allow for visual inspection of data
○ Patterns can be detected
○ Graphing and analyzing data allow for objective
decisions about programing
○ If the graph showed no change over time, my
supervisor would likely recommend changing to a
different reinforcer.
● Line graphs allows one to:
○ See specific level of target behavior at a given point in
time
○ See specific level of target behavior under specific
conditions before the intervention begins known as
the baseline and after it starts.
○ See if behavior changed in one direction or another;
increase or decrease
○ Shows which condition or procedures may be causing
the change
How to read a graph:
● Components:
○ X axis = shows passage of time such as sessions or
days
○ Y axis = quantitative unit being measured:
○ # Of responses or minutes, seconds, or %
○ Min, sec, when graphing duration measure
○ % When using time sampling procedure or task
analysis
● Data point:
○ Shows the specific __________ on the
__________
○ Independent variable: top of graph shows what
condition is being implemented over that span of
time such as intervention or ________________
○ Condition or phase change line change line shows
when _____________________ changed.
● Baseline:
○ Baseline condition comes first and shows the child’s
responses before the intervention began.
○ Compare baseline date to intervention data
● Data Trends:
○ The line of data points is:
○ Ascending = going up
○ Descending = going down
○ Stable over time = flat line-ish
○ Variable = big jumps up and down
● Experimental control:
○ When the data shows the change in the behavior
was the direct result of the independent variable
(intervention.)
○ This change can be repeated and reliably
demonstrated.
● Experimental Design: Four 4 types
○ 1. AB design:
■ Most simple design
● Commonly used to track skill acquisition
and challenging behavior.
■ Label condition with a letters:
● baseline (comes first) = A
● intervention = B
■ Compare A&B conditions
■ This design does not show experimental control
○ 2. Reversal Design
■ ABAB repeat above twice
■ Baselines/ treatment/ then stop treatment/ then
restart treatment
■ This design shows that the intervention is
responsible for the change.
■ This design does demonstrate when intervention
is removed, or baseline is introduced, responding
returns to original level, that behavior changes
reliably when the treatment is introduced
● Do not use a reversal design when:
○ 1. Intervention results in the student learning a new
skill that cannot be unlearned. i.e. addition, severe
challenging behavior.
○ 2. Behavior being tracked is a severe challenging
behavior that could cause injury to students or others.
● 3. Multiple baselines
○ This design uses the same intervention, or
independent variable, implemented across (3) or more
students, environments, responses or staff members
using the AB design
○ Baseline starts simultaneously for all:
■ Start 1st child’s intervention phase once baseline
is established
■ Start with 2nd child intervention, = after 1st child
intervention is established
■ Start with 3rd child after 1st and 2nd child
intervention is established
● If the same intervention showed change
behavior across different children this does
demonstrate experimental control
○ 4. Alternating treatment design
■ Shows 2 interventions on the same graph for
the same child for the same behavior.
■ Allows us to compare multiple treatments to
see which is the most effective
■ If there is consistent contrast between the two
interventions and their effect on behavior this
does demonstrate experimental control.
● Confounding variables:
○ Factors unrelated to the independent variable that
are uncontrollable that likely impacts behavior being
measured.
■ Examples: Different interventions at home vs.
school changes in behavior, changes in health
status, changes in medication, changes in the
home environment
● Guidelines for graphing:
○ Consult with my agency but generally speaking:
■ Graph regularly per supervisor instructions
■ Identify changes in behavior quickly
■ Makes necessary modification as soon as
possible
■ Graph should be clear and so it can be easy to
read
■ Use correct terminology
■ Be objective in notes
■ If there are big changes in data tell your
supervisor; may indicate a confounding variable
■ After graphing data, spend time analyzing and
try to identify any patterns.
● Are we moving in the desired direction?
Skill Acquisition Training
● A skill acquisition program is a written description of
targeted skill and the related teaching procedures I will use
to teach that skill.
○ I will likely teach multiple skills to each client, each
skill will have a written skill acquisition program
individualized for each client.
○ This ensures individualized approaches and helps to
create consistency across therapists.
○ If several therapists are teaching the same skills, a
consistent skill acquisition program teaches each of
us how to teach the skill. So we all do it the same
way.
Components of skills acquisitions programs
● Target skills:
○ The specific skills I will be teaching
○ i.e. matching objects, imitating movements, playing
games.
● Operational definitions or teaching goal:
○ Written description of exactly what I want the
student to be able to do when we are done.
