Copyright © 2021 Matthew Meyer
Edited by Zack Davisson
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Dedicated to the thousands of yōkai lovers from around the world
who helped to crowdfund this book. There are so many of you that I
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C
Map of Japan
Language Notes
Introduction
In the Country
Tsuchinoko, Nomori, Senbiki no ōkami, Hainu, Kodama nezumi, Kyūso, Yama
orabi, Yonaki ishi, Chōchinbi, Nojukubi, Tengubi, Tengu daoshi, Tengu tsubute,
Tearai oni, Shikome, Oni hitokuchi, Kidōmaru, Ōtakemaru
In the City
Chibusa enoki, Bake ichō no sei, Igabō, Yanagi onna, Yanagi baba, Shinigami,
Itsuki, Shichinin misaki, Kubikajiri, Oni no kannebutsu, Bekatarō, Dōmokōmo,
Nikurashi, Jūmen, Minokedachi, Isogashi, Kame hime, Shunobon, Shitanaga
uba, Nikusui, Hinoenma, Jigoku tayū, Kohada Koheiji
In the House
Fudakaeshi, Mekurabe, Gotoku neko, Biron, Nando babā, Fukuro mujina, Kinu
tanuki, Hossumori, Mokugyo daruma, Suzuhiko hime, Oi no bakemono,
Ungaikyō, Narigama, Niwatori no sō, Suppon no yūrei, Shio no chōjirō,
Nebutori, Ashiarai yashiki
During a Pandemic
Yakubyō gami, Mikari baba, Kazenokami, Tsutsugamushi, Koshinuke no
mushi, Koshiita no mushi, Subakuchū, Kamisubaku, Nakisubaku, In no
kameshaku, Yō no kameshaku, Kizetsu no kanmushi, Tonshi no kanmushi,
Kan no ju, Shinshaku, Kanshaku, Hōsōgami, Korōri, Hashika dōji, Amabiko,
Arie, Hōnengame, Umidebito, Yogen no tori
At a Wedding
Kitsune no yomeiri, Yōko, Zenko, Yako, Byakko, Kokuko, Ginko, Kinko, Dakini,
Ashirei, Chiko, Kiko, Kūko, Tenko, Masaki gitsune, Yao no kitsune, Otohime
gitsune, Otora gitsune, Hakuzōsu, Denpachi gitsune, Keizōbō, Otonjorō,
Onashi gitsune, Onji no kitsune, Shoroshoro gitsune, Osan gitsune, Okon
gitsune, Kuda gitsune, Osaki, Ōji no kitsune
Acknowledgments
Yōkai References and Further Reading
Index of Yōkai
L
N
Japanese words can be confusing when written with Latin
characters. Some letter combinations are pronounced differently
than they would normally be in English. To minimize confusion, here
is a brief guide on how to pronounce the Japanese words in this
book.
S
Japanese is written with a syllabary, not an alphabet. Most syllables
are made up of consonant-vowel pairs. The five Japanese vowel
sounds are a, i, u, e, o. These are pronounced like the sounds in
father, feet, food, feather, and foe. Each vowel receives a full
syllable, as does the letter n when it stands alone. For example, the
yōkai shunobon has four syllables (shu/no/bo/n). Yanagi onna has
six syllables (ya/na/gi/o/n/na).
D
M
It is common to find double vowels like aa, uu, ee, oo, ou. Some
vowel combinations look awkward and make words hard to read.
Other combinations like ee and oo can be mistakenly read as
English diphthongs. These combinations are usually written using
macrons (ā, ū, ē, ō) to make them easier to read and pronounce. For
example, yōko instead of youko. Hōsōgami instead of housougami.
Macrons are read with two syllables: yo/o/ko not yo/ko, and
ho/o/so/o/ga/mi not ho/so/ga/mi.
C
W
Japanese does not normally use spaces to separate words. This is
not a problem when reading in Japanese, but when writing Japanese
words with Latin characters it can lead to troublesome strings of
letters.
Words like kitsunenoyomeiri, ashiaraiyashiki, and oninokannebutsu
are long and difficult to read. In this book, spaces have been inserted
into some yōkai names at natural breaks to make them more legible.
Written as kitsune no yomeiri, ashiarai yashiki, and oni no
kannebutsu, these words are comparatively easy to read.
The diacritical marks and spaces used in this book are aesthetic and
meant to make reading Japanese words easier. There are numerous
standards for transliterating Japanese, each with its own rules. Yōkai
encountered outside of this book may be written differently.
I
F
F
Throughout history, people have invented supernatural explanations
for mysterious phenomena. Strange sounds heard deep in the
woods, pebbles falling from the sky, even universal concepts like
good and bad luck—all were the work of spirits. Things understood
in the modern world, like thunder and lightning, mental illnesses, and
infectious disease were equally blamed on demons, ghosts,
monsters, and mischievous magical animals. In Japan, these were
collectively known as yōkai. While Japan has thousands of yōkai,
one species in particular was frequently blamed for peculiar
occurrences.
Foxes, or kitsune in Japanese, were the usual culprit. They have a
long and complex relationship with humans and play a fundamental
role in Japanese folklore. Foxes live on the border of human society;
always close, but never integrated like dogs or cats. They are
nocturnal and rarely seen by human eyes. Still, there is plenty of
evidence of their presence—broken fences, paw prints, bits of blood
and dead animals mark their passage. But foxes themselves move
like ghosts, silent and invisible. The notion that they can change
forms helps explain this paradox. Foxes are always in our villages,
moving freely among us; disguised as humans.
Foxes were more than nuisances. The ancient Japanese believed
mountain gods descended from their mountaintop winter homes at
the start of spring, transforming into gods of the fields. Foxes
emerged from the mountains at the same time, and ancients took
their arrival as divine messages. Foxes were harbingers of spring,
sent by the gods to prepare fields for their coming. Foxes also
preyed upon pests who devoured grain, like rabbits, rats, and mice–
more evidence of their link to agricultural deities.
Foxes are associated with Inari more than any other god. Inari is a
god of rice, sake, industry, craftsmanship, and fertility, and is one of
Shintō’s most widely venerated deities. There are shrines dedicated
to Inari all over Japan. It is estimated that over 30,000 shrines–
roughly one third of all Shintō shrines–are dedicated to Inari. And
nearly all of them have statues and other images related to foxes.
Worship of Inari is decentralized and differs from place to place, but
Kyōtō’s Fushimi Inari Taisha is accepted as the oldest and most
important of all Inari shrines.
Stories of evil foxes originated on the Asian continent in the folklore
of India and China. Foxes were demons who fed upon the energy of
men. They transformed into women and used sex to drain life force.
Like vampires, the longer they lived the greater their powers. After a
millennium of draining human lives, foxes became godlike spirits.
They no longer needed to feed upon humans.
Over the centuries, Chinese and Indian beliefs were brought to
Japan and blended with native Japanese folklore. Both wicked and
divine, these traditions combined to make Japan’s kitsune what they
are today.
P
P
Kitsune are not the only yōkai who serve as divine messengers.
Other prophetic beasts have delivered news from the gods to
humanity. During the late Edo period, a string of epidemics swept
Japan. A growing urban population combined with an influx of
foreign sailors lead to diseases like cholera ravaging the country,
killing hundreds of thousands. Desperate for relief and with little
understanding of diseases, people turned again to the supernatural.
Epidemics were seen as the work of invisible spirits moving on the
wind, infecting people as they went. To counter them, the gods sent
divine messengers to warn humanity of coming troubles. These
benevolent, savior yōkai came from far away, offering protection from
illness. They instructed people to draw their likeness and share it
with others. In the words of one such yōkai, “All who see my image
shall be spared from the disease.”
During the 2020 coronavirus pandemic, prophetic yōkai again
experienced a surge in popularity. Yōkai featured in previous books
in this series such as amabie, hakutaku, and kudan—as well as
other pandemic-fighting yōkai—were shared on social media. They
bore the same message from centuries ago: “Spread my image and
be protected from sickness.”
Their ancient message seemed tailor-made for our modern culture
already accustomed to sharing memes and chain letters. News
outlets across the globe circulated these stories. One yōkai, amabie,
emerged as a symbol of the pandemic and become a household
word.
Whether yōkai are truly effective against epidemics we may never be
known. However, the viral spread of pandemic-fighting spirits proved
that yōkai are relevant to the modern age. They retain their power to
charm and capture imaginations; not just across the globe, but
across the ages.
T
槌の⼦
T
: mallet child
A
: nozuchi, bachihebi, and many other regional
names
H
: fields
D : insects, frogs, and mice; also fond of sake
A
: Tsuchinoko resemble a mallet with no handle. Short,
stumpy, and snake-like, they range from thirty to eighty centimeters
long. Their scaly skin is speckled in earth tones, and they have light
colored bellies. Their viper-like fangs carry deadly venom. Unlike
snakes, tsuchinoko have eyelids.
I
: Tsuchinoko are found throughout Japan. They are
active during the day from spring through fall and hibernate in winter.
They nest in holes along wooded riverbanks. Tsuchinoko give off a
call which sounds like “chee,” They snore when they sleep.
Tsuchinoko feed on insects when they are young, switching to frogs
and mice as they grow larger. Occasionally, they eat larger animals
like cats or dogs. For their small size, tsuchinoko can eat large
volumes of food relative. The smell of miso, dried squid, or burning
hair attracts them. They are also fond of sake.
Despite their awkward-looking shape, tsuchinoko are extremely
nimble. Their normal movement is crawling like an an inchworm, but
they can also roll sideways like a log or tumble vertically from tip-totail. They can also roll like a wheel, swallowing the tips of their tails
and making their body into a circle. Tsuchinoko are great jumpers.
They can spring from two to five meters in a single bound.
O
: Creatures resembling tsuchinoko have been part of
Japanese folklore since prehistoric times. Jōmon period pottery and
stone tools had motifs resembling stumpy snakes. Edo period
folkloric encyclopedias recorded venomous, rolling, snake-like yōkai
under names like nozuchi and tsuchi korobi.
During the 1970s, a number of supposed tsuchinoko sightings and
live captures sparked a “tsuchinoko boom.” People all over Japan
started hunting for tsuchinoko. They became a household name as
an explosion of eyewitness accounts, blurry photographs, and talk
show specials enlivened the country. Since then, tsuchinoko have
remained a popular subject among cryptozoologists. Monetary
rewards are offered to anyone able to produce a reliable photograph
or a physical specimen.
Tsuchinoko are known by many regional names, such as bachihebi,
dotenko, inokohebi, korohebi, tatekurikaeshi, tsuchinbo, and
tsuchihebi. Nozuchi and tsuchi korobi are sometimes identified as
alternate names for tsuchinoko, although they are sometimes treated
as separate yōkai.
N
T
A
H
D
野守
: wilderness guardian
: nomori mushi, yamori
: mountain forests
: carnivorous
A
: Nomori are giant, serpentine creatures that live deep
in the mountains. Their bodies are about three meters long and thick
and round like barrels. They have six legs, with six toes on each foot.
B
: Nomori live far away from human settlements.
Encounters are quite rare. They hunt by coiling their prey and
strangling it like a boa constrictor.
L
: Long ago in Shinano Province (present-day Nagano
Prefecture), a young man went deep in the wilderness into the
mountains to gather firewood. He stepped on something in the
undergrowth. It was a tail of a humongous snake-like creature, over
ten meters long. The creature had six legs ending in six-toed feet. It
was large in the middle and tapered off towards the head and tail.
The creature coiled itself around the young man’s body and tried to
bite his head. Fortunately, he had brought a sickle with him. He cut
the creature’s throat and killed it.
Afterwards, the young man carved the creature with his sickle and
brought a piece home as proof. When his father saw the meat and
heard the story, he became angry. The creature must have been a
mountain god. Killing it was sure to bring a curse upon their family!
He banished his son from his home.
The son moved into a nearby small hut. Before long, the piece of
meat cut from the creature began to give off a terrible odor. The
smell was so foul he fell gravely ill. Unable to leave his bed, a doctor
came and gave him medicine. He bathed him to wash the smell
away. Almost immediately, the son began to feel better. When he told
the doctor about the giant serpent, the doctor replied that it was not a
serpent. It must have been a nomori. Just as yamori (geckos) are
guardians of houses and imori (newts) are guardians of wells,
nomori are guardians of the wilderness.
A few years later, the son was chopping wood in a prohibited area of
the mountains. He was caught and executed for his crime. In his
village, this was said to be the nomori’s curse.
S
T
H
D
千⽦狼
: one thousand (i.e., many) wolves
: mountain forests
: carnivorous
A
: Senbiki ōkami are wolves standing on each other’s
shoulders. It is usually done to hunt prey that is out of reach. Senbiki
ōkami appear in legends about wolves across Japan. Folklorists
consider it to symbolize wolves’ natural intelligence, athletic abilities,
and tendency to cooperate in groups. While there are many
variations, most follow a pattern similar to the one below from Kōchi
Prefecture.
L
: A pregnant woman was traveling to Nahari and had to
cross a mountain pass during the night. As misfortune would have it,
she was struck with labor pains deep in the mountains. To make
matters worse, a pack of wolves was nearby. Just then, a courier
happened by. He helped the woman climb into a tree, out of reach of
the wolves. He followed her into the branches to guard the woman
until morning.
Wolves gathered at the base of the tree. They clawed at the bark
and leaped as high as they could. But they could not reach the
courier and the woman.
Then a strange thing happened. The wolves climbed on each other’s
shoulders, forming a living ladder. The courier and the woman
climbed as high as they could. One-by-one the stack grew higher
and higher until the wolves could almost reach the courier and the
woman. Their ladder was one wolf short.
One wolf spoke: “Summon the blacksmith’s wife from Sakihama!”
The other wolves howled in celebration. Before long, an enormous
white wolf wearing an iron kettle as a helmet arrived. The great wolf
climbed the living ladder. When it was within striking distance, the
courier drew his sword and struck with all his might. There was a
loud crack. His blade had split the kettle in two. The giant wolf
howled in a human-like voice. A moment later, the stack of wolves
vanished.
When morning came and people once again appeared on the road,
the courier and the woman climbed down from the tree. A passerby
escorted the woman to Nahari, while the courier searched the
ground where the wolves had been. He discovered a trail of blood.
The trail of blood led to Sakihama, to the door of a blacksmith’s
house. The courier knocked on the door and asked the blacksmith if
his wife was home. The blacksmith replied that she had suffered a
head injury and was resting. The courier forced his way into the
house and went into the bedroom. He found the sleeping wife, drew
his sword, and cut her to pieces. She turned into the corpse of a
great white wolf. Digging up the floorboards of the bedroom, they
discovered countless human skeletons including the bones of the
blacksmith’s wife.
Today in Sakihama, a memorial tower dedicated to the blacksmith’s
wife still stands. They say the blacksmith’s descendants all had
strangely spikey hair, like the bristles of a wolf.
H
⽻⽝
T
: winged dog
H
: forests, plains, and mountains, anywhere dogs can be
found
D : carnivorous
A
: Hainu look like regular dogs with bird wings.
B
: Hainu are winged dogs who can fly. Strong, fast, and
ferocious, wild hainu can be as menacing as wolves. On the other
hand, tame hainu can be loyal, loving pets.
O
: The original hainu legend comes from Chikugo, Fukuoka. In
a grave at Sōgaku Temple, the hainu is supposedly buried, giving the
name to the neighborhood Hainuzuka (“hainu burial mound”). A
stone monument at Sōgaku Temple and several bronze statues
throughout the city memorialize this local legend. The hainu was
selected as Chikugo City’s official mascot.
L
: There are two common versions of the hainu legend–one
with an evil hainu, the other a good one. Both take place in the
spring of 1587 during Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s invasion of Kyūshū when
he was attempting to unify Japan.
The evil hainu legend tells that long ago, a winged dog appeared in
Chikugo Province. Incredibly ferocious, it attacked travelers,
slaughtered livestock, and was greatly feared by locals. While
passing through the area, Hideyoshi’s way was blocked by the
hainu. After an intense battle Hideyoshi and his army finally slew the
beast. Hideyoshi was so impressed by its cleverness and ferocity
that he had the monster buried and erected a mound in its honor.
The good hainu legend tells that when Hideyoshi was on his
campaign, he was accompanied by a fabulous, winged dog. It loyally
followed its master, flying around in the sky. Hideyoshi adored his
dog. While passing through Chikugo, the hainu fell sick and died.
Hideyoshi was overcome with grief. Seeing their general’s grief, his
retainers built a burial mound for the hainu and interred it. It lies
there to this day.
K
T
H
D
⼩⽟⿏
: small ball mouse
: mountains in northeastern Japan
: omnivorous
A
: Kodama nezumi are tiny, spherical creatures which
resemble dormice. They live deep in the mountains of Tōhoku.
B
: Kodama nezumi are rarely encountered due to their
remote habitat. However, they have one particularly noticeable
behavior. Every so often, kodama nezumi swell up. As internal
pressure builds, they inflate like a balloon. Then suddenly they
rupture down the spine and burst. The sound of this explosion is
louder than a gunshot. Everything nearby is splattered with flesh,
blood, and innards.
O
: Kodama nezumi come from legends of the Matagi, an ethnic
group of hunters who live in the mountains of northeastern Japan.
They believe kodama nezumi are messengers sent by mountain
gods. A kodama nezumi explosion is a warning the gods are angry.
When Matagi hunters hear their distinctive popping sound, they
immediately cease their hunt and head home.
Anyone foolish enough to continue hunting after hearing a kodama
nezumi explosion invites the wrath of the mountain gods. At the least
they will have a poor catch. Worse, they might get injured. If the
gods are angry enough, they might burry the insubordinate hunter in
an avalanche. Some Matagi believe that kodama nezumi are
reincarnated souls of hunters who foolishly defied the mountain
gods’ warning.
L
: One cold winter night, some hunters were resting in a
mountain hut. To their surprise, a woman came to the door. She
begged for shelter for the night. However, the mountains were a
sacred place, forbidden to women. The hunters felt they had no
choice but to turn her away.
The freezing woman continued wandering until she found another
hut. She begged the hunters inside to give her shelter. These
hunters also knew the sacred law, but they took pity. It was
dangerous to roam the mountains at night, so they allowed her stay.
When morning came, the woman had vanished. The hunters who
allowed her to stay had a bountiful hunt. No one was injured, and
they returned to their village laden with rich game. They realized the
woman was a mountain goddess. She rewarded their kindness with
her blessing.
The group of hunters who turned the woman away met a different
fate. Instead of a blessing, they received her curse. She transformed
them into kodama nezumi and they were never seen again.