○ Operational definitions must be described as objective,
measurable and socially significant.
○ Socially significant skills are skills that will improve
quality of life.
○ These skills are identified by looking at the results of
the skills assessments, needs of the student, needs of
the family, recommendations from experienced
professionals.
● Teaching steps or Teaching targets:
○ Individual components of target skills, incremental
steps that get you there. Teaching objectives i.e.
targets
○ Teaching steps can be written in multiple ways
depending on the skill and clients needs. It is
important to individualize TRUE
● Teaching procedures:
○ Materials: i.e 2 sets of identical objects
○ Location: seated at a table,
○ Instruction or directions: “match”,
○ Prompting: Physical guidance guide
○ Reinforcement: social praise plus tangible reward.
● Generalization and maintenance procedures:
○ Strategies and testing method used to promote
generalization and maintenance over time.
○ i.e. Use a variety of examples, settings, instructors
● Data collection procedures:
○ The specific data collection method and how often
data is collected will be specified.
○ The method will depend on the type of skill and how
the skill is being taught.
■ i.e. DTT: data may be recorded per opportunity
measure
■ i.e. When teaching a behavior chain data may be
collected by task analysis
● Mastery criteria:
○ Specific level at which target has to be demonstrated
to be considered done/learned.
○ Once reached we can move on to next step or skill
○ Will include a level of accuracy or fluency that the
target skill needs to be demonstrated.
○ Period of time or number of sessions in which
accuracy needs to be demonstrated.
■ i.e. 80% accuracy across 2 consecutive sessions
○ Some skills need a higher level of accuracy: street
crossing or swallowing vitamins
○ Some only need a lower accuracy such as a leisure
skill of throwing the ball
● Target skill name: Matching Identical Objects
● Goal: Katie will match objects by placing them together
● Teaching steps:
○ 1. Teach Katie to match one set of objects
○ 2. Teach Katie to match a new set of objects
○ 3. Teach Katie to match additional sets of objects
● Teaching procedures
○ 1. Have 2 sets of identical common objects
○ 2. Place 3 objects on the table
○ 3. Hand Katie one of the objects and present the
instruction “Match” immediately guide Katie to place
the object directly in front of the corresponding object
○ 4. Provide praise and a tangible reward
○ 5. Remove the object, change the position of the
objects and present another object to match
○ 6. Fade prompts
○ 7. Provide differential reinforcement
○ 8. No longer reinforce prompted responses, only
independent ones
● Generalization and maintenance
○ 1. Use multiple examples of the objects to match
○ 2. Teach in a variety of settings; table, desk, play area
○ 3. Have several instructors teach the same skill
○ 4. Reserve objects that the student has not been
taught
● Method of data collection:
○ Per opportunity data
● Mastery criteria:
○ 90% accuracy over 2 consecutive sessions
Guidelines for Implementing Skill Acquisition Programs
● Be prepared
● Review the written program with your supervisor
● Practice running the program with your supervisor i.e. roleplay
● Be consistent - follow the plan as written, do not make
changes
Verbal Behavior
● Verbal behavior is a theory of language based on the
principles of learning theory.
● It is also a language theory that is data driven.
● Explains how language develops in humans and how and
why it is maintained.
● Verbal behavior also refers to language-based behaviors
that are reinforced by other people.
● Verbal behavior does not necessarily mean spoken
language.
● BF Skinner developed in the early-mid 1900s as a response
to a popular theory at the time that suggest that
language was innate from birth.
● Skinner disagreed, and ran 1000’s of experiments on
language / verbal behavior that demonstrated that verbal
behaviors operated under the same principles as other non
language based behaviors.
● Book: Verbal behavior by B.F. Skinner in 1957 summed up
23 years of research.
● Conclusions: Verbal behavior is learned behavior.
● Responded to same variables as all other learned behavior
does. Reinforcement and punishment are effective in
changing verbal behavior the same as any non language
based behavior.
● In verbal behavior the Reinforcement is always provided by
another person, or mediated.
● Verbal behavior is defined by its function rather than its
form.
● Function: type of reinforcement provided when behavior
occurs: attention, access to desired items, escape.
● Form: how behavior looks or sounds. Has nothing to do
with what came before or after.
Verbal behavior and the 3 term contingency
● Antecedents are events that occur before the behavior.
● Behavior _____________________ events that occur
● -----> Leads to function
● Verbal behavior within the 3 term contingency informs us
of the situation in which the behavior occurs and the
consequences that follow that behavior, that is to say keep
it reoccurring.
● Examples:
○ A - Thirsty student sees teachers, B- Can I have
water, C-Gives water
○ A- Sees friend, B-Says Hi, C-Friend replies hi
○ A- Seeing text in book to read aloud, B-reads to
students, C- listeners are quiet and happy
● Verbal behavior always involves interaction between
speaker and listener.
● Speaker and listener roles can change quickly in
conversation can be both speaker and listener (for
example, studying math facts aloud).
7 (or maybe 6?) categories of verbal behaviors
● Mands:
○ Behavior by which the speaker makes a request or
expresses a need
○ Mands are reinforced by access to the specific item or
information, such as a lost item or weather.
○ Very valuable skills access help from others to get
needs met
○ One of the 1st verbal behaviors learned by young
children
○ Forms of a Mand can be words and verbal
approximations, or may not be spoken at all: ASL, a
gesture such as pointing, a Voice Output
Communication device, PES (Picture Exchange
System), and even behavior like crying and reaching.
A
B
C
Wants doll
Asks for help
Gets help
= Mand
Wants juice
Signs “juice”
Gets juice
= Mand
Sees toy
Cries for toy
Gets toy
= Mand
Lost keys
Ask friend
Friend tells
you
= Mand
● What makes a verbal behavior a Mand? = ACCESS to the
item or information
● Tact
○ Naming something in the environment that the
speaker is in direct contact with.
○ SD is seeing or experiencing a specific object or event
in the immediate environment.
○ Reinforcement for a tact comes from providing a
generalized conditioned reinforcer such as praise or
social approval from the listener
○ A Tact can be a noun, verb, preposition, adjective, or
pronoun
○ A Mand is ACCESS to the item. A Tact is PRAISE for
that item.
A
Kid sees a
fast red car
Kid sees a
fast red car
Kid sees a
fast red car
B
“car”
“fast”
Signs “red”
C
Praise -
= Tact
“That’s right!”
Praise -
= Tact
“That’s right!”
Praise -
= Tact
“That’s right!”
● Echoic
○ Speaker repeats something they just observed
○ A= is verbal behavior of another person
○ B = Must look and sound the exact same, hence the
word echo
○ C = R+ is a generalized conditioned reinforcement
A
Parent says
“bird”
Parent signs
“bird”
● Interverbal
B
“bird”
Signs “bird”
C
Praise
“That’s right”
Praise
“That’s right”
= Echoic
= Echoic
○ Differential responses to something that was said
such as: answering a question, commenting or giving
an opinion.
○ Antecedent and Sd are different
○ (So not repeat or echo)
○ Reinforcement = praise
○ This is the basis of conversation
A
B
C
Hi, I’m Sally -
Social
introduction
approval
Did you like
Yes, I did -
Social
the movie?
opinion
approval
Hi, I’m Jane
Teacher asks
interverbal
question
Child
answers
Praise/toy
= Interverbal
= Interverbal
= Interverbal
● Textual
○ Textual behavior occurs when an individual is shown
written words and the individual speaks
them/reading out loud, understanding of text is not
required
○ A = seeing written words
○ B = read words out loud
○ C = praise / generalized conditioned reinforcer
● Transcription
○ Spoken word when words are written down (written
product data)
○ Letter formation and spelling must be accurate
○ A= speaker spoke word
○ B= listener write it down
○ C = praise or generalized conditioned reinforcer
○ Ex: Spelling tests, verbal directions
○ The same principles similarly affect verbal and nonverbal behavior
○ The same strategies can be used to modify to teach
verbal and non-verbal behavior
○ For example: Forward chaining is a strategy that can
be used for:
Non-verbal:
Verbal:
Tooth brushing
Answering a ? like phone #?
1st step ___
1st step ____________
VB-MAPP - Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and
Placement Program
● Mand is the only type of verbal behavior that directly helps
the child.
Describing Behavior
● Behavior: anything a person says or does
● Naming a behavior: standing, running, sitting, and talking.
● Describing a behavior is not the same as describing it.
● Behavioral descriptions are:
○ 1. Necessary so you know what specific behavior is
targeted for change.
○ 2. Important to carry out the intervention plan
consistently.
○ 3. Clear definition ensures everyone knows exactly
what the behavior is when they see it.
○ 4. To be measured accurately, accurate data is the
only way I will know if the plan is working. Must
make data-based decisions.