K
T
A
H
D
旧⿏
: former rat, old rat
: yōso (strange rat)
: barns, houses, fields
: cats, and pretty much anything else it wants
A
: When a mouse or a rat reaches a thousand years of
age, it turns into a gigantic rodent yōkai called a kyūso. They look
like ordinary rats, except as large as medium-sized dogs.
B
: In addition to growing larger and stronger, kyūso exhibit
aggressive behaviors. Aware of their own size and strength, they no
longer scurry away from danger. Instead of being chased by cats
they often hunt them down and eat them. However, there are old
folktales and modern urban legends about kyūso playing with cats,
even raising litters of abandoned kittens as if they were their own
children.
More disturbing by far, there are folk tales where kyūso sneak into
human beds at night to have sexual relations with young women.
O
: Kyūso appear in Ehon hyakumonogatari and other Edo
period sources. But stories about giant yōkai rats are far older and
have been a part of Japanese folklore since ancient times. There is
an old saying: kyūso neko wo kamu (“a cornered rat will bite a cat”).
“Cornered rat” and “old rat” are homophones in Japanese. It is
possible that this yōkai’s name is a pun based on this idiom.
L
: A tale from 15th century Dewa Province tells of a kyūso
which had taken up residence in a barn. The kyūso became good
friends with a female cat who also lived in the barn. The cat got
pregnant and bore a litter of five kittens. However, she died shortly
after giving birth. In her place, the kyūso visited the kittens every
night and took care of them. When they had grown into adult cats,
the kyūso vanished from the barn, never to return.
In Nagoya in the 1750s, a family was perplexed as to why their
lamps were being extinguished every night. Finally, they discovered
the cause: a gigantic rat came out at night and licked up the oil from
their lamps. The family bought a cat to catch the rat. When night fell,
they released the cat. The kyūso appeared, and the cat leaped upon
it. But the kyūso was stronger. It tore open the cat’s throat. Shocked,
the family searched the town until they found a bigger cat with a
reputation for ratting. They purchased it, and once again released it
at night. When the kyūso appeared, the two creatures locked eyes
and snarled at one another. Finally, the kyūso could hold back no
longer. It leaped at the cat and tore its throat open, just as it had
done before.
A tale from Kagawa Prefecture describes a kyūso losing to a cat.
The cat was a stray taken in by a priest named Ingen from Ōtaki
Temple. A huge rat weighing over 26 kilograms lived in the temple’s
main building and had been terrorizing the priests for years. The cat
was too small to kill the kyūso. However, after three years of living
there, the cat’s tail split in two and it transformed into a nekomata.
Grateful for Ingen’s kind treatment, the nekomata enlisted an army of
local cats and drove the kyūso out of the temple. After a long and
bloody battle, the cats finally slew the kyūso.
Y
T
A
H
D
⼭おらび
: mountain shouter
: orabisōke
: deep in the mountains
: unknown
A
: Yama orabi are small, tree-dwelling yōkai native to
Kyūshū and Shikoku. They resemble birds with over-sized heads
and mouths full of sharp, pointy teeth. They are excellent mimics.
B
: Yama orabi are rarely seen but can be easily heard. As
their name suggests, they love to shout. Yama orabi are excellent
mimics and copy the voices of anyone who shouts near their homes.
They shout their words back at them. While yama orabi behave in a
similar way to other echo yōkai such as yamabiko and kodama, they
are entirely different creatures.
Yama orabi are usually only encountered deep in the mountains.
They shout back any word shouted at them. More than simple
annoyance, any person foolish enough to engage a yama orabi in a
shouting match will be cursed to die. Superstition holds that this
death curse can only be removed by ringing a cracked bell.
O
: The name yama orabi comes from orabu, a word in Kyūshū
dialects which means to shout.
L
: In Fukuoka Prefecture, yama orabi are used by mothers to
frighten their children to sleep. Children are warned that if they stay
up too late a yama orabi will come, so they better go to sleep soon!
Y
T
夜泣き⽯
: night-crying stone
A
: Yonaki ishi look like ordinary boulders which cry like
babies at night. In many cases, the stones cry because they are
possessed by the vengeful spirit of a murder victim. However,
sometimes it is the stone itself that cries and not a person’s spirit
haunting it. The most famous yonaki ishi legend comes from
Kakegawa City in Shizuoka Prefecture.
B
: Yonaki ishi imitate the cries of a human baby, attracting
people with the sound.
L
: Long ago, a pregnant woman was walking home through
steep mountains. She reached the Sayo no Nakayama Pass when
stopped to rest. Leaning against a large round boulder to catch her
breath, she was suddenly accosted by a bandit. He slashed her belly
with his blade and would have cut through her if his sword hadn’t
struck the boulder she rested on. The bandit robbed her and fled
back into the woods. The woman bled to death against the boulder.
Because the blade struck the rock, the baby was not injured in the
attack. He crawled out from his mother’s body through the wound.
Although the mother was dead, her soul was so worried about her
child that it could not pass on. It got stuck in the boulder. From then
on, every night the boulder would cry loudly. A priest from a nearby
temple heard the crying. When he went to investigate, he discovered
a newborn baby lying beside the boulder. The priest took the baby
back to his temple and raised him, naming him Otohachi.
When Otohachi grew up he was apprenticed to a sword sharpener.
After many years he became an accomplish sword sharpener as
well. One day, a samurai came to Otohachi and ordered him to
repair a chipped katana. Otohachi asked the samurai how such a
terrible crack had appeared in the blade. The samurai casually
explained that the blade had been chipped many years earlier when
he had accidentally struck a stone in the Sayo no Nakayama Pass.
Otohachi realized that the samurai was none other than the bandit
who murdered his mother. Otohachi stood up, introduced himself,
and then cut down the samurai.
Today, the yonaki ishi is known as one of the Seven Wonders of
Shizuoka.
C
T
A
H
提灯⽕
: lantern fire
: Koemonbi, tanukibi, kitsunebi
: rural farmlands
A
: Chōchinbi are strange orbs of fire which appear on
footpaths separating the rice paddies in rural villages. They hover a
few feet above the ground, at about the same height and brightness
as handheld paper lanterns. These lanterns, called chōchin, give the
chōchinbi their name. While chōchinbi resemble other magical
fireballs, their similarity to paper lanterns makes them unique.
B
: Chōchinbi drift about lazily, often forming long rows of
dozens of lights like a string of lanterns. Occasionally they drift
together and form spectral shapes that trick people. Sometimes they
travel long distances from graveyard to graveyard. If a human gets
too close, they suddenly vanish.
O
: Chōchinbi are frequently said to be the work of kitsune.
Foxes use the magical fire to light their processions in the dark. They
are sometimes attributed to other yōkai such as tanuki or mujina.
The presence of chōchinbi is said to be a sign that yōkai are close
by.
L
: In Nara Prefecture, these lights are called Koemonbi
(“Koemon fire”). Long ago, a man named Koemon investigated a
string of strange lantern lights that appeared along the riverbank on
rainy nights. As he approached the lights, a fireball shot over his
head. Startled, Koemon struck the fireball with his stick. The flame
broke up into several hundred smaller flames which surrounded him.
He ran home in terror.
That night Koemon came down with a terrible fever. Within a few
days, he was dead. After that, the villagers called the strange lantern
lights along the riverside Koemonbi.
N
T
H
野宿⽕
: wilderness-inhabiting fire
: rural roads, mountain paths, and abandoned campsites
A
: Nojukubi are mysterious fires which ignite and
extinguish on their own. They take the form of a thin streak of flame
which appears out of nowhere.
B
: Nojukubi appear either in the spring following cherry
blossom viewing season or in autumn after foliage viewing season.
They usually appear on roadsides or in mountain hiking trails, places
where humans have recently been. Just as campfires leave behind
embers which smolder and glow long after the fire has died, human
activity leaves behind lingering energy. Nojukubi come from this
energy, flaring up suddenly, seemingly out of nowhere. Just as
quickly they extinguish for no reason, even when they appear to be
burning strong. They reignite and extinguish themselves over and
over.
Nojukubi exhibit strange qualities which distinguish them from
ordinary campfire embers. They appear more frequently after rain,
unhindered by dampness. They do not radiate heat or consume
wood or kindling as they burn. Nojukubi do not spread like normal
fire. Perhaps strangest of all, human voices can be heard having
conversations or reciting poetry and songs from within the flames–
echoes of whatever lively activity recently took place.
O
: Nojukubi appear in the Edo period yōkai collection Ehon
hyakumonogatari. They were noted as a separate phenomenon from
kitsunebi or Sōgenbi. Other sources describe them as a type of
onibi.
T
T
A
H
天狗⽕
: tengu fire
: tengu no gyorō, taimatsu maru
: riversides
A
: Tengubi are a fiery phenomenon which appear near
rivers in Aichi, Shizuoka, Yamanashi, and Kanagawa Prefectures.
They appear as one or more (up to several hundred) reddish flames
which float in the sky. These supernatural fires are said to be created
by tengu.
B
: Tengubi descend at night from the mountains to the
rivers. Often, they start as a small number of fireballs which split into
hundreds of smaller flames. These flames hover above the water as
if dancing. Afterwards, they return to the mountains.
I
: Humans who witness tengubi often meet with
disaster–usually in the form of a serious illness contracted shortly
after the encounter. Because of this, locals who live in areas with
tengubi are wary. If a local sees tengubi, they immediately drop to
the ground and look away. They may cover their heads with shoes or
sandals.
Occasionally, tengubi can be helpful to humans. During times of
drought, unscrupulous farmers might steal water by redirecting
neighbors’ canals into their own fields at night. This was a serious
crime. However, when tengubi appeared above the canals, would-be
thieves were thwarted. Either the light of the tengubi made it
impossible to sneak around or the thieves’ own guilty conscious
would make them run away.
O
: Tengubi are created by tengu who prefer the riversides over
the deep mountain valleys that are their normal abode. They use
tengubi as a lure for catching fish in the night. For this reason,
tengubi are also known as tengu no gyorō (“tengu fishing”).
Toriyama Sekien included tengubi in his book Hyakki tsurezure
bukuro under the name taimatsu maru (taimatsu meaning “torch,”
and maru being a popular suffix for boys’ names). He described it
not as a tool for tengu fishing, but a way for them to disrupt the
religious practices of ascetic monks.
L
: Long ago, tengubi were seen frequently in the villages of
Kasugai City, Aichi Prefecture. One night, a villager was caught out
in the mountains in a sudden thunderstorm. It was cold, and too dark
to find his way home. He took shelter under a tree and shivered.
Before long, mysterious fires appeared around him. Not only did they
warm him, but they provided enough light to find the road and make
it safely back to his village.
Another superstition in that village was to not go outside on nights
when tengubi appeared. If you did, you would be spirited away into
the mountains. One night, a particularly foolhardy young man defied
the superstition. He walked out of his house, faced the tengubi, and
called out, “If you can take me, come and get me!” Suddenly, a large
dark shape appeared out of nowhere and grabbed the young man. It
picked him up and flew away into the mountains. The young man
was never seen again.
T
T
A
tsuki
H
天狗倒し
: knocked down by a tengu
: furusoma, sora kigaeshi, kara kidaoshi, tsue
: forests deep in the mountains
A
: Tengu daoshi is an audio phenomenon heard deep in
the woods. It is the sound of trees being chopped and crashing to
the ground, accompanied by powerful gusts of wind. It often happens
late at night and can continue for some time.
I
: Tengu daoshi is usually heard by people who spend
most of their time in the mountains, such as woodcutters and
Shugendō practitioners. It happens at night when no one would be
working. Occasionally voices can be heard shouting “ikuzo!” (the
equivalent of shouting “timber!” as a tree falls). Woodcutters
sometimes feel their huts shake violently. However, in the morning
they find no sign of fallen trees, nor any evidence of what could have
made the noise.
O
: Tengu daoshi occurs all over Japan. It is attributed to various
supernatural forces. As the name suggests, it is often believed to be
the work of tengu. They make their homes deep in the mountains
and are natural culprits. In addition to tengu, animal yōkai are often
blamed for tengu daoshi. Some say tanuki kick rocks at humans with
their hind legs and slap trees with their tails, causing these
mysterious sounds. Kitsune and mujina are blamed as well. It is also
sometimes said to be the work of mountain kami.
Tengu daoshi is known by different regional names. Common names
include sora kigaeshi and kara kidaoshi (“trees from the sky”), and
tsue tsuki (“cane strike,” as it sounds like trees being struck by
walking sticks). In most of Shikoku, tengu daoshi is known as
furusoma, meaning “old woodcutter.” Legend has it that the
phenomenon is the work of the ghost of an old woodcutter. He was
illegally cutting down trees when he was crushed to death under a
falling tree. His ghost now haunts the mountains, causing phantom
woodcutting sounds.
T
T
H
天狗礫
: a stone thrown by a tengu
: usually deep in the mountains
A
: Tengu tsubute is a phenomenon where rocks
mysteriously fall from the sky as if flung by an evil wind. The rocks
are often invisible. After they fall to the ground, nothing can be seen
where they should have fallen. When hitting water, ripples and a
splash occur though no rocks can be seen. It is usually a handful of
pebbles or gravel. Rarely, large boulders are hurled. Tengu tsubute
is usually encountered deep in the mountains, however occasional
tales of rocks raining from the sky are found in cities.
I
: People struck by tengu tsubute fall ill soon
afterwards. Even those who merely witness this phenomenon often
suffer misfortune. Hunters will not be able to find their prey. Fishers
will have a poor catch. No matter how hard a person is struck by
tengu tsubute no wound or mark is left on the body.
O
: As shown by the name, tengu tsubute is often believed to be
the work of tengu. Because tengu hate the wickedness they see in
humans, it is believed they throw rocks to punish the unrepentant
and remind us to behave. Other yōkai such as mischievous kitsune
and tanuki are occasionally blamed as well.
T
⼿洗⻤
T
: hand washing demon
A
: kyojin no ojomo (giant ojomo; a local term for
monster)
H
: Shikoku and the Seto Inland Sea
D : omnivorous
A
: Tearai oni are colossal beings large enough to
straddle mountains. Their legs can span up to three ri–almost twelve
kilometers.
B
: Tearai oni get their name from their unique behavior.
They straddle large bodies of water and bend down to wash their
hands in lakes and seas.
O
: Tearai oni appear in the Edo period book Ehon
hyakumonogatari, which says that their actual name is unknown.
The book says witnesses named them after their hand washing.
Despite being called oni, the tearai oni is actually a type of giant
called a daidarabotchi. In this case, oni is a catch-all term for
monster.
While the term tearai oni doesn’t appear before Ehon
hyakumonogatari, local legends from Kagawa speak of a giant who
came down from the mountains, straddled the mountains, and
scooped up water from the bay with his hands to drink. Giant
footprints were found high up in the mountains. This creature’s local
nickname was kyojin no ojomo. It may have been the same giant as
tearai oni.
L
: The most famous tearai oni comes from an Edo period
sighting in Sanuki Province (present-day Kagawa Prefecture). The
giant was seen straddling the mountains between Takamatsu and
Marugame and washing its hands in the Seto Inland Sea below.
S
T
A
H
D
醜⼥
: ugly woman
: yomotsu shikome (“ugly woman from hell”)
: Yomi (the Shintō underworld)
: omnivorous
A
: Shikome is a broad term describing kijo, or female oni,
who look like ugly human women. They have long black hair,
sagging, misshapen breasts, and wide, twisted smiles. They often
have bestial features such as claws, paws, pointed ears, and
patches of furry hair.
B
: Shikome are courtesans in the land of the dead. They
spend much of their time trying to make themselves beautiful. They
apply thick white makeup to their faces, blacken their teeth, and
wear multi-layered kimono. However, their excessive grooming only
accentuates their ugliness. They are a mockery of high fashion.
I
: Shikome are more dangerous than most think. They
are fast, able to leap a thousand ri (approximately four thousand
kilometers). They are ravenous and devour food at incredible
speeds.
O
: Shikome appear in many picture scrolls and are a popular
figure in yōkai artwork. These illustrations served as the origin of a
great number of yōkai. They satirize unattractive women, such as ao
nyōbo, taka onna, and kerakera onna. Shikome also play a role in
Japan’s ancient mythology. They are known as yomotsu
shikome–“the ugly women of Yomi,” in the Shintō underworld.
L
: The goddess Izanami died in childbirth. Her grieving
widow Izanagi journeyed into the underworld to bring her back from
the land of the dead. Izanagi found her deep in the shadowy land of
Yomi. He begged Izanami to return to the surface with him. But
because Izanami had had already eaten the food of the dead, she
could not return. But she went to beg permission from the gods of
Yomi to visit him. Izanami told Izanagi to wait for her answer. She
made him promise not to bring any light into the dark of the
underworld.
Izanagi grew impatient. He entered the palace of the dead to gaze
upon Izanami’s beautiful face. Unable to see, Izanagi transformed
his comb into a torch. When the light fell upon Izanami’s face, she
was horrible to behold. Her flesh was rotten and covered with worms
and maggots. Izanagi screamed and ran away. Izanami, indignant
and betrayed, ordered her servants, the yomotsu shikome, to catch
Izanagi.
The shikome were faster than Izanagi. As they closed in, Izanagi
threw his woven headdress to the floor, turning it into a grapevine.
The shikome stopped for a moment to devour the grapes, then
resumed the chase. Izanagi broke the teeth off his comb and
scattered them, turning them into bamboo shoots. The shikome
devoured these too, buying him just a little more time. At last, Izanagi
made it to the surface. He rolled a large boulder over the entrance to
Yomi, trapping the shikome and locking Izanami in the underworld
forever.
O
T
A
D
⻤⼀⼝
: one bite from an oni
: kamikakushi
: people
A
: When people vanish without warning or without a
trace, their disappearance is often blamed on evil spirits. There are
several different words to describe this phenomenon. Someone
kidnapped and taken to the spirit word is said to be a victim of
kamikakushi. They might come back to the human world years later,
profoundly changed by their traumatic experience. Sometimes,
however, such a person never returns. The victim may be said to
have been taken–or rather eaten–by an oni. Oni hitokichi describes a
situation in which a person is gobbled up in a single bite and never
seen again.
L
: A famous example of oni hitokuchi appears in the Heian
period story collection Ise monogatari. Poet and playboy Ariwara no
Narihira lusted after the beautiful noblewoman Fujiwara no Takaiko.
Because of Takaiko’s social status, her family would never approve
of their relationship. To Narihira’s dismay, their affair could only be
conducted in secret.
One night, the unhappy Narihira snuck into Takaiko’s room and
kidnapped her. They fled into the wilderness, when suddenly a
terrible storm struck. They took sheltered in a cave. Takaiko rested
deep in the cave while Narihira stood guard at the entrance with his
bow and arrow.
By morning the storm had cleared. Narihira went into the cave to
fetch Takaiko, but she was not there. The cave was home to an oni
who had gobbled her up. Not even a single piece of cloth was left.
Narihira had been unable to hear her screams in the night because
of the storm.
K
T
⻤童丸
: a nickname meaning “oni boy”
A
: Kidōmaru is an oni who appears in Kokon chomonjū
(“A Collection of Notable Tales Old and New”), a Kamakura period
compilation of myths and legends. He was vicious and cruel. His
father was Shuten dōji, the greatest oni of all time. Kidōmaru is best
known for his attempts to avenge his father’s death.
L
: Kidōmaru was born after the legendary samurai Raikō
(Minamoto no Yorimitsu) and his party of heroes defeated Shuten
dōji’s gang and freed their captured women. Most of the women
were grateful to the samurai for rescuing them and returned to their
villages. However, one woman did not go home. She traveled to
Kumohara and gave birth to a baby oni–Shuten dōji’s son.
The boy was called Kidōmaru. He was born with a full set of teeth
and an oni’s strength. By the time he was seven or eight years old
he could slay a deer or a boar by throwing a single rock at it. Like his
father, he was apprenticed as a temple servant at Mt. Hiei. And like
his father, he was eventually expelled from the temple for being
wicked. Kidōmaru fled to the mountains and took up residence in a
cave. He studied magic and honed his powers in his secret hideout.
He robbed travelers to survive.
After years of terrorizing the mountain roads, Kidōmaru was
captured by Minamoto no Yorinobu, Raikō’s younger brother.
Yorinobu locked the oni in an outhouse and called for Raikō. Raikō
scolded Yorinobu’s carelessness at not securing Kidōmaru in ropes
and chains. He showed Yorinobu the proper way to tie up an oni.
Raikō stayed over for the night to make sure Kidōmaru did not
escape.
But Kidōmaru was strong. He easily broke the bonds holding him.
Wanting revenge upon the man who had killed his father, he snuck
up to Raikō’s door. But Raikō noticed and laid a trap. In a loud voice
he told his attendants that the following morning they would ride to
Mount Kurama to make a pilgrimage.
Kidōmaru ran ahead to Kurama to set an ambush for Raikō. On the
road outside of Ichiharano, Kidōmaru slaughtered a cow and climbed
inside of its body to hide. But Raikō was expecting an ambush.
When he arrived at Ichiharano, he easily saw through Kidōmaru’s
disguise. Raikō’s best archer, Watanabe no Tsuna, fired an arrow
through the cow’s body. Wounded, Kidōmaru emerged from the
cow’s skin and charged at Raikō. But Raikō was faster than
Kidōmaru. He cut him down with a single strike, ending Shuten dōji’s
line.
Ō
T
⼤嶽丸
: a nickname meaning “great mountain peak”
A
: Ōtakemaru is a kijin–an oni so powerful they are
considered both demon and god. He is among the most fearsome
yōkai in Japanese history, able to grow in size, summon storms, and
wield any number of supernatural powers. Along with Shuten dōji
and Tamamo no Mae, Ōtakemaru is considered one of the Nihon
san dai aku yōkai, or Three Great Evil Yōkai of Japan (although
some versions swap Ōtakemaru with the ghost of Sutoku Tennō).
O
: Ōtakemaru may be a folkloric interpretation of Aterui, a
chieftain of the Emishi people of northeastern Honshu. Aterui waged
a bloody war against the Yamato Japanese until his defeat and
capture by Sakanoue no Tamuramaro. His legend also serves as the
basis of Aomori Prefecture’s famous Nebuta Matsuri, in which large
floats depicting samurai and oni are paraded through the streets.
L
: During the reign of Emperor Kanmu (781 to 806), an oni
named Ōtakemaru terrorized travelers in the Suzuka Mountains, on
the border of Ise and Ōmi Provinces. The emperor commanded his
shōgun, Sakanoue no Tamuramaro, to exterminate the demon.
Tamuramaro raised an army of 30,000 horsemen and entered the
mountains.
Ōtakemaru used his magic to summon a great storm. He covered
the mountains in black clouds making it impossible to see. Rains and
winds battered the army. Lightning crashed and fire rained down
from the sky onto the army. Tamuramaro and his men hunted
Ōtakemaru for seven years but could not catch him.
Frustrated by his inability to find Ōtakemaru, Tamuramaro prayed to
the gods and the buddhas for help. One night he dreamed an old
man told him that to defeat Ōtakemaru he must seek out Suzuka
Gozen, a tennyo–beautiful female spirit–who lived deep in the
Suzuka Mountains.
Tamuramaro sent his army home and climbed the mountains alone.
He discovered a palace in which lived a beautiful woman. She
invited him inside and said, “I am Suzuka Gozen. I have come from
heaven to help you defeat the demon who haunts these mountains.
Ōtakemaru has the three magic swords–Kenmyōren, Daitōren, and
Shōtōren. He cannot be defeated while he possesses them. But I
can take them for you.” Suzuka Gozen guided Tamuramaro through
the mountains to show him Ōtakemaru’s demon castle. They then
returned to her palace to lay their trap.
Ōtakemaru was enchanted by Suzuka Gozen’s beauty. He was
determined to make her his own. Every night he disguised himself as
a handsome young nobleman and traveled to her palace to court
her. And every night he was denied. That night, however, Suzuka
Gozen invited him inside. She told him, “A warrior named
Tamuramaro is coming here to kill me. Please lend me your three
magic swords so that I may defend myself.” Ōtakemaru was
suspicious. He gave her Daitōren and Shōtōren but kept Kenmyōren
for himself.
When Ōtakemaru returned to his castle, Tamuramaro was waiting.
Ōtakemaru shed his disguise, transforming into a massive oni over
10 meters tall. His eyes shone like the sun and the moon.
Ōtakemaru attacked Tamuramaro with sword and spear. But the
shōgun was protected. The thousand-armed Kannon, bodhisattva of
mercy, and Bishamon-ten, god of war, stood by his side.
A terrible battle ensued, shaking heaven and earth. Ōtakemaru
divided his body into thousands of oni and charged Tamuramaro.
Tamuramaro drew a single holy arrow and fired it. The arrow split
into a thousand arrows which in turn split into ten thousand more.
Each arrow struck home, slaying the army of oni. Ōtakemaru lunged.
The shōgun was faster. Tamuramaro swung his blade and cut off the
oni’s head.
Tamuramaro brought Ōtakemaru’s head to Kyoto for the emperor to
inspect. The emperor was so pleased that he granted Tamuramaro
the province of Iga as a reward. Tamuramaro returned to Iga and
married Suzuka Gozen.
However, Ōtakemaru’s reign of terror was not over. His spirit traveled
first to India, then returned to Japan where he possessed the sword
Kenmyōren. Ōtakemaru eventually remade his body, rebuilt his
impregnable demon castle on Mount Iwate, and once again
terrorized Japan.
Tamuramaro and Suzuka Gozen resolved to defeat Ōtakemaru once
and for all. While the oni was away from his castle, Tamuramaro
snuck in through a secret door that Suzuka Gozen revealed to him.
When Ōtakemaru returned Tamuramaro was waiting for him. They
fought, and once again Tamuramaro cut Ōtakemaru’s head off. The
head flew through the air, landed on Tamuramaro’s helmet, and bit
through his armor. Fortunately, Tamuramaro had prepared. He wore
two helmets. Ōtakemaru bit off and swallowed the first one, but
Tamuramaro was unharmed.
Ōtakemaru’s head was again taken to Kyōto. It was locked safely in
the treasury of the temple Byōdōin.
C
T
乳房榎
: breast hackberry
A
: Chibusa enoki was a hackberry (Celtis sinensis) which
grew in Itabashi, Tōkyō during the mid-18th century. Chibusa enoki
got its name from peculiar growths on it which were shaped like
breasts
B
: The breasts of the chibusa enoki produced nourishing
milk. The legend was made into a rakugyo performance during the
Meiji period.
L
: Hishikawa Shigenobu was a samurai-turned-painter. He
lived in Edo with his wife Okise and their baby boy Mayotarō. His
apprentice was a skilled man named Isogai Namie. Unbeknownst to
Shigenobu, Namie was a wicked man who lusted after Okise.
One day, Shigenobu was called away to paint a temple ceiling. He
took his servant Shōsuke with him. With his master gone, Namie
threatened to kill the baby Mayotarō if Okise did not sleep with him.
With no other choice, Okise relented. Gradually, Okise returned
Namie’s affections. Their affair continued, but they knew it would end
when Shigenobu came home. Namie devised a plan to ensure his
master would never return.
Namie visited Shigenobu under the pretense of observing his
painting. Shigenobu was nearly finished with the temple ceiling, with
only the arm of a dragon left to paint. Namie coerced Shōsuke into
helping him kill Shigenobu. Shōsuke returned to the temple and
invited has master to drink and watch fireflies. Shigenobu got very
drunk. On their way back to the temple, Namie ambushed and
murdered Shigenobu.
Shōsuke ran back to the temple and reported that brigands had
killed Shigenobu. However, Shigenobu was there. He had just
finished painting the dragon’s arm and was signing his work.
Shōsuke was so shocked that he fainted. When he awoke,
Shigenobu was gone. Had he seen a ghost?
Not long after that, Namie and Okise married. Shōsuke remained in
Namie’s service. Namie and Okise had a baby. Even then Namie did
not like raising Shigenobu’s son along with his own. He ordered
Shōsuke to murder Mayotarō.
Shōsuke took Mayotarō into the mountains and flung him from a
waterfall. Just then, the ghost of Shigenobu appeared in the
waterfall’s basin. It caught Mayotarō safely. The ghost approached
Shōsuke and ordered him to take Mayotarō to the nearby temple of
Shōgetsuin. Shōsuke was so shocked that he reformed his ways. He
brought Mayotarō to Shōgetsuin and stayed there to raise him. A
hackberry tree with bulbs on it shaped like breasts grew in the
temple grounds. The tree produced sweet and nourishing milk.
Mayotarō suckled on the tree and grew into a strong and healthy
boy.
Okise was haunted by Shigenobu’s ghost. She developed painful
tumors in her breasts and could not produce milk for her and
Namie’s child. The baby grew sick and died. The shock of losing
both of her children caused Okise to go mad. She died in agony.
The story of the boy raised by a tree spread far and wide. Soon,
Namie understood what had happened. He went to Shōgetsuin to kill
them. Shōsuke and Mayotarō were not skilled enough to defend
themselves. However, when Namie swung his sword, Shigenobu’s
ghost appeared. It guided Mayotarō’s sword hand, and Namie was
struck dead. Shigenobu’s ghost was never seen again.
B
T
A
H
D
化け銀杏の精
: monster ginkgo spirit
: bake ichō no rei, ichō no bakemono
: ginkgo trees
: soil, water, sunlight
A
: Bake ichō no sei are spirits of ginkgo trees (Ginkgo
biloba). They are tall, with bright yellow bodies the color of ginkgo
leaves in autumn. They wear tattered black robes and carry small
gongs.
B
: Bake ichō no sei appear near ancient ginkgo trees and
strike gongs. It is not known whether there is some purpose to this
other than making those nearby feel unnerved.
I
: Ginkgo trees are beloved for their beauty, resistance
to fire, and wind-breaking abilities. However, superstition also holds it
is bad luck to have in a home garden. Ginkgoes are high ranking,
holy trees. They belong at temples, shrines, and public places–not
private gardens. Planting a ginkgo in one’s own garden is almost
sacrilegious. In addition, ginkgoes grow tall very quickly. They
darken houses, which alters the flow of yin and yang energy and
attracts evil spirits. If the roots grow underneath a house, sickness
and misfortune befall the family. Residents of homes with ginkgoes
die young.
O
: Bake ichō no sei were first depicted in an 18th century yōkai
scroll by Yosa Buson. Although Buson drew the ghost of an old
ginkgo tree from Kamakura, he included no other details. Later,
Mizuki Shigeru elaborated on this spirit, connecting it to the old
superstitions about ginkgo trees.
I
T
A
D
いが坊
: unknown; possibly chestnut burr priest
: uwakuchi
: unknown
A
: Igabō have blue skin and wear baggy robes. Their
most prominent feature is their jaw, which is covered in several
spikey protuberances. This causes them to resemble a blowfish or
chestnut burr.
B
: What igabō do is a mystery. We know what they look like
but nothing else.
O
: Igabō appear in several yōkai scrolls, but only as pictures.
Aside from the name, there are no stories as to what they actually
do. Their name is written phonetically. leaving no contextual clues
about this yōkai.
The word “iga” means “burr,” and due to the resemblance with the
igabō’s spikey jaw, this yōkai may be the spirit of a chestnut burr.
The work “igamiau” means to snarl, and this yōkai does have a
snarling face. Most likely igabō was a silly pun about a snarling
chestnut burr.
Y
T
H
D
柳⼥
: willow woman
: willow trees
: none
A
: Yanagi onna are spirits which appear near willow trees
late at night. They take the form of young women, occasionally
carrying children in their arms.
B
: Yanagi onna appear to passersby on dark nights and beg
for help. They resemble ghosts like ubume and kosodate yurei–
motherly spirits who seek the wellbeing of their children even in
death.
L
: Long ago, a young woman was walking at night, carrying
her baby. Suddenly the wind blew strong. The woman sought shelter
under a nearby willow tree. However, the fierce wind caused the
long, drooping branches of the willow to whip violently. The woman
became entangled in the branches. Some of them wrapped around
her throat. She struggled to escape, but the branches constricted her
neck tighter and tighter. Finally, she was strangled to death. Since
then, a ghostly woman carrying a baby appeared under the willow
tree every night, cursing the willow as she cried.
W
F
In Japan and China, willows have been associated with
femininity since ancient times. The long, flexible leaves which
gracefully bend in the wind, and the curved, sweeping shape
of a willow tree’s trunk were a metaphor for the ideal woman–
slender, graceful, and flexible.
Willows have also long been associated with yōkai and
ghosts–especially ghostly women. It was believed that willows
became haunted more easily than other kinds of trees. This is
because spirits are trapped by a willow’s long, slender
branches. When the wind blows, a willow’s branches might
tenderly caress your face like a lover or wrap around your
umbrella and pull it from your hands. These were said to be
the work of spirits trapped in the willow.
Y
T
H
D
柳婆
: willow hag
: willow trees
: men
A
: Yanagi baba are the spirits of ancient willow trees.
They take of the form of hideous old women.
B
them.
: Yanagi baba appear beneath willows and beckon men to
I
: Men who approach a yanagi baba meet with a variety
of misfortunes. Some are bewitched by her call and get lost in the
mountains. Others trip and fall or are suddenly struck with fever.
O
: Willow trees that stood for a long time were thought to gain
the ability to change into beautiful young women. These transformed
trees lure men to their dooms. These trees were not forever young,
however. Truly ancient willows turned into hideous old hags.
Warnings about willow spirits were given as reminders to travelers
not to be negligent or careless on the road.
This cautionary tale has a double meaning. On the surface it is
warning related to the superstition about ghosts haunting willow
trees. Below that, it serves as a warning about the sex trade. As the
willow tree is a symbol of femininity, strange willow trees calling out
to men on the roads is a nod to prostitution. A man who answers the
call and is led astray by such a “willow” might lose his path, his
money, or worse.
S
T
H
D
死神
: death spirit
: places connected with death
: none; they exist only to perpetuate death
A
: Shinigami are spirits of the dead which possess and
harm the living. It is a broad term, but in general they look like
humans with a grey, corpse-like pallor, and horrifying features.
B
: Shinigami are drawn to death. They lurk around bodies of
the recently deceased. Shinigami thrive in areas tainted by evil–
especially where grizzly deaths such as murders or suicides
occurred. They haunt impure areas looking for humans to possess.
I
: Shinigami are spirits of possession–or tsukimono–
which haunt people and alter their behavior. Their victims obsess
over every bad thing they have done. They become obsessed with
death, culminating in a desire to commit suicide. Shinigami are
particularly fond of possessing wicked people; however, anyone is
fair game to a Shinigami. Those unfortunate enough to see a
shinigami are doomed to unnatural and violent deaths.
Many unique local superstitions deal with shinigami. For example, in
Kumamoto Prefecture it is believed that anyone attending an
overnight vigil with a recently deceased body will be followed home
by a shinigami. Upon returning home, they must immediately have a
cup of tea or a bowl of rice and lie down to sleep. Otherwise, the
shinigami will possess them.
O
: Shinigami are related to the common folk belief that evil
begets evil. If a murder or a suicide takes place in a certain area,
there is sure to be another murder or suicide in that same area soon.
The souls of the wicked dead call out to the souls of the living. They
goad them into furthering the cycle of death. A tragedy will repeat
again and again until an area is ritually purified, and the souls of
victims calmed. This theme runs through ancient legends such as
The Tale of the Heike, to medieval ghost stories, and even in modern
urban legends and film. Unless properly exorcised, this pattern of
death can continue forever.
I
縊⻤
T
: strangling ghost
A
: iki, kubire oni, chōsatsuki, chōshiki (“hanging
ghost”)
H
: the underworld
A
: Itsuki are the ghosts of humans who committed
suicide by hanging.
B
: Itsuki come from Meikai, a shadowy underworld where
spirits of the dead dwell. Meikai has a fixed population. To maintain
equilibrium, a soul may be reborn in the living world only when a new
soul arrives to take its place. The spirits of the dead eagerly await
the deaths of the living; each death brings them closer to freedom.
However, there is one more rule. The circumstance of death
determines who gets reincarnated next. A soul may have to wait a
long time until someone dies in the same manner, freeing it to leave
the underworld. Itsuki grow weary of waiting for people to hang
themselves. They take matters into their own hands.
I
: Itsuki call out to people who are alone and command
them to hang themselves. The impulse is overpowering. Even a
person with no troubles or worries suddenly feels a strong desire to
die.
O
: The fear of itsuki stretches back to ancient times. Even
today people believe the dead call out to the living to kill themselves.
Urban legends tell of people receiving text messages from friends
joking about hanging themselves–only to learn a day later that they
actually did. Suicide notes occasionally mention victims heard ghosts
instructing them to do it. Often there were no warning signs or
indications that the victim was suicidal. And stories about strings of
suicides–where one person after another kills themself in a similar
manner, with seemingly no connection to the other victims–
sometimes appear in the news. Such stories are rumored to be the
work of spirits like itsuki.
L
: A young traveler stopped at an inn. During the night, he
heard a voice muttering something nearby. He peeked into the next
room and saw a woman holding a noose, wrapping it around her
own neck. Up in the rafters, a dark, shadowy figure was perched,
cajoling the woman to kill herself. Bursting into the room, the traveler
cut the rope before the woman could kill herself. The spirit vanished.