Common mistakes When Describing Behavior
● Confusing products or behavior with behavior
○ Behavior
Product
○ studying
good grade
○ exercising
losing weight
○ mixing ingredients
pizza
● Label or description?
○ Meltdown - Label
○ Tantrum - Label
○ Crying - Description
○ Hitting - Description
○ Reading - Description
Using Judgments
● Terms that are judgments or subjective may mean
different things to different people.
● Use objective and specific definitions, such as crying,
screaming, and whining.
● Objective measurable descriptions or judgment?
○ Cranky - MOO
○ Screaming - MOO
○ Bratty - Judgement
○ Mean - Judgement
○ Crying - MOO
● There are 2 types of behaviors that behaviorists change:
○ 1. Behavioral excesses: undesirable behaviors we want
to decrease: aggression, tantrums, SIB
○ 2. Behavioral deficits: desirable behaviors we want to
increase: talking, writing, reading, playing with peers
● Behavioral descriptions must be (MOO)
○ 1. Explicit: accurate specific description of behavior to
be change
○ 2. Objective: observable (not subjective - opinion)
○ 3. Clear: not confusing, no words with multiple
meanings
○ 4. Complete: include what constitutes and what does
not constitute behavior
○ 5. Agreement: after reading definition different people
would agree occurred or not
○ 6. Define the condition under which behavior occurs
● In addition to describing the behavior, we need to define
the environmental events: conditions under which the
behavior is occurring that is the problem, not the actual
behavior.
● Be able to describe the physical events in the environment
that reliably produce or precede the behavior. Specifying
environmental events is important in scoring occurrence
of behavior accurately
● Describe behavior excess:
○ Tantruming includes: when Julia sobs and cries, lies
on the floor and kicks the floor, walls or throws toys
or other objects on the floor
○ Tantrum Does not include: sobbing or crying that
follows injury
● Include:
○ a. Frequency: how often the behavior occurs
○ b. Duration: how long the behavior occurs
○ c. Intensity: how strong the behavior is
● d. Latency: how much time passes before
the behavior occurs again.
● Reveiw:
○ 1. Behavior is anything a person does or says
○ 2. Behavior must be described in observable and
measurable terms
○ 3. Behavioral definitions must be objective
○ 4. Describing antecedents to behavior are important
○ 5. Other aspects to consider are frequency, duration,
intensity and latency
Common Interventions for Problems
● Individuals with ASD are at risk to develop problem behaviors
such as aggression, SIB, and stereotypy.
● Problem behaviors are unwanted, unsafe, unhealthy or
disruption consequences for the individual and or others.
● Behavioral excesses are undesirable responses that happen
too often such as aggression, SIB, and stereotypy.
● Focus of intervention is to increase or decrease their
occurrence.
● Problem behavior →Function→Plan
● Establishing operations (EO) and functions of behavior work
together.
● States of deprivation make the consequence more desirable.
● If the function of the problem behavior is to get that
consequence then a related EO could make it that much
more desirable.
Establishing Operations
Function
Attention deprivation
Attention from others
Deprivation of tangibles
Access to tangibles
Aversive events
Escape from aversive event
Sensory deprivation
Sensory stimulation
● Identifying the EO and the function of each problem behavior
is important for each intervention strategy.
Four General Strategies for Treatment of Problem Behavior
● 1. Change antecedents to the problem behavior
● 2. Change consequences of the problem behavior
● 3. Teach alternative behaviors
● 4. Reinforce the absence of the problem behavior
● 1) Change antecedents to the problem behavior
○ Antecedents are events that happen before the behavior
including the discriminative stimuli and motivating
operations
● Behavior analysts can manipulate antecedents in 3 ways
○ 1. Manipulate Sd
○ 2. Manipulate the response effort
○ 3. Manipulate the MO
● We can manipulate the Sd
○ a) Eliminate the Sds that evokes problem behavior
○ b) “Set up” or present Sds that promote desirable
behavior
■ Examples:
■ Trying to lose weight
● 1. Eliminate Sd by removing fatty, sugary food
from the house
● 2. Set up Sd to promote behavior by replacing junk
food with fresh fruit vegetables
■ Child throws toothbrush on the floor and hits her
mother when the toothbrush is handed to her
● 1. Eliminate Sd by removing the act of handing off
the toothbrush
● 2. Set up Sd to promote by replacing handing her
the toothbrush with showing a video of her
favorite character brushing their teeth.