Afterwards, the woman had no recollection of what she had done.
One evening in Kōjimachi, Edo, a rich man held a banquet. His
friend promised to help but did not show. Only after the banquet was
underway did he appear–and only then to make an excuse: “I’m
sorry, something came up. I stopped by to tell you I can’t make it.”
He turned to leave, but the host demanded to know what was so
important to make him break his promise. “I’m going hang myself
from Kuichigai Gate,” he replied. He again turned to leave. Everyone
at the banquet thought he had gone mad. They refused to let him
leave. They held him back and forced him to drink with them.
Eventually he got drunk and no longer tried to leave.
Late into the banquet, news came that a man hanged himself at
Kuichigai Gate. The guests were shocked. The host became
convinced that an itsuki had possessed his friend. It must have
grown tired of waiting for him to return from the party and convinced
a different man to kill himself instead.
He demanded his friend explain what had happened. His friend
confessed that the night was like a dream. From what he could
remember, he had made his way to Kuichigai Gate. A stranger
approached him, and a mysterious voice said: “Hang yourself here
and die!” For some reason he could not refuse, but he begged to be
allowed to excuse himself from the banquet first. The voice agreed,
but told him to promptly return and kill himself after.
The host asked his friend if he still wanted to kill himself. His friend
began to shake with fear and absentmindedly mimed the action of
wrapping a rope around his own neck.
S
T
H
D
七⼈ミサキ
: seven spirits
: anywhere, but often encountered near bodies of water
: none
A
: Shichinin misaki are ghosts found in Shikoku and
Western Japan. They are always seven in number.
B
: Shichinin misaki appear near bodies of water, such as
along the seashore or by riverbanks. They bring disaster upon any
who meet them.
I
: People who encounter shichinin misaki die shortly
after, usually in the form of a mysterious, deadly fever. Their victims
join the ranks of shichinin misaki, replacing the spirit who killed them.
Only then can the killing spirit find peace. This ensures that their
number always remains seven.
O
: The word misaki (御先) means “one who goes before,” and
has several meanings. One refers to the retainers and servants who
travel before a noble procession. Another refers to divine animals,
particularly foxes, monkeys, or ravens which serve as messengers
for higher ranking spirits. Finally, it can refer to bōrei––spirits who
died unnatural deaths, who are able to possess and control the
living. Misaki (岬) can also refer to a cape or a peninsula. This might
hint at why shichinin misaki are frequently seen near the border
between land and sea.
There are several theories about how shichinin misaki began. They
may be the ghosts of drowning victims, explaining why they are
usually encountered near water. Some describe them as the spirits
of Taira soldiers who died in a boar trap while fleeing their enemies
during the Genpei War. Some say they are the spirits of seven
wicked priests murdered by an angry mob. Others say they are the
spirits of seven women, pilgrims thrown overboard at sea and
drowned.
The most popular story about shichinin misaki comes from Tōsa
Province (present-day Kōchi Prefecture). During the Sengoku period,
Kira Chikazane was a senior retainer and nephew of Chōsokabe
Motochika. During succession crisis within the Chōsobake clan,
Chikazane opposed his lord Motochika. As a result, he was ordered
to commit seppuku. Chikazane’s seven retainers were forced to
followed him in suicide. Afterwards, strange things were reported
near the graves of Chikazane and his retainers. These were
attributed to the restless spirits of the seven retainers.
Motochika performed rituals to appease the spirits of Chikazane and
his retainers. He built a shrine in Chikazane’s name, which still
stands today (the Kira Shrine in Kōchi City). However, none of this
had the effect of appeasing their anger.
Even today, shichinin misaki are said to haunt Western Japan and
Shikoku, and Kōchi City in particular. Traffic accidents and other
strange occurrences are sometimes blamed on the restless shichinin
misaki.
K
T
H
D
⾸かじり
: head biter
: graveyards; they appear on the autumn equinox
: corpses
A
: Kubikajiri are ghosts who feed upon the heads of the
dead. They have long, disheveled hair, discolored skin, and sunken
eyes. They wear white burial robes and, like most Japanese ghosts,
have no legs.
B
: Kubikajiri appear on the autumn equinox. They lurk
around graveyards looking for freshly buried corpses. When they find
one, they dig it up and devour it, leaving blood and gore over the
ground.
O
: Kubikajiri come from Ippitsusai Bunchō’s painting of a ghost
eating a man’s head in a graveyard. At some point, the painting was
copied, and the yōkai was dubbed kubikajiri.
There are two popular explanations for how kubikajiri appear. One
says that kubikajiri are created when a person dies and is buried
without their head. Their corpse then turns into a yōkai and begins to
haunt graveyards for a fresh replacement head.
Another explanation says that kubikajiri are the spirits the elderly
who starved to death. During periods of famine, family members who
were a burden–such as the old or infirm–were neglected and allowed
to die to reduce the number of mouths to feed. Their spirits resented
this neglect and turned into yōkai after death. After the person who
neglected them dies, kubikajiri dig up their grave and devour their
head.
O
T
A
H
⻤の寒念仏
: oni’s winter training
: oni no nenbutsu (oni’s prayers)
: urban areas, along roads
A
: Oni no kannebutsu is an oni undergoing a monk’s
ritualistic winter training. It is one of the themes of Ōtsue (“paintings
from Ōtsu”), a popular genre of folk painting.
B
: Kannebutsu is a part of Buddhist religious training. It
involves getting up before dawn on cold winter mornings to patrol the
streets and loudly recite prayers. Oftentimes devotees bang a gong
and visit house to house to collect alms while chanting the name of
Buddha.
O
: Ōtsu was a major station on both the Tōkaidō and
Nakasendō roads connecting Edo with the rest of Japan. A great
number of travelers passed through the city. It was an important
destination for religious pilgrims, home to several important religious
sites, including Enryakuji, Miidera, and Hiyoshi Taisha.
Ōtsue were produced by Ōtsu’s residents and sold as souvenirs and
protective charms to pilgrims and travelers. These paintings were
immensely popular during the Edo period. They depicted common
themes, usually with moral or satirical meanings. Oni no kannebutsu
is one of the most popular Ōtsue themes. Traditionally, oni no
kannebutsu pictures were sold as a remedy for infant colic.
An oni in monk’s garb is like a wolf in sheep’s clothing. Their horns
are the manifestation of the three poisons of Buddhism which are the
root of all evil: delusion, attachment, and hatred. The more we
express our ego, use things for our benefit, see things through our
own eyes, and act in our own self-interest, the more our horns grow.
It is said oni reside in the human heart. The Ōtsue looks ready to
perform winter training. He wears a monk’s robes. He carries a gong,
a wooden mallet, and a donation registry. The one thing he is
missing is the most important: a clean soul.
Oni no kannebutsu is a satire of monks and priests who dress and
act pious, but who actually behave in a manner more fitting an oni
than a buddha. This comical depiction of religious hypocrisy is a
theme frequently found in yōkai art.
There is another hidden message in oni no kannebutsu. One of the
oni’s horns is broken. In other words, the oni is trying to break free
from self-delusion. The broken horn shows that it has succeeded to
some degree. It serves as a role model and a reminder of the path to
salvation. If an oni can try to walk the path of enlightenment, then so
can anyone.
B
べか太郎
T
: unknown; a play on the name Tarō
A
: bekuwatarō, bekuwabō, beroritarō, peroritarō,
akanbei
H
: streets, alleys, and places with spare food
D : everything, even people
A
: Bekatarō is a short, ugly yōkai with a head of matted,
greasy hair and a pudgy, naked body.
B
: Bekatarō’s signature move is to pull down its lower
eyelids with its fingers and stick its tongue out: a typical gesture of
mockery in Japan.
O
: Bekatarō appears in several yōkai pictures scrolls under
many different names. Originally, it was just an illustration. Bekatarō
had no story. Nothing is known about where it comes from or why it
is making such a face. Bekatarō’s backstory was created by folklorist
and comic artist Mizuki Shigeru.
L
: Long ago, there was a baby boy with an insatiable
appetite. His parents named him Tarō. He could eat as much as
twenty adults would eat. His parents couldn’t afford to keep feeding
him, so they abandoned him. From then on, he lived on the streets.
Tarō survived by begging strangers for food. But no matter how
much food he was given, it was never enough. He was always
hungry. Eventually, whenever people encountered Tarō on the
streets, they avoided him or even ran away in fear.
Tarō’s hunger grew to be so great that he would eat anything. He
began to wonder what humans tasted like. Eventually he gave in to
his curiosity. He started catching people and eating them. As a
result, he transformed into a yōkai.
D
T
右も左も
: right and left
A
: Dōmokōmo are mysterious, two-faced yōkai who wear
kimono. They appear in numerous yōkai scrolls, however there are
no folk tales detailing their history or origins..
O
: No story or explanation was written when dōmokōmo was
first painted. Whatever its original artist intended to represent is lost
to history. However, dōmokōmo is also a word with an interesting folk
origin. It is an abbreviated version of the phrase dōmokōmo naranai,
which means “either way you look at it, it’s impossible.” While there’s
no evidence linking dōmokōmo the phrase to dōmokōmo the yōkai,
they are nonetheless frequently associated with each other.
L
: Long ago there were two doctors named Dōmo and
Kōmo. Together they were the most skilled doctors in Japan, rivaled
only by each other. One day, Dōmo and Kōmo decided to have a
competition to see which was the better doctor. They agreed to
perform surgery on each other in front of an audience to determine
who had higher skill.
Dōmo went first. He surgically removed Kōmo’s arm and then
reattached it. His expertise was so great that it left no scar.
Afterwards, Kōmo cut off Dōmo’s arm and reattached it. Like his
rival, he left no mark. Both doctors had cut and reattached so
precisely that it was impossible to say who was more skillful.
They elected to perform a second, more difficult competition. Instead
of arms, they would cut off each other’s heads and reattach them. By
this time, a large crowd had gathered to watch the spectacle.
The second competition went much like the first. Kōmo cut off
Dōmo’s head and reattached it. Then Dōmo cut off Kōmo’s head and
reattached it. Both performed masterfully. Neither was left with so
much as a tiny scar. Again, the competition could not be decided.
Finally, Dōmo and Kōmo decided they would cut off each other’s
heads simultaneously. The doctors prepared as the crowd watched.
They cut off each other’s head at the same time. Without their
heads, neither doctor was able to continue the surgery. Nobody was
skilled enough to reattach their heads, and Dōmo and Kōmo died.
The townspeople who had gathered to watch could only say
“dōmokōmo naranai”–a pun which translated one way means
“neither Dōmo nor Kōmo won.” Translated another way it means
“there was no way that was going to work.”
N
T
jealousy”
為憎
: unknown; possibly a pun meaning “hate-filled
A
: Nikurashi resemble human women. Their kimono
hang off their shoulders erotically, exposing parts of their breasts.
Their hair sensuously tumbles down their shoulders. From the neck
down they are the picture of temptation. However, from the neck up
they are detestable. Their faces are puckered and bloated like a
catfish. Their necks are long and ribbed. Their broad ears flap like an
elephant’s. Their hands are curled and clawed like a beast’s.
O
: Nikurashi come from Bakemono tsukushi emaki, a scroll
containing twelve mysterious yōkai which are not found in other
scrolls. They exist as art alone. It is likely that nikurashi was created
as a joke. The name sounds like the word nikurashii, which implies
hatred caused by attraction. Nikurashi may be spirits of jealousy,
their own ugliness making them detest what they find beautiful.
J
T
充⾯
: unknown; possibly a pun meaning “grimace”
A
: Jūmen look like human men, except for a few key
features. Their ears are wide, protruding, and somewhat
elephantine. They have red rings around their eyes, giving them a
bloodshot, glaring look. Their mouths are stretched wide and their
lips are fat and fishy. They are mostly bald, but have bristly facial
hair.
O
: Jūmen come from Bakemono tsukushi emaki, which does
not include any information beyond a name and an illustration.
Everything else about them is left to the viewer’s imagination. Their
name is a mystery as well. It has no meaning as written. However,
written with different kanji the word jūmen could imply a bitter or
sullen grimace. It is possible the artist based this yōkai on wordplay,
making a pun of its ugly, sullen face.
M
T
A
⾝の⽑⽴
: standing-up body hair
: jūjūbō
A
: Minokedachi look like ugly, hairy, old men. Their backs
are hunched, their arms curled like claws, and their lips pursed in a
pensive, unpleasant manner. Their most prominent feature is their
short, bristly body hair which grows all over and stands up on end.
B
: Nothing is known about about minokedachi’s behavior,
but they look like someone who can’t help but complain about every
little thing.
I
: There is little writing about minokedachi that still
exists. It is unclear what they do. Some believe they cause those
whom they possess to whine and gripe incessantly. Another theory is
they may be spirits of fear or cowardice, exemplified by their hair
standing on end.
O
: Minokedachi appear in several yōkai picture scrolls, such as
Hyakki yagyo emaki, and Bakemono tsukushi emaki. Like many
picture scroll yōkai, these pictures are the only record of their
existence. No stories or written descriptions exist. Their true nature
is up to the imagination.
I
T
A
いそがし
: busy
: human-inhabited areas
A
: Isogashi are blue-skinned monsters with floppy ears,
big noses, and massive tongues which wag from their mouths.
B
: Isogashi run about frantically, as if there were a million
things they need to do.
I
: Isogashi are tsukimono–a type of yōkai which
possess humans and influence their behavior. Humans possessed
by isogashi become restless and unable to relax. They constantly
move about. Sitting around and doing nothing makes them feel as if
they are doing something wrong.
O
: Isogashi first appeared as a nameless yōkai in the
Muromachi period picture scroll Hyakki yagyō emaki. They do not
appear in folklore or legends. This painting spawned two different
yōkai.
During the Edo period, the monster was copied with isogashi written
beside it into an anonymous picture scroll. No other description was
given besides the name. This was copied by several other picture
scrolls, keeping the yōkai labeled as isogashi.
Around the same time, Toriyama Sekien took the nameless yōkai
from the original Hyakki yagyō emaki illustration and included it in his
book Hyakki tsurezure bukuro. He named it tenjōname, the ceiling
licker.
Isogashi had a name but no story until the Shōwa period. Mizuki
Shigeru gave the yōkai an origin as a spirit which possesses humans
to make them feel restless.
K
T
H
⻲姫
: turtle princess
: Inawashiro Castle
A
: Kame hime is a spirit who haunted Inawashiro Castle
in Fukushima Prefecture. She is the younger sister of Osakabe hime,
a spirit who haunts Himeji Castle.
B
: Kame hime is a reclusive yōkai. She rarely appears
before people. When she communicates, she does so through other
yōkai in her service, such as shunobon and shitanaga uba.
O
: Her name comes from Inawashiro Castle’s nickname:
Kameshiro (turtle castle). Inawashiro Castle was destroyed in 1868
during the Bōshin War. Today, nothing remains but the castle’s stone
foundations.
L
: Kame hime first appeared in 1640, when Katō Akinari was
the lord of Inawashiro Castle. His chamberlain, Horibe Shuzen, was
in charge of the castle’s defenses.
In December, Horibe Shuzen discovered a child he had never seen
before running through the castle. The child turned and said, “Hey!
You have not introduced yourself to the ruler of this castle yet. My
lord is receiving visitors today, so hurry and pay your respects!”
Shuzen was flabbergasted. “Impudent child! How dare you! Katō
Akinari is the only lord of this castle. And I am his chamberlain!”
The child laughed. “You’ve never heard of Osakabe hime of Himeji?
Or of Kame hime of Inawashiro? Then you are already doomed.”
Saying this, the child vanished.
There was no sign of the child for some time. However, on New
Year’s morning, when Shuzen joined the other retainers in the
castle’s hall, a coffin and funeral instruments had been placed at his
seat. He demanded to know who had put them there but none of the
retainers had any idea.
That night, Shuzen was awoken by the sound of people pounding
mochi echoing throughout the castle. A few days later, Shuzen
collapsed in the castle’s toilet. Two days after that, he was dead.
Later that summer, a seven shaku (2.1 meters) tall ōnyūdō–a giant–
was spotted collecting water by the rice fields just outside of the
castle. Soldiers chased after it and cut the giant down in a single
stroke. When they examined the body, they saw that it was a huge
mujina–a shape-changing badger. Henceforth, there were no more
strange occurrences at Inawashiro Castle.
S
T
A
H
D
朱の盆
: scarlet tray
: shunoban, shuban, shunobanbō
: dark, lonely roads and buildings
: carnivorous
A
: Shunobon are ferocious demons from the mountains
of Niigata and Fukuoka. They have bright red skin and wear priest’s
robes. Usually depicted with a single eye that glows like lightning,
two-eyed shunobon also exist. Shunobon can grow up to 1.8 meters
tall. Their heads are large in proportion to their bodies, with hair
resembling long needles and mouths stretching from ear-to-ear in
terrifying grins. When they gnash their fangs, it sounds like thunder.
B
: Shunobon are masters of psychological horror. Their
primary activity is frightening unsuspecting humans, revealing their
horrifying faces with exquisite timing. People who see a shunobon
usually faint or even die from sheer fright.
I
: Shunobon usually work alone, but they occasionally
cooperate with other yōkai. In some stories they help shitanaga uba
capture humans to eat. Shunobon are also shown in the service of
powerful yōkai like Kame hime and nurarihyon.
O
: Shunobon’s name refers to their large heads, which
resemble broad trays. Their name was originally shunoban, however
when Mizuki Shigeru portrayed them he changed their name to
shunobon. Due to the popularity of Mizuki’s work, this became the
common spelling of this yōkai’s name.
L
: Long ago, a young samurai was traveling alone through
Aizu. He heard that monsters haunted this road, so he was afraid
when the dark of evening fell. Not far ahead, he spotted another
samurai walking in the same direction. He quickened his pace to
catch up so he wouldn’t have to walk alone.
The two men chatted about this and that, until finally they arrived on
the subject of monsters. “I’ve heard that a creature called shunobon
appears on this road at night. Have you heard this legend?” asked
the young samurai. The other turned to him and said, “Does he look
something like this?”
As the samurai spoke, his skin became as red as blood. His hair
grew into spikes and his eyes glowed like the stars. His mouth split
from ear to ear revealing a row of razor-sharp fangs! The young
samurai was so frightened that he fainted right in the road.
Sometime later, he awoke. The monster was nowhere to be seen.
The young samurai ran as fast as he could down the road, stopping
at the first house he saw. When the woman who lived there saw the
terror in the poor samurai’s eyes, she invited him inside. As he
settled down, he told the woman about his horrible encounter.
The woman consoled him. “You poor thing! What a horrible sight to
see alone on the road. By the way, did the monster look something
like this?” Her face transformed into the shunobon he had seen
earlier.
The samurai ran screaming from the house. He ran all the way back
to his own home and hid in his futon. He was too scared to leave.
After one hundred days, he succumbed to his fear and died.
S
T
H
D
⾆⻑姥
: long-tongued old woman
: isolated hovels deep in the mountains
: carnivorous, especially human flesh
A
: Shitanaga uba look like elderly women. They have
extremely long tongues which can be over 1.5 meters long.
B
: Shitanaga uba live in dilapidated hovels deep in the
mountains. They feed on lost travelers by licking the flesh and blood
from their bodies.
I
: Shitanaga uba are known to cooperate with other
yōkai–shunobon being the most famous example. They can also be
found in the employ of powerful spirits such as Kame hime.
L
: One cold autumn evening, two men traveling from Echigo
to Edo found themselves lost in the mountains. Night was
approaching fast. Up ahead they spotted a lonely, crooked, old
cottage alongside the road. They knocked on the door of the cottage
and begged for shelter for the night.
An old woman in her seventies was inside, spinning cloth from
ramie. She welcomed the two men into her hovel and did her best to
make them comfortable. She put dried leaves into the hearth to start
a fire and boiled water to make tea. The two men were grateful for
the simple hospitality. Soon they fell asleep.
One of the travelers awoke from his slumber feeling strange.
Squinting into the darkness, he saw the old woman leaning over his
traveling partner, licking his face with an impossibly long tongue.
Startled, the man coughed. The old woman slid back over to the
hearth and resumed spinning ramie.
A moment later there was a gruff voice at the window. “Oi, shitanaga
uba! It’s shunobon. What’s taking you so long? Let me give you a
hand.” A monster entered the hovel. It stood almost two meters tall
and had a large scarlet face that resembled a lacquered tray.
The traveler drew his sword and jumped at the monster. As he
slashed, it vanished into thin air. The old woman grabbed the
sleeping man and ran out the front door. A moment later, the entire
hovel vanished. The traveler found himself in the middle of an
abandoned field.
Alone, helpless, and lost in the dark, the man huddled among the
roots of a tree and waited until dawn. When the sun rose, there was
no sign of the hovel or the old woman. In a thicket nearby, he
discovered the remains of his traveling companion: a bleached white
skeleton, licked completely clean.
N
T
H
D
⾁吸い
: meat sucker
: mountain roads between Mie and Wakayama Prefectures
: human meat; especially that of young men
A
: Nikusui are vampiric monsters which hunt men late at
night on mountain roads. They usually appear as beautiful women
about 18 or 19 years old.
B
: Nikusui prey upon men traveling alone by lantern light.
They come from out of the darkness and flirtatiously ask to borrow a
lantern. When they get close enough, they snuff out the light. In the
pitch dark, they bite their victims and suck the meat from their
bodies. They leave nothing behind but skin and bones.
Occasionally nikusui approach men in their bedrooms, seducing
them and exhausting them with sex. Then they suck the meat from
their prey at their leisure.
I
: To protect against nikusui, villagers along border
between Mie and Wakayama Prefectures avoid going out at night.
Those who absolutely must travel through the mountains at night
protect themselves by preparing spare lanterns and burning coal. If a
nikusui steals their lantern, they can throw lit coals at them to keep
them away.
O
: Stories of nikusui are cautionary tales, warning men to keep
away from strange women. A beautiful woman could figuratively
“snuff out a man’s fire,” by draining his wealth and energy, and
distracting him from more important things. Long ago people
believed in jinkyo–a sickness caused by loss of semen.
Overindulgence in sexual activity was believed to drain a man of his
power, leaving him weak and anxious. Losing too much semen could
be lethal. Thus, sexual promiscuity in men was frowned upon not
only for social reasons, but for health concerns too. Nikusui
represent the many dangers of overindulging in lust.
L
: A man named Genzō was hunting late at night on Mt.
Hatenashi. Suddenly, a beautiful woman 18 or 19 years old
appeared and giggled. Oddly, she carried no light even though it was
quite dark. She asked to borrow Genzō’s lantern.
Genzō had a bad feeling. He carried a bullet inscribed with a prayer
to Amida Buddha. He loaded the bullet into his rifle and threatened
to shoot the girl. She fled into the darkness. Genzō continued on his
way.
A short time later, a terrible monster over six meters tall charged out
of the darkness at him. Genzō fired his rifle with the blessed bullet.
The monster fell, and Genzō was able to get a closer look at its true
form. It was a bleached white skeleton inside a loose bag of skin,
with no meat at all.
H
T
A
H
D
⾶縁魔
: flying fate demon
: enshōjo (fate hindering woman)
: human-inhabited areas
: men, especially clergy
A
: Hinoenma are femme fatales of the yōkai world. It is
an allegorical term warning about the dangers of beautiful women.
East Asian folklore is full of tales of women who used their charms to
destroy important men. The collapses of three of China’s dynasties
are attributed to such women. Mo Xi was said to be responsible for
the collapse of the Xia Dynasty, Daji for the Shang Dynasty, and Bao
Si for the Western Zhou Dynasty.
B
: Hinoenma use their beauty to destroy men–especially
good, upstanding men like monks. They feed on virility and lifeblood,
causing their victims to become poor and weak. In the end, their men
die and hinoenma move on to new victims.
O
: Hinoenma literally means “flying fate demon.” Fate in this
case is the Buddhist concept of nidana–the cause-and-effect chain
which links all things and leads to the cycle of reincarnation. Fate
demons are creatures from Buddhism which disrupt a person’s
spiritual progression. This is a reference to Mara, the demon king
who tried to block the Buddha’s quest for enlightenment by tempting
him with beautiful women.
Sex was sinful to clergy because it was a worldly, carnal activity
which distracted from the path of spirituality. Phrases like
“bodhisattva on the outside, yasha on the inside” were meant to
remind monks that no matter how pleasing a woman looked, her true
nature was that of a demon. Women were dangerous to men’s
wealth and status–eating their food, spending their money, and
driving them into financial, social, and spiritual ruin. Lust being a
barrier to spiritual enlightenment, it caused men to focus on carnal
desire and worldly things. Under the spell of lust, men craved
material wealth to maintain the extravagant lifestyles women
demand. In other words, give a woman your heart and she’ll take
your soul.
Hinoenma can also mean “fiery Enma,” referring to the king of hell–a
hint at the punishment for monks tempted by women. The name also
evokes hinoe uma–the year of the fire horse–an event which occurs
every 60 years in the Chinese calendar. Women born in these years
are destined to bring ruin to others.
L
: Yaoya Oshichi was born in Edo in 1666, the year of the
fire horse. In 1681, a great fire ravaged the city. While watching the
conflagration, Oshichi spotted a handsome temple page named Ikuta
Shōnosuke. She fell in love at first sight. Hoping to see him again,
the following year she attempted arson. She was caught and was
burnt at the stake for her crime. Since then, it has been believed that
women born in the year of the fire horse are destined to have hot
tempers and ruin their husbands by consuming all they own.
This superstition continues today. The most recent year of the fire
horse, 1966, saw a 25% drop in births compared to the previous and
following years. Weddings have even been canceled by superstitious
families after discovering that the bride was born in the year of the
fire horse.
J
T
地獄太夫
: hell courtesan
A
: Jigoku tayū is a legendary figure from 15th century
Sakai, Ōsaka. Her story appeared during the Edo period, when novels
and art depicting life in the red lightred-light districts were popular.
Jigoku tayū’s legend is intertwined with Zen master Ikkyū. Eccentric
and iconoclastic, Ikkyū is one of Japanese Buddhism’s most influential
figures. Jigoku tayū attempts to corrupt him while he attempts to save
her.
L
: Long ago lived a young girl named Otoboshi. She was the
daughter of a samurai. When her father was killed, she fled with her
family into to Mount Nyoi. They were ambushed by bandits and
Otoboshi was kidnapped and sold to Tamana, a rich brothel owner in
the Takasu pleasure district of Sakai. She was trained to become a
yūjo–an upper-class courtesan.
Otoboshi grew into a beautiful, intelligent, and sharp-witted woman.
Although her life had been full of misfortune, she believed it was the
result of karma–sins committed in past lives. She took the name Jigoku
(“Hell”) to mock her misfortunes. She wore kimono decorated with
skeletons, fire, and scenes of hell. But in her heart she constantly
recited the name of Buddha. She hoped to be freed from her terrible
karma.
Jigoku’s grace, beauty, and wit distinguished her from the other yūjo.
She spoke with elegance. She recited poetry with unrivaled skill. Her
unique name stood out from her competition, who had flowery names
like Hotoke gozen (“Lady Buddha”). Jigoku quickly rose to the rank of
tayū, the highest possible rank for a yūjo. Those who saw her were
instantly charmed. Her beauty intimidated even the most pompous
patrons. Cocky clientele who tried to best her in poetry contests were
humiliated. She was the talk of the town. The hell courtesan was as
brilliant as she was beautiful; as sarcastic as she was seductive; as
terrifying as she was tempting.
Word of this captivating courtesan caught the attention of the Zen monk
Ikkyū. He visited Takasu and went to the Tamana brothel to meet the
courtesan he had heard so much about. When Ikkyū appeared at the
brothel, Jigoku recited a poem:
Sankyo seba
miyama no oku ni
sumeyokashi
Koko ha ukiyo no
sakai chikaki ni
If you live in the mountains
It is best to stay
Deep in the mountains
This place is close to the border
Of the floating world
Her multi-layered poem was rich in metaphor and wordplay. Ikkyū did
not miss Jigoku’s implication. She asked what a monk like him was
doing in a pleasure district. Why step into a place of sin and attachment
from which Buddhists seek refuge? Intrigued, Ikkyū replied with a poem
of his own:
Ikkyū ga
mi wo ba mi hodo ni
omowaneba
Ichi mo yamaga mo
onaji jūsho yo
As for Ikkyū
This body I have
Means nothing to me
A city and a mountain retreat
Are both the same place
He implied that a Zen priest has no attachment to his body. To the
enlightened, the body does not truly exist. Nor is there any intrinsic
difference between a brothel and a temple. They are one and the
same.
Ikkyū suspected he had found the hell courtesan. He began another
poem:
Kikishi yori
mite otoroshiki
jigoku ka na
Seeing hell in person
Is much more terrifying
Than hearing about it
Jigoku understood Ikkyū’s meaning. He had come to see the famous
courtesan. He complimented her terrifying beauty and wit and asked if
she was Jigoku.
Jigoku answered by finishing his poem:
Shi ni kuru hito no
ochizaru ha nashi
There is none who dies
Who does not fall into hell
Her poem played on Buddhist themes while boasting that all who come
for her companionship fall madly in love with her.
Jigoku was intrigued by the odd monk and invited him into the brothel.
She offered him a vegetarian meal appropriate for a monk. He refused
and instead asked for sake and carp. Monks were forbidden from
indulging in alcohol, meat, and sex, so Jigoku grew suspicious. She
sent girls to Ikkyū’s room to test his character. The girls sang, played
drums and flute, and danced for Ikkyū. The monk reveled in their
entertainment and even joined in.
Jigoku observed secretly from the next room. Then she noticed
something odd about the shadows they cast on the paper doors. She
peeked into the room and saw that the dancers had becomes
skeletons. Their white bones cavorted to the music. She entered the
room, but as soon as she did, everyone turned back to normal.
Ikkyū partied until he passed out. In the middle of the night the monk
awoke and went to the veranda. Jigoku watched as Ikkyū, having
indulged too much, vomited into the pond. When his vomit hit the water,
it turned back into a live carp and swam away.
The following morning Jigoku told Ikkyū what she saw the previous
night. She asked if she had been dreaming, or if she had really seen
dancing skeletons. Ikkyū answered her with one of his most important
teachings:
“When are we not dreaming? When are we not skeletons? We are all
just skeletons wrapped with flesh patterned male and female. When our
breath expires, our skin ruptures, our sex disappears, and superior and
inferior are indistinguishable. Beneath the skin of the person we caress
today, there is no more than a skeleton propping up flesh. Think about
it! High and low, young and old, male and female: we are all the same.
If you awaken to this one basic truth, you will understand.”
Jigoku vowed to change her life and become a nun. Ikkyū refused her.
He told her to remain a courtesan. He told to find her own form of
enlightenment; that religion was hypocritical; and that a yūjo was more
worthy than a nun.
Jigoku became Ikkyū’s student. She remained in her brothel and Ikkyū
visited her time and time again to meditate and pray together. Jigoku
came to understand that all people are merely skeletons in bags of
flesh. She found peace. She continued to work as a courtesan while
studying and praying every day. She gave her earnings generously to
charity. Jigoku eventually achieved enlightenment.
Like most courtesans, Jigoku died at a young age. Ikkyū was by her
side at her death. Her final words were a poem which expressed her
last compassionate wish:
Ware shinaba
yakuna uzumuna
no ni sutete
uetaru inu no
hara wo koyase yo
When I die
Do not burn me or bury me
Throw me into a field
So that I may feed
The starving dogs
Ikkyū laid her to rest in a field as she wished. He then built a grave for
her nearby in the temple Kumedadera in the village of Yagi.
K
T
K
⼩幡⼩平次
: none; this is his name
A
: Kohada Koheiji is an Edo period ghost connected to
the theater. The events that inspired his story transpired around
1700, however nothing was written down until a hundred years later.
In 1803, Santō Kyōden wrote Fukushū kidan Asaka no numa (“The
Strange Tale of Revenge from Asaka Swamp”). Kohada Koheiji’s
story was adapted into a kabuki play shortly after that.
B
: Kohada Koheiji’s ghost jealously guards its status as the
best ghost actor ever. To this day, actors who perform adaptations of
his story are haunted by strange occurrences, suspicious accidents,
and even inexplicable injuries.
L
: During the time when Ichikawa Danjūrō II commanded the
stage, there was a third-rate actor named Kohada Koheiji. He
studied under master Unagi Tarōbē and was part of the Moritaza
theater troupe. Koheiji was a terrible actor and an unattractive man.
He had pale skin, sunken eyes, and matted hair. He had trouble
landing even the smallest roles in any of Edo’s kabuki productions.
Koheiji was married to a woman named Otsuka. She was the widow
of Ikushima Hanroku, a disgraced actor who was executed for
stabbing and killing the great Ichikawa Danjūrō I on stage. Koheiji
loved Otsuka deeply, but she was embarrassed by him and thought
him a fool.
Koheiji’s manager felt sorry for him. He resorted to begging and
bribing producers to find something, anything, for the struggling actor
to perform. Finally, he landed a part for Koheiji with a traveling show
in the countryside. Audiences were far less picky than in the capital.
Because his sickly appearance meant the producers could save
money on makeup, Koheiji was cast as a ghost.
Koheiji believed this was his last chance to make it as actor. He did
everything he could to make his performance believable. He studied
the faces of dead, making note of the way their muscles hung limp
and eyes stared blankly. He copied their rigid, lifeless poses. He
practiced speaking in a haunting voice and walking with eerie grace.
His hard work paid off. Koheiji’s ghost performance was widely
acclaimed, and he suddenly found himself the talk of the
countryside. The other actors in his troupe finally admitted that
Koheiji was a great actor, even if only in the role of a ghost.
While Koheiji was away acting in the countryside, Otsuka fell into the
arms of another performer in the Moritaza–a taiko player named
Adachi Sakurō. Sakurō stayed in Koheiji’s house in Edo with Otsuka
and pretended to be the master of the house. Eventually, Otsuka
asked Sakurō to get rid of Koheiji once and for all so that they could
be together forever.
At the time, Koheiji was performing in rural Asaka (in present-day
Fukushima Prefecture). Sakurō’s brother, a bandit named Unpei,
lived nearby. Sakurō decided to have Unpei help get rid of Koheiji.
Sakurō traveled to Asaka, where Koheiji was surprised and delighted
to have a Moritaza troupemate join his performance. Sakurō played
the drums while Koheiji did his ghost act and the audience was
highly entertained. The local magistrate awarded Koheiji a sum of
five golden ryō for his performance, a very gracious sum. Between
performances, Sakurō and Unpei planned the murder.
One day the performance was canceled due to rain. Sakurō invited
Koheiji to a swamp to go fishing. Far from observers, Sakurō struck
Koheiji with his fishing rod and pushed him into the water. Then he
held Koheiji’s head under until he drowned. Koheiji’s body sank to
the bottom of the swamp.
Sakurō went to Unpei’s secret hideout. Unpei met him there and
informed him that their “guest” had arrived and was in the next room.
Sakurō peeked into the room where Koheiji’s waterlogged corpse
was lying on the floor. “How did he get here?” asked Sakurō. Unpei
answered that it was already there when he arrived. Sakurō
searched Koheiji’s body and found the five golden ryō. “Hah! Now
his money and his wife are mine!”
Suddenly, Koheiji’s body rattled and rolled over. He grabbed
Sakurō’s wrist with hands as cold as ice and strong as iron. Sakurō
screamed. He tried to break free, but its grip was too tight. He
yanked his arm harder and harder until the corpse flopped on top
him. Koheiji’s eyes popped open, and his gaze locked onto Sakurō.
Unpei heard Sakurō’s scream and rushed in. The corpse had pinned
his brother to the floor, its eyes blazed in a vengeful stare. Sakurō
was paralyzed with fear. Unpei tried to pull the corpse off his brother,
but it wouldn’t budge. Unpei drew his sword and lopped off Koheiji’s
head with a single stroke. The head rolled across the room, but the
body still gripped Sakurō’s wrist tightly. Unpei had to cut each of
Koheiji’s fingers off one-by-one to free his brother. Sakurō jumped up
and ran. He didn’t stop until he reached Edo.
Sakurō arrived at Otsuka’s residence and called for her. In a panic,
he told her everything that happened: the murder; the ghost; the icy
cold grip of the corpse and its hateful eyes. Otsuka was bewildered
and said, “Koheiji just came home a little while ago. He’s resting in
the back room.” Sakurō could not believe it. He crept towards the
room where Koheiji was said to be sleeping.
When Sakurō entered the room, he saw a body lying behind a
folding screen. He reached to pull the screen back, but a pale, blue
hand grabbed the screen and held it fast. Sakurō pulled as hard as
he could. Pop! Five severed fingers rolled around on the floor and
instantly began to rot. Sakurō and the folding screen crashed to the
floor. The smell of death filled the room. But there was no body. A
tiny flame floated up into the air and flew out the window. While
Sakurō was terrified, Otsuka was undisturbed. She was just relieved
that Koheiji was dead. She arranged for a funeral. And then for a
wedding.