● Manipulate response effort
○ Make the problem behavior harder to perform
○ a) If no fatty foods are in the house, you would have
to drive to grocery store and buy them = BIG
response effort
○ b) Put toothbrush out of reach
○ Make appropriate behavior easier to perform
○ a) If the house is full of healthy foods, no response
effort is required to choose to eat healthy.
○ b) Show video provides modeling prompt making the
response easier
● Manipulate the MO
○ Eliminate any establishing operations for problem
behavior
○ Create abolishing operations (AO) for problem behavior
○ Abolishing Operations create a state of statiation
○ EO Attention Deprivation →provide access to a lot of
attention throughout the day to create satiation
○ EO Tangible Deprivation →provide access to tangibles
throughout the day to create satiation
○ EO Sensory Deprivation →provide sensory activities
throughout the day to create satiation
● Create AO for problem behavior
● Changing EO also changes AO automatically and vice versa.
● 2) Changing consequences can reduce problem behavior
○ Escaping undesirables can reinforce problem behavior
○ Getting attention from someone else can reinforce
problem behavior
○ Getting preferred items or tangibles can reinforce
problem behavior
○ Getting access to sensory stimulation can reinforce
problem behavior
● Changing the consequence of behavior can also change the
behavior itself. Remove the reinforcer to stop it from
happening.
● When reinforces are removed and no longer follow the
behavior this is called extinction
Behavior
Function
Changes in Consequences
Throws pencil
Escape work
Still have to do task
Tantrums
Get attention from mom
Mom does not pick her up
Pushes child
Wants the tangible toy
Toy not available
Nail biting
Sensory stimulation
Wears gloves
● 3) Teach alternative behavior
○ First, determine the function of problem behavior
○ Next, determine what behavior to teach as alternative
response
○ Finally, ensure that the replacement behavior serves the
same function as the problem behavior
Behavior
Function
Replacement
Throws pencil
Tantrum
Escape work
Ask for a break
Wants mom to
Ask to be picked
pick her up
up
Pushes kid to get Access to tangible
a toy
Bites nails
toy
Ask for a turn
Feels good on
Squeezes stress
fingers/mouth
ball, gum/snack
● 4) Reinforce the absence of the target behavior
○ 1. Determine function of behavior
○ 2. Observe and identify times when behavior does not
occur to find
○ 3. Implement a plan to reinforce absence of behavior
○ 4. Prepare and use reinforcers that meet the function
Behavior
Function
Throws pencil
Escape work
Tantrum
Pushes another
kid to get a toy
Absence
Set timer →access
to break
Wants mom to
Set timer →access
pick her up
to attention
Tangible toy
Set timer →access
to toy
Bites nails
Feels good on
Set timer →access
fingers/mouth
to sensory
● Ongoing data collection and analysis is essential to
determine if a current behavior plan is effective
● Conduct an FBA to collect data to define behavior objectively
● Collect baseline data to determine the student’s current level
before the intervention
● Did the problem behavior decrease? Effective
● No change or increases in problem behavior? Not effective
● The BCBA will reassess behavior and develop a different plan
● What does RBT do? Collect data, and implement the plan
according to the BCBA outline.
Special Considerations
● The BCBA must obtain consent and conduct the functional
assessments prior to implementing any behavior reduction
programs
● Ensure there are no medical issues related to problem the
behavior
Manipulating
Consequences
(Extinction)
Escape
Attention
Tangible
Do not allow
Do not provide
Block access to
escape
attention
tangible item
Sensory
Block access to
sensory
stimulation
Manipulating
Motivating
Operations
Teaching
Alternative
Behaviors
Provide escape
(access to a
break) on a
Provide
attention on a
fixed schedule
fixed schedule
Teach learner to
Teach learner to
request
request tangible
attention
item
Provide escape
Reinforcing the
break) after
Absence of
designated
Problem
amount of time
Behavior
in the absence
to tangible item
Teach learner to
request a break
(access to a
Provide access
Provide
attention after
designated
amount of time
in the absence
of the target
behavior
of target
behavior
Provide access
to the tangible
item after
designated
amount of time
in the absence
of the target
behavior
Provide access
to a functional
alternative
Teach learner to
request
functional
alternative
Provide access
to an
alternative
behavior after
designated
amount of time
in the absence
of the target
behavior
Teaching Cooperation and Toleration Skills
★ 1. Teach the student to cooperate when ending an activity
using a timer.
★ 2. Teach the student to cooperate when ending an activity
using verbal instruction.