Half a year passed. Sakurō and Otsuka lived as husband and wife.
They forgot about Koheiji altogether. Then one night, Sakurō awoke
to find another man in bed between him and Otsuka. He leaped to
his feet in a rage, but there was no one there. That moment, Sakurō
began to doubt Otsuka’s fidelity. Their love started to fracture.
One night while returning home from drinking, Sakurō saw a figure
climb into his bedroom window. He peeked inside and saw a man in
bed with Otsuka. Drunk and enraged, he drew his sword and ran into
the house. Otsuka awoke in a panic and, without thinking, raised her
hand in defense. She grabbed the sword’s blade and all five of her
fingers were severed. They fell to the floor and rotted away, filling the
room with the smell of death. The stranger was nowhere to be seen,
but a cackling laugh came from above them. It was Koheiji’s voice!
Otsuka fell to the floor in shock.
Every night, Koheiji’s ghost returned to haunt them. Sakurō and
Otsuka lost their minds. In life, Koheiji had perfected his ghost act so
perfectly it was indistinguishable from the real thing. In death,
Koheiji’s performance was even more terrifying and sublime. The
haunting drove Otsuka deeper into madness.
Otsuka’s treatments cost them nearly everything they owned–
including the five golden ryō Sakurō had stolen from Koheiji. Otsuka
never recovered. She suffered and died in madness. Sakurō gave
his last coins to a priest for Otsuka’s funeral, but the priest was a con
artist. He ran off with Sakurō’s money.
Penniless and driven to insanity, Sakurō lived as a beggar. One day,
he saw a priest who resembled the conman who had stolen his
money. Sakurō screamed and attacked the priest. The priest beat
Sakurō with his staff, knocking him off the road and into a pond.
Bruised and soaked, Sakurō came to his senses. He crawled out of
the pond to apologize, but the priest struck him over and over,
beating him nearly to death. Finally, some strangers broke up the
fight.
They took Sakurō back to his house to rest, but his wounds were
severe. He fell into a feverish insanity. He cried out in his delirium all
night long. He never woke up. When his neighbors found him the
next day, his body was bloated and discolored–like that of a drowned
corpse.
Sometime later, the great Ichikawa Danjūrō II heard the tragic story
of the famous ghost actor Kohada Koheiji’s murder. He pitied Koheiji
and offered up prayers for his soul. As Danjūrō prayed, the wet and
bloated ghost of Koheiji appeared and drifted towards the acclaimed
actor.
Danjūrō glared at the apparition. “Koheiji. You really do make a
fantastic ghost.”
With those words of recognition, Koheiji’s ghost seemed to find
peace and disappeared.
F
T
A
H
D
札返し
: fuda (charm) returner
: fudahegashi (“charm ripper”)
: homes, temples, and areas protected by charms
: none
A
: Fudakaeshi resemble the classic image of a yūrei:
kimono-clad, long-haired, semi-translucent ghosts whose image
fades away towards the feet.
B
: A fudakaeshi’s goal is to remove fuda–protective charms
that ward against evil spirits. Fuda are usually made of strips of
paper decorated with images or calligraphy, such as a sutra, or the
names of a god or buddha. Yōkai are not able to enter buildings or
cross boundaries protected by these talismans. If a fudagaeshi
succeeds in removing a fuda, the charm is broken and yōkai are free
to pass.
I
: As spirits themselves, fudagaeshi cannot touch fuda
to remove them. They must convince humans to remove fuda for
them. They do this with threats or bribes that tempt the weak hearts
of the greedy and foolish. Not surprisingly, those who agree to help
evil spirits in this way do not receive any promised reward; instead
they meet with calamity.
O
: The name fudakaeshi appears in Kyōka hyakumonogatari, a
collection of comical yōkai-themed poems from the late Edo period.
However, the concept of spirits attempting to remove protection
charms goes back much further than that.
L
: An example of a fudakaeshi appears in the famous ghost
story Botan dōrō (“The Tale of the Peony Lantern”). A ghost which
has fallen in love with a living man is unable to enter his house
because of the protective charms placed on it. She begs the man to
remove the charms so that she can enter and spend the night with
him. Eventually, her pleading moves his heart, and he removes the
talismans. The ghost enters his home and sleeps with the man, but
in doing so she drains his life away and he dies.
M
T
A
⽬競
: staring contest
: dokuro no kai (“the phenomenon of skulls”)
A
: Mekurabe are great mounds of skulls and severed
heads which hold staring contests.
B
: A Mekurabe pile begins when individual skulls roll around
and bump into each other. Eventually they clump together and form
into a massive skull-shaped mound. Then they find someone to stare
at.
I
: Mekurabe are known for one thing: staring at people.
If you win the staring contest, the skulls vanish without a trace. If you
lose? Nobody knows, as this was never written down.
O
: Mekurabe appear in Heike monogatari (“The Tale of the
Heike”). The name was invented much later, appearing in Toriyama
Sekien’s Konjaku hyakki shūi (“Gleanings of One Hundred Demons
from Past and Present”).
L
: Taira no Kiyomori, the young general who had recently
conquered all of Japan, stepped out into his garden one morning to
discover an uncountable number of skulls. They rolled about, glaring
at him. The surprised Kiyomori called for his guards. But nobody
heard him.
As Kiyomori watched, the skulls gathered in the middle of the
garden. They clumped together, rolling up on top of each other until
they formed a single giant mass. The pile of skulls was shaped like
one enormous skull nearly 45 meters tall.
The mass of skulls glared at Kiyomori from its countless eye sockets.
Kiyomori took a breath and steadied himself. He steeled his resolved
and glared back at the skulls.
Eventually, the massive skull crumbled apart. The individual skulls
melted like snowflakes in the sun and vanished without a trace.
G
T
H
D
五徳猫
: trivet cat
: fireplaces
: carnivorous
A
: Gotoku neko are a kind of nekomata–large yōkai cats
with two tails. They wear an upside-down trivet on their heads like
hats. The tips of their twin tails burn like torches.
B
: Just as ordinary cats like warmth, gotoku neko hang
around fireplaces. They use bamboo pipes to blow air on the fire and
stoke the flames.
O
: Gotoku neko was invented by Toriyama Sekien in his book
Hyakki tsurezure bukuro (“An Idle Bag of One Hundred Vessels”). Its
name comes from the gotoku–or trivet–that this yōkai wears like a
hat. A gotoku is an iron ring with three or four legs used to hold a tea
kettle or pot in a fireplace. It heats vessels while keeping them out of
the ashes. Gotoku have occult connections of their own: a famous
curse known as the shrine visit at the hour of the ox requires wearing
a gotoku upside-down on your head.
Gotoku also refers to the five virtues of Confucianism: benevolence,
honesty, knowledge, integrity, and propriety. It is somewhat odd for a
yōkai to be associated with virtues, but Sekien makes a joke of it by
referring to a story from Tsurezure gusa (“Essays in Idleness”).
There was a nobleman named Shinano no Zenji Yukinaga, who was
set to perform shichitoku no mai (“the dance of seven virtues”).
However, as he danced before the court, he forgot two of the virtues.
As a result, he jokingly became known around the court for his
dance of five virtues (gotoku). Sekien connects this wordplay to the
yōkai by explaining that gotoku neko are often forgetful.
Cats are often associated with superstitions about house fires. For
example, if you let a cat sleep near the fireplace, your house will
burn down. It was said that the sparks from the fireplace would ignite
the cat’s tail, and then the flaming cat would run around the house
igniting everything it touched. Although Sekien does not mention it,
the flames on gotoku neko’s tails might be a reference to this
superstition.
B
T
A
H
D
びろ〜ん
: none; onomatopoeic
: nuribotoke
: unknown
: unknown
A
: Biron are elongated, white, ghostly looking yōkai with
drooping features, protruding teeth, and long tails. They have soft,
flabby bodies with gelatinous consistency reminiscent of konnyaku
jelly.
B
: Biron enjoy scaring humans by caressing their heads or
necks with their long tails.
I
: Biron are not particularly harmful yōkai. They can be
easily chased away by throwing salt at them, which causes them to
vanish.
O
: Biron’s origins are shrouded in mystery. Supposedly, they
are the result of a magical mishap by a shapeshifting yōkai who tried
to transform into the shape of a buddha by chanting, “Biro! Biro!
Biro~n!” But the spell failed, resulting in biron’s strange appearance.
The oldest written description of biron is a 1972 yōkai encyclopedia
by Satō Arifumi. Along with its illustration and description, he notes
that it is also called nuribotoke. During an interview late in his life,
Satō claimed that biron and its magical spell were recorded in a
Heian or Edo period picture scroll which was reproduced in an Edo
period booklet containing copies of Toriyama Sekien and other
artists’ yōkai illustrations. Unfortunately, Satō could not remember
the name of the booklet or its whereabouts. He died with it still a
mystery. Other yōkai researchers have never found the book he
described. Additionally, the 〜 character in biron’s name was not
used during the period in which it was said to have originated,
adding even more mystery to Satō’s claim. With no surviving older
sources, biron is considered to be a creation of Satō Arifumi.
N
T
H
D
納⼾婆
: storeroom hag
: storerooms, closets
: whatever they can find in the storeroom
A
: Nando babā are hags who haunt storerooms and
closets in western Japan. They look like short, ugly, balding old
women in ragged clothing.
B
: Nando babā make their homes in storerooms, sheds, and
closets. The darker and dirtier the better. They are shy and jumpy, so
they prefer storerooms which remain closed and are rarely opened.
I
: Nando babā are not violent or harmful. When
someone opens the storeroom door they scurry away and hide. If the
door is opened suddenly and they are taken by surprise, they leap
out of the storeroom screaming and chase people around the house.
If struck on the head with a broom, they become disoriented. They
run away and hide under the floorboards.
In some areas, nando babā are believed to steal newborn infants.
However, this is due to confusion between nando babā and a much
more dangerous mountain hag called yama uba.
O
: In ancient Japanese religion, there were different tutelary
deities for every part of the house. As ancient traditions were
replaced by modern ones many customs died, and old forgotten
gods became yōkai. Nando babā were probably once a kind of
house god or protector spirit which inhabited and watched over
storerooms.
F
T
H
袋狢
: bag badger
: homes
A
: Fukuro mujina look like mujina (badgers; however, this
word sometimes refers to tanuki as well). They dress in human
clothes and wear make-up, resembling ancient noblewomen. They
carry large sacks over their shoulders.
O
: The name fukuro mujina was coined by Toriyama Sekien
and appears in Hyakki tsurezure bukuro. His illustration was based
on older yōkai picture scrolls. Sekien’s description includes a pun
based on the old proverb “to price a badger in a hole.” The idiom
means it is difficult to estimate the value of something you don’t
possess. It is like the English phrase “to count your chickens before
they are hatched.”
Mujina are known to be shapeshifting tricksters. However, fukuro
mujina originally appear in a collection of tsukumogami, or artifact
spirits. It is likely that they are actually haunted bags taking on the
appearance of mujina, rather than mujina pretending to be humans.
K
T
H
絹狸
: silk tanuki
: homes
A
: Kinutanuki are pieces of silk cloth which sprout heads,
feet, and tails resembling tanuki. They are a kind of tsukumogami,
household objects which have come to life.
O
: Toriyama Sekien invented kinutanuki for his book Hyakki
tsurezure bukuro. Their name is a play on words. Traditionally, when
silk was made, it was taken to a river and beaten with a wooden
board called a kinuta to soften it. Tanuki are said to enjoy beating
their bellies like drums. The name kinutanuki is a portmanteau of the
words kinuta and tanuki and evokes both the beating of silk and
tanuki’s bellies.
According to folklore, tanuki possess the ability to enlarge their
scrotums to up to eight tatami mats in size and shape them into
various objects. Sekien’s description references a famous type of
Japanese silk from Hachijō Island. Written with different kanji,
hachijō also means “eight tatami mats.” This wordplay doubles down
on his association of silk with tanuki.
Tanuki are famed for their ability to change into various objects,
however because kinutanuki appear in a book of tsukumogami it is
likely that they are not tanuki disguised as silk, but pieces of silk
which have grown a soul and taken on a tanuki’s appearance.
H
T
H
払⼦守
: fly-whisk guardian
: temples
A
: Hossumori are animated hossu–fly-whisks used by
Buddhist priests. After many years of being handled by a Zen
master, they have become enlightened themselves.
O
: Hossu are religious tools originating in India. To a meditating
monk, flies and biting insects can be distracting and troublesome.
However, killing is a grave sin in Buddhism–even swatting a fly or a
mosquito is forbidden. A hossu is used to gently brush away insects
which land on the body instead of killing them. In addition to their
practical use of keeping insects away, hossu are symbolic tools of
warding which drive away evil spirits and other intrusions which
distract from focusing on the Buddha.
Hossumori appear in Toriyama Sekien’s Hyakki tsurezure bukuro. He
references a famous Zen teaching in which a student asks Zen
master Jōshū whether dogs have buddha nature. Sekien suggests
that if even a dog has a buddha nature, then perhaps a hossu used
for nine years by a Zen master might also realize its buddha nature.
Nine years refers to the nine years that Daruma (aka Bodhidharma),
the founder of Zen Buddhism, spent in meditation.
M
T
H
⽊⿂達磨
: wooden fish gong Daruma
: temples
A
: Mokugyo daruma are animated mokugyo–fish-shaped
wooden gongs used in Buddhist temples. After years of service
helping monks to focus on their meditations, these gongs have
become conscious and achieved enlightenment.
O
: Mokugyo are used to keep the rhythm when chanting sutras.
They also help keep monks from falling asleep during meditation.
Because fish sleep with their eyes open, it was believed that fish did
not sleep at all. Thus, the fish is a reminder to avoid falling asleep
while meditating.
Toriyama Sekien describes mokugyo daruma in Hyakki tsurezure
bukuro. He says that a mokugyo might possibly gain a soul and take
on the features of Daruma (aka Bodhidharma), the founder of Zen
Buddhism, after nine years of being used by ascetic practitioners.
Like a mokugyo, Daruma is a symbol of wakefulness. He is said to
have meditated for nine years straight without sleeping. Due to their
shared symbolism, Sekien combined these two figures of
wakefulness into one yōkai.
S
T
H
鈴彦姫
: bell princess
: shrines
A
: Suzuhiko hime are possessed bells (kagura suzu)
used in Shintō rituals. They look like young women wearing the
robes of an ancient princess or shrine maiden. Suzuhiko hime are
decked with bells and have a large bell for a head.
B
: Suzuhiko hime do not cause any harm. They dance about
under their own power in ritualistic movements, just as when they
were played by shrine maidens.
O
: Bells have been used since ancient times in Shintō rituals to
calm human souls as well as repel evil spirits. Importantly, they
attract the attention of gods and call forth their presence. Although
not specifically stated, it is likely that as with other artifact spirits,
suzuhiko hime are born from old tools that are no longer in service.
They animate themselves in a desire to be useful again.
Suzuhiko hime are a creation of Toriyama Sekien. They appear in his
book Hyakki tsurezure bukuro. Everything about this yōkai, from the
meaning of its name, to what Sekien intended for it, can only be
inferred from his brief description of it.
Sekien’s description refers to a famous scene from Japanese
mythology. Amaterasu, the sun goddess, had a violent quarrel with
her brother Suzano’o, the god of storms. Afterwards she hid herself
from the other gods in a cave. Without the sun, the world became
cold and dark. The gods gathered outside of the cave and begged
Amaterasu to come out, but she refused.
Ame no Uzume, the goddess of dawn and revelry, came up with a
plan. She stood upon an upturned tub and performed a wild, erotic
dance, stripping off her clothes and baring herself to the other gods.
Their loud, uproarious cheers could be heard by Amaterasu deep
inside the cave.
Eventually Amaterasu’s curiosity got the better of her. She left the
cave to see what the commotion was about. The other gods quickly
blocked the cave entrance so she could not go back inside, and light
was returned to the heavens and the earth.
Ame no Uzume’s performance is said to be the origin of kagura, the
sacred music and dance of Shintō rituals. Kagura, in turn, is the
origin of this yōkai.
O
T
H
笈の化け物
: backpack monster
: homes and temples where pilgrims might stay
A
: Oi no bakemono are the spirits of wooden backpacks
known as oi. An oi which has been used for a long time may
transform into this bird-like yōkai. They sprout heads with long, black
hair, and have three-toed avian feet.
B
: Oi no bakemono carry broken sword blades in their
mouths, resembling a bird’s pointed beak. They breathe fire.
O
: Oi are special backpacks carried on long journeys by
itinerant Buddhist monks, pilgrims, and yamabushi (mountain
ascetics who practice Shugendō). They contain Buddhist religious
implements, clothing, tableware, and other necessities monks will
need on their journeys. Oi no bakemono are found in the book Ehon
musha bikō. One appears in the bedroom of Ashikaga Tadayoshi–a
general and government administrator during the 14th century.
Tadayoshi helped his brother Tadauji establish the Ashikaga
shogunate, which ruled Japan for over 200 years.
U
T
雲外鏡
: mirror beyond the clouds
A
: Ungaikyō are haunted mirrors which show demons
and monsters reflected in their surface.
B
: The spirits which haunts these mirrors, as well as the
countless spirits which have been reflected in them over the years,
can manipulate the reflections and cause them to appear as
anything they like. People who gaze into an ungaikyō might see
themselves looking back, transformed and monstrous.
I
: Ungaikyō can be used by humans to trap spirits. On
the 15th night of the 8th month in the old lunar calendar, pour water
into a crystal dish and reflect the light of the full moon. (In olden days
this was a popular way of admiring the reflection of the night sky.) If
that water is then used to paint the image of a yōkai onto a mirror,
that spirit will inhabit the mirror.
O
: Ungaikyō appears in Toriyama Sekien’s book of
tsukumogami, Hyakki tsurezure bukuro. Sekien based this yōkai on
a mirror from an old Chinese myth. Called Shōmakyō (“demon
revealing mirror”), this mirror had the ability to expose the true forms
of demons masquerading as humans. King Zhou of the Shang
dynasty used Shōmakyō to reveal that his beloved consort Daji was
a wicked nine-tailed kitsune intent on ruining his kingdom. Her true
form revealed, Daji fled the country. This set into action a chain of
events that would see Daiji eventually wind up in Japan, where she
was known as Tamamo no Mae. Shōmakyō was used time and time
again to reveal the true nature of disguised spirits.
Sekien postulated that such a mirror might pick up a little of the
strangeness of each yōkai and demon it reflected, eventually
becoming one itself. Perhaps the countless spirits reflected over the
years slowly gained the ability to manipulate its reflections. More
recently, ungaikyō has been described simply as a mirror which has
transformed into a conscious being. Upon reaching one hundred
years of age, the mirror develops a soul and is transformed into a
yōkai–a common theme among tsukumogami.
Ungaikyō has also been portrayed as one of the many
transformations performed by tanuki. By sucking in air and inflating
their bellies, a tanuki can display a picture on its bare belly similar to
a television screen. This portrayal is not rooted in folklore; it comes
from Daiei Films’ 1968-69 yōkai movies. Nonetheless, it has caught
on and remains a popular version of ungaikyō.
N
T
A
H
鳴釜
: ringing kettle, crying kettle
: narikama, kamanari
: kitchens
A
: Narigama are spirits which inhabit iron kettles used to
cook rice in old Japanese kitchens. They have long arms and legs,
with bodies covered in dark hair as if wearing animal pelts. Flames
lick the sides of the kettle which either serves as their head, or which
they wear like a helmet.
B
: A narigama’s most amazing talent is the ability to predict
the future. When water is boiled inside of a narigama, it rings out or
even cries like an animal.
I
: An onmyōji or a priest can divine good and bad
fortunes based on the sounds the narigama makes as its contents
are boiled. Depending on the sound that it emits, it is possible to
know whether the weather will be rainy or fair.
O
: Although they appear without a name or description,
narigama are shown cavorting with other tsukumogami in some of
the oldest yōkai picture scrolls. Toriyama Sekien later included
narigama in Hyakki tsurezure bukuro and gave a brief history.
According to Sekien, narigama were first described in Hakutaku zu
(“The Book of the Hakutaku”), an ancient bestiary of all supernatural
creatures in the world. Hakutaku zu states the narigama’s ability to
“ring” is connected to an ancient oni named Renjo.
The Edo period book Kansō kidan also describes Renjo as haunting
kettles. When a narigama rings, if you stand three shaku (about
ninety centimeters) away from it and loudly say the name “Renjo,”
fires will descend into the earth, beneath the house. The haunting
will end, and the household will be blessed with good fortune.
At Kibitsu Shrine in Okayama Prefecture, priests still practice a folk
ritual called narukama which involves boiling a kettle and examining
the sounds it emits to predict good and bad fortunes. According to
the Okayama tradition, the ritual’s powers derive not from Renjo, but
from an ancient oni named Ura who long ago terrorized the region.
Eventually Ura was slain. Even in death his head continued to cry
out. Its flesh was eaten away to the bone by dogs, yet still cries
emitted from its empty skull. Ura’s head was buried beneath the
shrine’s kitchen to silence it. But it could still be heard groaning
beneath the kettles. Finally, a priestess named Aso hime offered a
sacrifice of food to Ura’s restless spirit. This quieted him at last.
Since then, Ura’s spirit speaks from the crying kettle to foretell good
and bad fortunes to the Kibitsu Shrine priests.
Toriyama Sekien may have based his description on the narukama
ritual, altering the legend and connecting it to ancient China in order
to make it seem more authentic.
N
T
H
D
鷄の僧
: chicken monk
: temples and monk’s hermitages
: chickens
A
: Niwatori no sō are monks who have transformed into
human-chicken hybrids. They have large, feathery tails and crow like
roosters. Sometimes a chicken’s head protrudes from their mouths.
B
: Niwatori no sō crow and act like chickens, exposing
monks who kill and eat animals. They are created by the vengeful
spirits of chickens who were eaten. The chickens’ grudge manifest
by transforming monks into monsters, providing evidence of sins that
may have otherwise gone unpunished–in this case, the sins of
stealing, killing, and eating animals.
O
: Sinful clergy receiving supernatural punishment is a
common theme among yōkai folklore. Buddhist monks are expected
to live austere lives. They wake before dawn to practice chanting.
They spend their mornings copying scripture and meditating. They
spend their afternoons begging for alms in the villages. One of the
most important rules that monks live by is to never take a life. As
such, they are forbidden from eating meat. Of course, this does not
necessarily mean that every monk is a strict vegetarian. But a monk
who kills and eats chickens can expect divine retribution.
L
: Niwatori no sō is found in Okada Gyokuzan’s 18th century
book of illustrated yōkai tales Ehon yōkai kidan. A monk stole a
chicken from his neighbor’s yard, killed it, and ate it. The neighbor
noticed that one of his chickens was missing. When he questioned
the monk, the monk grew outraged. He pointed at his shaved head
and his monk’s robes. He chastised the neighbor that no monk
would ever stoop to something like stealing, let alone killing and
eating a chicken. He proceeded to lecture about compassion and
charity, but as he spoke a loud “cock-a-doodle-doo!” came from his
throat. An instant later, a chicken’s head erupted from his mouth and
a feathery tail sprouted from his back. The monk transformed into a
chicken monster, exposing his crime.
S
T
A
H
D
鼈の幽霊
: softshell turtle ghost
: suppon no bakemono
: places where softshell turtles are eaten
: none; thrives solely on vengeance
A
: Suppon no yūrei are vengeful ghosts of suppon–
softshell turtles (Pelodiscus sinensis). They appear as giant ghosts
with long, legless bodies, and prominent, pointed lips like softshell
turtles.
B
: Like kitsune, tanuki, and other animals, suppon were
believed to have powerful magical abilities. In addition, suppon were
known for their tenacity. If one bit you it would never let go.
Accordingly, the ghosts of suppon were believed to be particularly
tenacious; their curses especially hard to break.
I
: Suppon no yūrei haunt humans involved in the
catching, selling, and eating of softshell turtles. Their victims are
usually people who have gorged on suppon meat, and the owners of
bars and restaurants where suppon are served.
There are several ways in which suppon no yūrei haunt their victims.
Often, they manifest as another yōkai–a gigantic monk called a taka
nyūdō. In this form they terrorize offending human. Another common
method is to possess victims and cause them to take on the facial
and body features of softshelled turtles.
O
: Suppon have been a delicacy in the far east for thousands
of years. In addition to being used for food, they are believed to have
restorative and invigorative powers. They are used in traditional
Chinese remedies as well as modern energy drinks, vitamins, and
other fad health supplements.
L
: One particularly tragic story tells of a man who made his
living by catching and selling suppon. The deep and long-last grudge
of all the suppon he caught manifested as a huge taka nyūdō. It
stood over thirty meters tall and haunted him night after night. On top
of that, his own baby was born disfigured with features resembling a
softshelled turtle. The child had hair longer than his body, webbed
fingers and toes, and large, round eyes. His lips were long and
pointed, and because of the shape of his mouth he could not eat
regular food. His parents had to feed him worms.
S
T
A
D
C
塩の⻑次郎
: Salty Chōjirō
: Shio no Chōji, umatsuki
: horses
A
: Shio no Chōjirō was a wealthy man from Oshio no
Ura, Kaga Province (present-day Ishikawa Prefecture). He is known
for his love of horse flesh and the curse that this sinful pleasure
brought upon him. His curse is also known as umatsuki–possession
by a horse spirit.
O
: Shio no Chōjirō’s story is an old one with many variations. It
appears in the Edo period story collection Ehon hyakumonogatari,
however it was a well-known tale before then, with variations all over
Japan. It may have been inspired in part by famous performance
magician who lived in the late 17th century named Shioya Chōjirō.
Shioya Chōjirō could perform sword swallowing and other tricks but
was best known for his donbajutsu (“horse swallowing technique”) in
which he would swallow a live horse before an audience. Illustrations
of his performances appear to have been used as the basis for his
illustration in Ehon hyakumonogatari.
L
: Long ago in lived a very wealthy man named Chōjirō who
was quite fond of eating meat–a taboo practice in feudal Japan. His
household kept over 300 horses. Every time one of his horses died,
he pickled its meat in salt or miso to eat at his leisure. Thanks to this,
he always had plenty of sinful meat to enjoy.
As the years passed, Chōjirō’s horses dwindled in number.
Consequently, so did his stock of pickled horse meat. One day his
supply ran out altogether. He selected an old horse that was no
longer capable of working, slaughtered it, and ate it. That was the
moment his life changed.
Chōjirō dreamed that the old horse appeared in front of him and
snapped at his throat. The next evening, at the very minute that
Chōjirō slaughtered the horse, its ghost appeared. It forced itself
down his throat and into his stomach, where it began to violently
thrash about. Every day after that, the haunting repeated.
Chōjirō’s suffering was unbearable. He developed a high fever and
hallucinated. He screamed and babbled, confessing his life’s sins in
painful delirium to everyone he saw. Doctors examined him and
priests prayed for him, but nothing helped. He descended into
madness.
Chōjirō’s condition continued to deteriorate. One hundred days after
his haunting began, he succumbed to the horse’s curse. When his
body was found, it was said has back was bent like an old horse who
had spent a lifetime carrying heavy loads.
N
T
D
寝肥
: sleep fattening
: insatiable
A
: Nebutori is a supernatural illness that affects women
who sleep too soon after meals.
B
: Women who eat and sleep right afterwards massively
expand during the night. Their appetites grow, causing them to eat
more and more, and consequently expand more and more.
Eventually they become too big to even leave their rooms. In
addition, they snore with enough force to shake a wagon on the
street.
Women with nebutori lose their sex appeal and develop loud,
domineering personalities. If a home has ten futons, a woman with
nebutori will take up seven of them and leave only three for her
husband.
O
: Nebutori was a warning to women to maintain thin figures,
gentle personalities, and to avoid oversleeping. It satirizes the
stereotype of women who let themselves go once they capture a
husband. A common Japanese superstition is that lying down after
eating will turn you into a cow; nebutori is a twist on that concept.
Nebutori is similar to other yōkai curses which mainly afflict women.
It is described as more of a problem for the husband than for the
wife, just as futakuchi onna is a punishment inflicted on miserly old
men who are stingy with food, and rokuro kubi affects the daughters
or wives of men who have committed terrible crimes. Even though
these curses aflict women, they are presented as punishments for
their husbands.
Nebutori is sometimes blamed on tanuki or kitsune. Both animals
can possess humans and cause them to do strange things. Tanuki in
particular like to give their victims huge appetites.
A
T
⾜洗邸
: foot washing manor
A
: Ashiarai yashiki is a house in which a giant, dirty, hairy
foot appeared and demanded to be washed. This bizarre Edo period
phenomenon took place in Honjo (present-day Sumida Ward,
Tōkyō), and is one of the Seven Wonders of Honjo.
L
:One night, at the manor of the hatamoto Aji no Kyūnosuke,
a loud, booming voice was heard heard. It echoed like thunder:
“WAAASH MYYY FOOOOOOT!”
Suddenly there was a splintering crack, and the ceiling tore open. An
enormous foot descended into the manor. It was covered in thick,
bristly hair. It was filthy.
The terrified servants scrambled to gather buckets, water, and rags.
They washed the foot until it was thoroughly clean. Afterwards, the
giant foot rose up through the roof and disappeared.
For several nights, the same thing occurred. A booming voice
demanded that its foot be washed. Then a giant foot crashed
through the roof. Dutiful servants washed it clean.
A few nights of this were all that Aji no Kyūnosuke could take. He
ordered his servants not to wash the feet anymore. That night, a foot
again crashed through the ceiling and demanded to be washed. The
servants ignored it. Then the foot thrashed around violently, tearing
up the manor and destroy its roof.
Kyūnosuke complained to his friends about the nightly apparition and
the destruction it was causing. One of them was so curious he
offered to swap mansions with Kyūnosuke so he could see it for
himself. Kyūnosuke happily agreed. However, after his friend moved
in the giant foot never appeared again.
There’s no conclusion as to what caused the strange occurrence. It
has been blamed on a mischievous tanuki, for they have magical
powers, and are notorious tricksters. On the other hand, “to wash
your feet” is a Japanese idiom for rehabilitating a criminal. Someone
whose feet have been washed can be said to have paid his debt to
society. One interpretation of this story is that Aji no Kyūnosuke had
committed some kind of crime, which caused this yōkai to appear
and demand that he “wash his feet.”
Y
T
A
H
疫病神
: pestilence spirit
: ekibyō gami, yakushin, ekiki, gyōyakujin
: human-inhabited areas
A
: Yakubyō gami are evil spirits which spread infectious
diseases and misfortune. They are invisible to the human eye but
often depicted in art as grotesque monsters resembling oni. On rare
occasions when yakubyō gami appear before humans, they take the
form of elderly priests or old hags.
B
: Yakubyō gami travel from person to person and place to
place, spreading sickness and misfortune wherever they go. They
haunt a person or a household for a short time. Then, when their
victims have become infected, they move on to their next target.
I
: There are many ways to protect against yakubyō
gami. Ropes called shimenawa are strung around trees at the
borders of villages to prevent evil spirits from entering. During the
Edo period, images of powerful protective spirits–such as amabie,
baku, hakutaku, hōnengame, jinja hime, kotobuki, Shōki, and so on–
were hung in houses to frighten yakubyō gami away. Buddhist and
Shinto talismans are still used today to ward off such spirits. People
also try to appease yakubyō gami by honoring them as gods. Since
ancient times, offerings of food have been regularly given by priests
and government officials to prevent epidemics. Many of today’s
popular festivals and celebrations have their roots in rituals designed
to appease yakubyō gami.
O
: Yakubyō gami are among the most feared yōkai. They
frequently appear in folklore and art of the second half of the 19th
century, when several epidemics struck Japan. But belief that
sickness and misfortune are caused by invisible spirits has always
been a major part of Japanese folklore. Before we understood about
infectious germs, people had no idea how diseases spread. The way
sickness moves from person to person and house to house seemed
very much like an invisible spirit visiting people and cursing them.
Many yōkai fit into this category: amazake babā, bake kujira, kaze no
kami, keukegen, korōri, momonjii, and yonaki babā are all examples
of yakubyō gami.
L
: In 1820 in Edo, a samurai managed to capture a yakubyō
gami as it entered his house. In exchange for its freedom, the spirit
promised to spare everyone in the samurai’s family from sickness
and misfortune. It gave him a written contract agreeing to never
enter his house again. Afterwards, the samurai’s story and the entire
contents of the contract were published in newspapers with
instructions to keep it as a talisman. Before long, houses all over
Edo each had their own printed copy of the yakubyō gami’s contract.
M
箕借り婆
T
: winnowing basket borrowing hag
A
: mikawari baba, mekari baba (“eye borrowing
hag”)
H
: villages in Eastern Japan
D : whatever scraps they can steal
A
: Mikari baba are greedy hags from the Kantō Region
who look like old women missing one eye. They wear old straw hats
and coats and carry a flaming torch in their mouths.
B
: Mikari baba appear in the winter and creep into villages.
They go from house to house begging to borrow raincoats,
winnowing baskets, or even just a few grains of rice. They even try to
“borrow” an eye from a person’s head. Their greed compels them to
scour gardens for every last grain of rice. Mikari baba search with
their faces so close to the ground that the torches they carry in their
mouths ignite fires.
Mikari baba appear on fixed dates during the year. These dates vary
from tradition to tradition, but usually fall on the eighth day of the
second or twelfth month of the lunisolar calendar. These dates are
rooted in ancient religious practices surrounding new year rituals and
are referred to as kotoyōka (“eighth day events”).
Mikari baba keep away from objects with multiple holes in them. This
includes things like bamboo sieves and woven cages. The holes
resemble eyes. Jealous, one-eyed yōkai like mikari baba detest or
even fear such objects.
Mikari baba often appear together with a smaller one-eyed yōkai
called hitotsume kozō. Together they travel from house to house,
writing the names of families in a ledger which they present to the
gods of pestilence a few weeks later. The gods use their report to
mete out sickness and misfortune to people as they see fit.
I
: In Chiba, Kanagawa, Tōkyō, and other places where
mikari baba appear, villagers stay at home and remain quiet on set
dates. Loud voices, lighting lamps, hairdressing, and bathing are
avoided. Leaving the house after dark and entering the mountains
are forbidden. Measures are taken to discourage mikari baba from
approaching the house. Fallen grains of rice on the floor and in the
gardens are gathered and made into a dango which is placed in the
doorway to show that there is not even one grain of rice left to pick
up. Bamboo baskets, sieves, and other woven objects with many
“eyes” in them are hung outside of houses or placed on tall bamboo
poles throughout villages to scare them away.
O
: The kanji in mikari baba’s name literally mean “winnowing
basket borrowing hag.” This is likely a folk etymology that was
invented after she was named. The word mikari has an older
meaning, referring to a period of fasting and purification before
ancient religious ceremonies. It was believed that yōkai were more
likely to appear before religious festivals like New Year’s. People
stayed home and refrained from work and normal activities prior to
such events. This period of quiet isolation was called mikari or
mikawari (“changing oneself”), referring to the interruption of regular
daily life in preparation for religious festivities. Because it was
forbidden for people to be outside during the mikari period, any
person coming to your house was sure to be a yōkai. Mikari baba
was the name given to one of these yōkai, and the kanji for her
name were added later to reflect her behavior.
K
T
H
⾵の神
: wind spirit
: rides on the wind
A
: Kaze no kami are invisible evil spirits who cause
sickness. They are usually portrayed in paintings as old, sickly, apelike demons wearing ragged loincloths.
B
: Kaze no kami travel on the wind, riding it from town to
town in order to spread disease. They inflict suffering both through
their control of the wind as well as through the illnesses they spread.
I
: Kaze no kami slip into homes through small cracks
and crevices, sensing the temperature differences between the
warmer inside air and colder outside air. When they encounter
people, they exhale clouds of humid, yellow breath. Any human
breathing this toxic air falls sick.
In addition to spreading disease with their breath, kaze no kami
control the flow of the wind itself. Workers whose livelihoods were
greatly influenced by the wind, such as farmers and fishers, feared
their capricious nature. In many places kaze no kami are enshrined
as gods to avoid provoking their wrath.
O
: The yellow breath which kaze no kami exhale may be a
representation of the yellow dust which falls heavily upon Japan in
the early spring. Wind erosion of northern China’s Huangtu Plateau
stirs up silt into the atmosphere. The silt travels eastward and falls
upon Japan and other countries in the form of yellow dust. It can
cause respiratory issues and even darken the sky on particularly
heavy days. The combination of early spring’s temperature
fluctuations, humid winds, and yellow dust often causes people to
feel sick. In old times this was believed to be the work of malicious
spirits.
Advancements in medicine eventually ended the belief in wind spirits
as carriers of disease, but the superstition is preserved in the
Japanese language. The word for the common cold is kaze, which
translates to “evil wind.” Similarly, the phrase kaze ni au–“to
encounter the wind”–means to suddenly fall sick or to meet with
misfortune.