★ 3. Continue to teach the student to cooperate when ending
new activities.
● Teach the student to cooperate when ending an activity using
a timer.
� Provide a preferred activity and set a timer.
� Give the student a warning that they will soon have to end
their activity.
� Prompt the student to turn off the timer
� Reinforce the desirable behavior even if it was with
assistance.
� When the student is able to turn off the timer and end
the activity independently, give the student reinforcement
and praise.
● Teach the student to cooperate when ending an activity using
verbal instruction.
� Present a preferred activity.
� Give the student a warning they will soon have to end the
activity.
� When the student ends the activity, give reinforcement.
● Continue to teach the student to cooperate when ending new
activities
� Present a new activity.
� Give the student a warning that the activity will soon end.
� When the student ends the activity with no unwanted
behaviors, reinforce the behavior.
Teaching the Student to Wait for Preferred Items
★ 1. Teach the student to wait appropriately for a preferred
item for up to three seconds.
★ 2. Teach the student to wait appropriately for a preferred
item for up to ten seconds.
★ 3. Continue to teach the student to wait appropriately for a
preferred item for increasing lengths of time.
● Teach the student to wait appropriately for a preferred item
for up to three seconds.
� Present a preferred item in view of the student, when
they ask for the item, instruct them to wait and set the
timer for 3 seconds.
� If the student engages in unwanted behavior, stop the
timer and present a verbal redirection. Prompt by counting
out loud.
� Be sure to occasionally give the student the item without
waiting.
� If the student becomes frustrated, have them complete a
task they already know how to do.
� Represent the instruction and try again when the student
is waiting appropriately.
● Teach the student to wait appropriately for a preferred item
for up to ten seconds.
� Present preferred items in view of the student.
� When he asks for an item, instruct the student to wait
and set the timer for 5 seconds.
� Provide praise and reinforcement even if the student
responds with assistance.
� Be sure to occasionally give the student the item without
having to wait.
� Gradually fade prompts until the student waits for 5
seconds independently.
� Increase the time to 10 seconds and continue.
● Continue to teach the student to wait appropriately for a
preferred item for increasing lengths of time.
� Instruct the student to wait and start the timer.
� If necessary, guide the student to place their hands on the
table or their lap.
� When teaching the student to wait for longer amounts of
time, offer an alternative item while they wait.
Generalization and Maintenance
● Two types of generalization:
� 1. Stimulus or setting generalization
� 2. Response generalization
● Stimulus generalization demonstrates whether the student
can demonstrate a learned skill in different situations other
than the one in which the skill was taught.
� Example: A student can button pants, coats, and shirts at
home, after using the bathroom, and putting on a coat at
school.
● Response generalization demonstrates the ability to produce
a new untrained response that has the same outcome as
the response that was taught. A student learns to do
something she has not been specifically taught.
� Example: A student is taught to respond to a greeting
with “Hello”. The student returns the greeting with “Hey”
without being taught that response.
● Why is generalization an important tool?
� 1. To build a functional skill that occurs within a range of
different contexts.
� 2. To recognize that many situations have multiple
potential responses that have the same function.
� 3. To increase functionality and value to a response.
● Generalization does NOT occur naturally
● Strategies to promote generalization must be used
throughout the teaching process.
● In their book, Applied Behavior Analysis, Copper, Heron and
Heward discus eight different strategies for promoting
generalization:
� 1. Teach multiple stimulus examples
� 2. Teach multiple response examples
� 3. Programming common stimuli
� 4. “Don’t do it” examples
� 5. Teaching loosely
� 6. Fade reinforcement to natural levels
� 7. Mediate generalization
� 8. Reinforce response variations
● Teach multiple stimulus examples
● For a skill to be functional, the student must be able to
emit similar behavior in response to multiple antecedent
stimuli, Discriminative Stimulus
● It would not be possible to teach EVERY possible stimulus
example. By teaching the learner to respond to some of
the possible stimulus examples but not all, the learner
must learn to generalize the skill.
● Multiple stimulus examples: Teach to: drink from a cup,
mug, or can.
● A skill must be taught 10 times before the learner will be
able to generalize. FALSE!
● There is no set number of stimuli to be used.
● It is important to test untrained stimulus periodically while
teaching to check if the student is able to generalize.
Multiple Exemplar Training (Multiple Response Examples)
● It would not be possible to teach EVERY possible response. By
teaching the learner to respond to some of the possible
responses but not all, the learner must learn to generalize
the skill.
● Multiple response examples:
● Skill: Using a fork
● Function: Get food in mouth
● Teach to use a fork to pierce, scoop, twirl, and scrape food.
Programming Common Stimuli
● Identify important stimuli in the natural environment and
bring those stimuli into the teaching environment. Make the
teaching environment similar to the natural environment
where the target behavior needs to be demonstrated. Identify
salient features in the environment where the target
response should occur and bring those into the teaching
environment.
● When should we program for common stimuli?
● When teaching in the natural setting is not possible.
● When teaching in the natural setting is very difficult.
● To expose learners to a range of possible situations that
they may encounter in the natural environment.
● How do we program for common stimuli when teaching in
the natural setting is not possible?
� Pre-teach skills – Learn these skills in the teaching
environment first.
■ Example: Job skills - To promote generalization of the
workplace, bring in similar tools or machinery; maintain
a similar noise level or temperature.
■ Use materials to mimic the setting – Bring materials
and aspects of the work environment into the teaching
environment.
● How do we program for common stimuli when teaching in
the natural setting is difficult?
� Bring materials and aspects of the community
environment into the teaching environment.
■ Example: Paying at the grocery store: Bring in a cash
register, food, money, and a wallet.
■ This will help the learner acquire skills fluently before
trying to generalize the skill to the natural environment.
● How to expose the learner to a range of possible situations
that may be encountered in the natural environment?
� Example: Riding the bus: Prepare the student for multiple
possible scenarios such as no seats being available, the
bus taking a detour, waiting for the next bus if the first
one is full, etc.
� When teaching in a structured setting, use features that
might be present in the natural environment, such as the
therapy room with rows of seats, loud noises, and other
people in the room
� The learner is more likely to generalize the skills and
respond appropriately in novel situations
“Don’t Do It” Examples
● “Don’t Do It” examples: To practice situations in which a
response should not be emitted and situations in which it
should be emitted.
� This strategy should be used in combination with other
generalization strategies.
■ Example: Skill: Greeting family members at at reunion
■ The student will be taught to greet family with a smile
and hug. But do NOT hug people at work, people you are
meeting for the first time, the crossing guard, etc.
■ This teaches the student to discriminate when one
should or should not emit responses.
Teaching Loosely
● Teaching loosely involves changing non-critical aspects of the
teaching environment randomly and frequently. The teacher
should only maintain environmental aspects that are more
likely to develop stimulus control to the target response.
● Different elements that can be varied when teaching loosely:
� 1. Have multiple instructors teach the skill.
� 2. Give instructions in a variety of ways.
� 3. Teach in different locations, such as different places of
the room or different rooms in the building.
� 4. Teach at different times of day.
� 5. Vary the noise level.
● This strategy teaches the learner to only attend to the
relevant environmental cues and to continue to emit the
response when unimportant aspects of the environment
change.
Fade Reinforcement to Natural Levels
● It’s important to consider the schedule of reinforcement (the
frequency, type, and amount) available in the natural
environment / setting. When teaching is completed and the
student emits the response, what type of reinforcement
would be given in the natural setting?
● Amount, type, and immediacy of reinforcement should be
slowly and systematically faded over time to resemble the
natural environment / setting.
Mediating Generalization
● Two methods of mediating generalization are arranging a
contrived mediating stimulus and teaching self-monitoring
skills.
● Arrange a contrived mediating stimulus such as a teaching
material, person, or environmental element that is naturally
present or easily accessed in the natural environment.
● Teach learner self-monitoring skills to ensure continuation.
� Having a written list both in the teaching environment and
in the natural environment is an example of mediating
stimulus.
� Having the student set a timer, assess if they are on task,
and get himself or herself a treat if they meet a goal is
an example of self-monitoring.
Variation
● Let the learner know that variations in the target responses
are desirable.
● A teacher may arrange an environment so that the learner
must emit a different response. If this response meets the
same function, the teacher may positively reinforce the
student. This is an example of response variation.
Generalization and Maintenance (Part 2)
● Some issues with generalization
� Overgeneralization
� Faulty stimulus control
● Overgeneralization
� Occurs when the learner emits the target response in too
many settings or in response to the Sd that should not
evoke that behavior/response. Results in behavior occurring
in inappropriate situations.
� Example: Learner taught to say “good morning” but now
says it at all times of the day.
● Faulty Stimulus Control
� Occurs when the learner uses a skill at appropriate times
based on only part of the stimulus rather than the whole.
� Example: All people with glasses are now called ”Sally”
because the learner paid attention to the glasses (Sd), not
the whole face.
� We need to revisit generalization strategies used and
make modifications so that the target response happens
when it should.
� Generalization should be assessed prior to, periodically
throughout, and after teaching.
● Generalization Probes
� Generalization probes occur under baseline conditions.
When testing, there is no teaching. Do not prompt or
reinforce the response, just test.
� When assessing for stimulus or setting generalization,
look for the learner to demonstrate target response with
novel stimuli and in novel settings.
� When assessing for response generalization, look for the
learner and novel responses that serve the same function
as the previously learned response.
� Generalization probes are conducted using different
strategies and reinforcement as used during the teaching
session.
● Response Maintenance
� Response maintenance refers to the extent to which a
learned skill continues to be emitted by the student after
teaching is complete.
� The primary goal is to teach socially significant skills and
responses, which allow the student to access more of the
world in a meaningful way. Learners must be able to
demonstrate learned skills when teaching is completed.
� Response maintenance is important to effect behavior
change.
� Examples of skills that must be maintained: brushing
teeth, writing your name, riding a bike.
● Programming for Response Maintenance
● Two primary areas of programming that promote
maintenance
� Ensure all prompts have been faded and the target
response occurs reliably in the presence of the natural
stimulus.
� Fading reinforcement to naturally occurring levels.
● Promoting maintenance should be considered and planned
for before teaching begins.
● Fade reinforcement to naturally occurring levels and ensuring
all prompts are primary strategies that help promote
response maintenance.
● Ways skills can be maintained
� Incorporate the learned skill into play activities
■ ex: Label occupations; barber
� Incorporate the learned skill into everyday activities
■ ex: Tie your shoe while playing a game
� Incorporate the learned skill into a more complex skill
■ ex: Labeling verbs with describing picture
● Maintenance probes are conducted under baseline conditions,
meaning no additional prompts are used and only natural
levels of reinforcement are provided at predetermined
intervals, after the last teaching sessions
● If an accurate response of a skill at a desirable rate is
generated, the student has maintained the skill
● If an inaccurate response of a skill at an undesirable rate is
generated, the student has not maintained the skill, and
teaching must be restarted.
● The level of response is dependent on what two factors?
� The specific response
� Level of use in everyday life
● Guidelines for Generalization and Maintenance
● Be clear on which strategies to use and how to use them
during teaching. If there are any questions, I should discuss
them with my supervisor.
● Always keep in mind the end goal of the skill, and how and
when the learner will use the skill.
� Generalization probes should be conducted before teaching,
throughout teaching, and once teaching is complete.
� Always conduct maintenance probes at regular intervals
once teaching is complete.
� If maintenance probes show that a skill has not been
maintained, go back and reteach the skill.
� If generalization probes do not show the desired level of
generalization, continue teaching, and consider the
strategies being used.
Discrimination Training
● What is a discrimination?
� When you engage in behavior under certain circumstances
and not under other circumstances.
� Is stopping at a red light while driving but not a green
light an example of discrimination? YES
● Three Term Contingency review: A behavior that is reinforced
is more likely to occur again in the future. A behavior that is
not reinforced is less likely to occur in the future.
● Behavior will be strengthened in contexts where
reinforcement is provided.
● Behavior will be weakened in contexts where reinforcement
is not provided.
● In the example given in the video:
� Julia is engaging in a discrimination when asking to
borrow the car because of the different consequences that
were applied to the same behavior.
� Julia’s behavior is under stimulus control.
● Behavior occurs in the presence of specific contexts in which
they were reinforced in the past.
● Discrimination Training
● The result of discrimination training is stimulus control.
● This is a very important concept in ABA to understand in
order to teach new responses to individuals with learning
challenges.
● Discrimination training involves reinforcing some responses
and not reinforcing other responses in the presence of some
antecedent stimulus.
● Show the child a ball →student says ” ball” →teacher provides
R+ such as behavior specific praise, tickles, preferred item, or
even the ball.
● Show child a ball →students says ”cookie” →teacher does not
provide R+
● To help students learn to discriminate, you can teach more
than one than one target response at a time.
● Collecting and Analyzing Data
● Collect data on the behavior being taught to make sure that
the teaching procedure is effective.
� Record response to each antecedent stimulus.
� Graph the data.
� Analyze the data.
● If data analysis shows that the teaching procedure is not
working, you should seek help from your supervisor.