T
T
H
D
恙⾍
: illness bug
: deep in the mountains
: human blood
A
: Tsutsugamushi are large, insect-like yōkai which live
deep in the mountains along the Sea of Japan. Tsutsugamushi
larvae are orange. Adults are red, with massive mandibles, long
antennae, and a pincer-like tail. They feed on the blood and the life
force of humans living in rural areas.
B
: Tsutsugamushi spend most of their lives hidden away
from human eyes, but they emerge at night and creep into homes to
drain the blood from villagers. They cause all kinds of illnesses in the
people they feed upon, from fever, headache, muscle pain,
coughing, and gastrointestinal symptoms, to hemorrhaging and
blood clotting. They often kill their hosts.
I
: Doctors investigating the bodies of people suffering
from or killed by these yōkai found that they all had one common
symptom: dark lesions all over their bodies. Because no culprit was
ever found, they concluded that a species of invisible yōkai was
sucking people’s blood while they slept.
The sickness caused by these yōkai was named tsutsugamushi
disease. Because it was caused by a supernatural creature, it had to
be treated by supernatural forces, such as the magic of an onmyōji.
O
: The sickness attributed to these yōkai is now known to be
scrub typhus. It is caused by parasites transmitted to humans by
harvest mites. It occurs all over of East Asia and the Pacific islands.
It was a problem for troops on both sides of the Pacific War. If
recognized early enough the disease can be treated. Without
treatment it is often fatal.
There are about one hundred different species of mites which
transmit scrub typhus in Japan. In Japanese it is still called
tsutsugamushi disease, and these mites are collectively called
tsutsugamushi. The parasite which causes the illness is known as
Orientia tsutsugamushi–named after the yōkai.
K
T
H
A
腰抜の⾍
: back dislocating bug
: the lower back
: Koshinuke no mushi look like dragonflies.
B
: Koshinuke no mushi appear suddenly and fly inside
bodies, taking up residence in the lower back.
I
: After successfully entering their host, koshinuke no
mushi entwine their long tails around the spine. When they squeeze
the vertebrae, they cause strains, slipped disks, and other problems.
When they strike the spine with their spiked tails, the host is
overcome with acute pain. Their legs buckle and collapse. Their
chest becomes tight and breathing becomes difficult. They break out
in cold sweats. As this yōkai’s saliva spreads throughout the body, it
causes heartburn, choking, and vomiting.
Koshinuke no mushi infections can be treated by ingesting herbal
remedies such as mokkō (Saussurea costus) and kanzō (Glycyrrhiza
uralensis).
K
T
H
腰痛の⾍
: lower back pain worm
: the kidneys
A
: Koshiita no mushi are infectious yōkai worms with
black heads, white bodies, and long, pointed beaks like birds.
B
back.
: Koshiita no mushi live in the kidneys and affect the lower
I
: Koshiita no mushi use their beaks to peck at their
host’s muscles from inside the body, causing all sorts of pain
throughout the lower back. The lower back begins to feel heavy and
sore, and in severe cases movement becomes impossible.
Treatment is accomplished using the dried roots of the thistle mokkō
(Saussurea costus).
S
T
H
⼨⽩⾍
: segmented white worm, tapeworm
: the abdomen
A
: Subakuchū are long worms with dragon-like faces and
forked tails.
B
: Subakuchū don’t have a fixed home; they travel back and
forth between the abdomen and the scrotum. Ordinarily they spend
their time stretching left and right around the belly, wriggling up and
down below the diaphragm. However, when their host’s body
becomes cool, they slither into the scrotum and coil up, remaining
motionless.
I
: People infected with subakuchū suffer from acute
bouts of abdominal pain once or twice a year. The longer the
subakuchū get, the more dangerous they become. By the time they
reach 15 meters, the host is sure to die.
They can be treated with acupuncture, although recovery is difficult.
The trick for treating them is a secret which is only passed down
orally.
O
: The su in subakū comes from one sun and refers to the
segments of tapeworms. A sun is old Japanese unit of measurement
equal to about 30.3 millimeters.
K
T
H
噛み⼨⽩
: biting tapeworm
: the abdomen
A
: Kamisubaku are long white worms that live just behind
the liver. Their long bodies are segmented, and each segment has a
tiny, biting mouth.
B
: As kamisubaku slither around their host’s insides, their
many mouths snap and chew at the internal organs. This causes
intense abdominal pain.
I
: Medicine cannot treat kamisubaku, but there is a
magical curse that can kill it. Finely chop some hairs from the tail of a
dapple-grey horse and mix it with buckwheat flour. Add sake of the
finest grade, and knead the mixture into dough. The hairs of what
was once a beautiful horse tail carry with them a residual resentment
of being chopped up. When the host eats the dough, the bits that the
kamisubaku ingest transfer that resentment into the tapeworms.
Their long white bodies are then torn apart from the inside out.
N
T
H
鳴き⼨⽩
: crying tapeworm
: the abdomen
A
: Nakisubaku are long white worms with heads at both
ends of their bodies.
B
: If you squeeze the belly of an infected person, the worms
let out an audible cry.
I
: The only symptom of this infection is that the
patient’s stomach growls. They are easily cleared out by ingesting
nira (garlic chives, Allium tuberosum) and binrōshi (seeds of the
areca palm, Areca catechu).
I
T
H
陰の⻲積
: yin turtle shaku (a type of infection)
: the abdomen
A
: In no kameshaku resemble turtles with grey heads
and shells, and black arms and tails. Several white, snake-like
worms coil around their bodies.
B
: In no kameshaku kill their hosts. Afterwards, they remain
inside of the body as it decomposes. Finally, they emerge from the
bellies the putrid corpse.
I
: In no kameshaku can treated by ingesting medicine
made from kochia (Bassia scoparia). It is a strong herb with diuretic
properties. If this herb is mixed with regular meals and ingested, the
in no kameshaku will be exterminated.
O
: Shaku is one of a few categories that medieval doctors
divided infectious spirits into. It was believed that different types of
energies would accumulate as shaku in the organs until they
became a large mass, which would then cause various symptoms to
occur.
Y
T
H
陽の⻲積
: yang turtle shaku (a type of infection)
: the stomach
A
: Yō no kameshaku resemble turtles with speckled red
shells with a circular pattern on the top. They have a blue umbrellalike growth on their heads which protects them against any
medicines that their host might ingest.
B
: Yō no kameshaku feed upon cooked rice that their host
eats. The host stays thin no matter how much they eat.
I
: To extermine yō no kameshaku, there is no treatment
more effective than eating the peas of the pongam oiltree (Millettia
pinnata).
The pongam tree’s effectiveness is not due to any medicinal
properties, but to something more like a curse. To be eaten, the peas
of the pongam tree must be removed from their shells. The pea then
carries the residual memory of being removed. Upon eating a pea, a
kameshaku absorbs that memory. Because their blue umbrella-like
growth resembles the shell of a pongam tree’s pea, the kameshaku
is overcome with the desire to remove its umbrella. Once this
happens, the kameshaku loses its resistance to medicine. The host
can then be cured by ordinary medicine.
K
T
H
気絶の肝⾍
: fainting liver worm
: the liver
A
: Kizetsu no kanmushi are worm-like parasites with big
round eyes, and long blue bodies covered in black speckles.
B
: Kizetsu no kanmushi infect in the liver.
I
: People infected with kizetsu no kanmushi experience
a string of symptoms. First, they lose their hair, which the worm
feeds on. Then, they experience tunnel vision. Moments later, they
suffer shortness of breath. Finally, they collapse as if dead.
This infection can be cured with the herb gokō (Origanum vulgare).
T
T
H
頓死の肝⾍
: sudden death liver worm
: the liver
A
: Tonshi no kanmushi have yellow bodies covered in
black speckles. They have red mouths, and red tongues. The tops of
their heads are black. Their tails are tipped with a white string-like
appendage.
B
: Tonshi no kanmushi infect the liver.
I
: When a tonshi no kanmushi bites down on the liver,
its host will immediately die.
Mokkō (Saussurea costus) is an effective cure for this infection.
K
T
H
肝の聚
: liver colony
: the liver
A
: Kan no ju are long worms with white, snake-like
bodies. The tips of their tails and ears are red.
B
: Kan no ju infect the liver as a huge colony of worms.
I
: When kan no ju mature, they crawl higher and higher
up the body, chewing their way to the liver and into the torso. They
elongate their bodies and straighten out, then they wriggle violently.
This causes stiffness throughout the host’s body, followed by violent
tremors which cannot be stopped.
There are ways to treat this infection with acupuncture, but these
secrets are only passed down orally. Treatment becomes more
difficult after the kan no ju have reached maturity.
S
T
A
H
⼼積
: heart shaku (a type of infection)
: bukuryō
: the heart
A
: Shinshaku look like a red hear with black head and
limbs, and a dotted belly.
B
: Shinshaku infect the torso between the belly button and
the heart, right behind the solar plexus.
I
: People infected by shinshaku develop a fondness for
burnt smells and bitter flavors. They smile and laugh thoughtlessly.
They often have flushed cheeks. Their force of will and emotional
strength become very weak. Chinese medicine holds that the
consciousness exists in the chest, around the solar plexus–right
where the shinshaku is found.
Treatment is possible using secret acupuncture techniques passed
down orally. Early treatment is important; after shinshaku reach
maturity they become much more difficult to treat.
K
T
A
H
肝積
: liver shaku (a type of infection)
: hiki
: the liver
A
: Kanshaku roughly resemble a breast. Their heads
look like nipples, and their sack-like bodies resembles breast tissue.
They have two long moustache-like growths sprouting from their
heads.
B
: Kanshaku live in the liver; however, they are born in the
left side of the chest. They develop in the area of the pectoral
muscles and fiercely headbutt their host’s organs as they crawl
around inside the body.
I
: Symptoms of kanshaku infection include anger,
irritability, and a short temper. The host’s face grows pale and sickly.
They develop a craving for sour, acidic foods, and a revulsion
towards oily foods.
Treatment is accomplished by alternating acupuncture techniques.
First, the left side of the torso is treated. After that, the spine around
the 9th thoracic vertebra is treated.
When the patient’s energy is low, the shaku’s energy will also be low.
A slow treatment is performed. The body is stabbed very gently with
the needle. The needle is left in place for some time, after which it is
quickly removed. The puncture wound is massaged deeply.
When the patient’s energy is high, the shaku’s energy is high. In this
case, the body is stabbed quickly with the needle, and then the
needle is violently wiggled about. After that, the needle is slowly
removed. The puncture area is not massaged.
H
T
A
H
疱瘡神
: smallpox god
: hōsōshin, imomyōjin, and other regional names
: areas infected with smallpox
A
: Hōsōgami are yakubyō gami responsible for smallpox.
They appear in many forms but are often depicted as small demons.
B
: Hōsōgami travel from town to town, infecting communities
with smallpox. They have fearsome tempers reflected in the ferocity
and virulence of smallpox. They are afraid of dogs, and hate the
color red. This is because red symbolizes good health. A red rash
was a sign of recovery from smallpox.
I
: In infected households, families erected smallpox
shrines and begged the hōsōgami to spare their loved ones.
Although hōsōgami were feared and considered evil, it was believed
that they could be appeased with rituals and offerings. Red
woodblock prints called akae were hung in houses to scare them off.
Various objects, such as red-papered priest staves and red clothing,
were believed to have protective powers. Other popular talismans
were shaped like dolls, dogs, owls, sea breams, cows, and the redhaired yōkai shōjō. Images of Daruma, Shōki, and Kintarō were also
popular charms.
Some gods were more effective against smallpox than others.
Shrines to the warrior Minamoto no Tametomo were thought to keep
hōsōgami away. When Minamoto no Tametomo fled to Hachijō
Island during the Hōgen Rebellion, smallpox ravaged every part of
the country except for Hachijō Island. It was believed he drove the
sickness from the islands. The Shintō god of healing Sukunabikona
was also a popular figure to worship.
Smallpox affected entire communities. Large rituals called hōsōgami
okuri (“sending off the hōsōgami”) developed in response to
outbreaks. People played drums, flutes, and bells, and sang,
danced, and paraded around the streets to send away evil spirits.
Shrines and stone pagodas were erected at the outskirts of villages
to keep hōsōgami from entering.
In some areas, it was thought hōsōgami were not the cause of
smallpox, but saviors. In these cases, smallpox was a physical
manifestation of evil inside the human body. The infected prayed to
hōsōgami for protection and salvation. Survivors offered thanks to
hōsōgami for saving them.
O
: Smallpox is believed to have made its first appearance in
Japan in the Nara period, a time of great exchange with continental
Asia. The first recorded epidemic in Japan crossed from the Korean
peninsula to Japan in 735 CE. It is described in the Heian period
history record Shoku nihongi.
Japan’s earliest outbreaks started in Dazaifu, an important center of
politics and international exchange. This made an ideal port of entry
for smallpox. Dazaifu is also famous as the home of the exiled
scholar Sugawara no Michizane. After Michizane’s death, an
outbreak of smallpox and the deaths of several of his rivals, including
the emperor, were blamed on his restless spirit. It was believed
Michizane had become a tatarigami–a curse-spreading god. His
curse only ended after his stripped titles were restored and he was
enshrined as the kami Tenjin.
L
: An eyewitness account of a hōsōgami was reported in a
Meiji period newspaper. A rickshaw reported that he gave a ride to a
young girl about 14 or 15 from Midorichō to Asakusa. Midway
through the ride it began to grow dark, so he pulled over to light a
lantern. However, when he stopped, the girl had vanished from the
back of his rickshaw. In her place was a barrel lid with a red staff
mounted to it: a symbol of a hōsōgami. The young girl must have
been a hōsōgami using a rickshaw to find her next victim.
K
T
A
H
D
⻁狼狸
: cholera; literally “tiger wolf tanuki”
: kororijū (“cholera beast”)
: homes infected with cholera
: corpses of cholera victims
A
: Korōri are chimeras made of parts of the three
animals in their name: tiger, wolf, and tanuki. They have the body of
a tanuki, the stripes of a tiger, and the ferocious maw of a wolf.
B
: Korōri were said to be responsible for spreading cholera
in Japan in the late 19th century.
I
: Korōri take up residence in homes and infect families
with cholera. They are occasionally seen fleeing homes after
residents recovered. They can also be seen feeding on corpses of
those who succumbed to the sickness.
O
: Many cholera outbreaks struck Japan during the late Edo
and early Meiji periods. These epidemics killed hundreds of
thousands of people and created an atmosphere of fear and unease.
Because microbes responsible for cholera are invisible to the naked
eye, people believed cholera was the work of evil spirits. It was
sometimes blamed on possession by a type of kitsune called an
osaki. Later, it was thought to be the work of a brand new yōkai
which had never been seen before.
The word cholera was imported in Japanese as korori. Various
combinations of characters were used to write the sounds. One used
the kanji for tiger (⻁ ko), wolf (狼 rō), and tanuki (狸 ri). This spelling
elicited a new creature which combined the characteristics of those
three animals. An 1877 newspaper article printed an illustration and
description of the new beast, containing a disclaimer that korōri was
not a real animal, but an imaginary representation of how fearsome
the disease was. In other words, the yōkai korōri’s real identity is the
fear of cholera, not than the disease itself.
L
: There were several korōri sightings during an 1862
cholera outbreak in Edo.
A samurai recovering from the disease witnessed a strange beast
resembling a weasel lurking about his home. He grabbed a piece of
firewood and beat it to death. He roasted the animal and ate it. Later,
in the same village, other families with cholera infections noticed a
similar animal lurking around their homes.
More and more sightings of these strange beasts were subsequently
reported. They were even spotted emerging from the bodies of dead
cholera victims.
H
T
H
はしか童⼦
: measles boy
: areas infected with measles
A
: Hashika dōji is the personification of measles in
Japanese prints. He is a large, ugly, muscular boy with red pox all
over his body.
O
: Measles has been endemic to Japan since ancient times. A
rite of passage that everyone went through at some point in their life,
thirteen major epidemics were recorded during the Edo period alone.
Various folk remedies were devised for measles over the centuries.
Many of them resemble traditions of other infectious diseases like
smallpox. Small shrines to the gods of disease were built to appease
them so they would spare the lives of the infected. Images believed
to have special warding powers were hung as talismans in homes
where measles appeared.
Images used to combat the spread of measles were called hashikae
(“measles pictures”). They became popular towards the end of the
Edo period when new ideas about medicine were beginning to arrive
in Japan. They were produced in large quantities and distributed
around infected areas during outbreaks.
Hashikae served a dual purpose; not only were the images used for
good luck and to keep the evil spirits who cause measles at bay, but
they were also informative. They contained detailed instructions on
disease prevention, including lists of things to abstain from and
medicinal foods to eat. Important things to avoid during infection
included sex, fish and shellfish, poultry, alcohol, oily foods, and
pickled vegetables. Foods that were supposed to be helpful against
measles included azuki beans, winter melon, lily, kanpyō, miso,
sweet potato, black soybeans, barley, and zenmai. Some hashikae
even described the history of measles in Japan and techniques to
treat the infected.
Hashika dōji was a popular figure in hashikae. He was often depicted
being captured, tied up, and beaten by small, anthropomorphic
figures representing the industries which suffered most during
outbreaks. People with kegs for heads represent sake breweries,
while tub-headed people represent bathhouses. The entertainment
industries were represented by prostitutes or people with pleasure
boats for heads. These figures all teamed up to defeat the gigantic
Hashika dōji and save their industries.
Hashikae also contained plenty of satire. Figures with medicine for
heads representing doctors and medicine sellers are shown
defending Hashika dōji by trying to hold back the angry mob. These
industries thrived during outbreaks, and so they were thought not to
want the disease defeated.
A
T
A
H
D
アマビコ
: varies depending on the kanji used
: amabiko nyūdō
: oceans
: unknown
A
: Amabiko are mysterious yōkai which emerge from the
sea to deliver prophecies. They are ape-like, with protruding mouths,
large round eyes, and big ears. Their bodies are covered in thick,
long hair. They are usually depicted with three legs, although there
are four-legged amabiko as well.
B
: Very little is known about amabiko as they only appear for
a short time. They live in the seas around Japan and have been
spotted in Kyūshū as well as along the coast of the Sea of Japan.
Sightings continued throughout the latter half of the Edo period and
into the Meiji period.
I
: Amabiko sightings follow the same pattern: an
amabiko emerges from the sea, announces its name, and delivers a
prophecy. It foretells a period of bountiful harvest followed by a
period of disaster and disease. It instructs people to copy its image
to use as protection. Then it disappears.
O
: uring the latter half of the 19th century, Japan experienced
several epidemics. It was believed evil spirits were responsible for
spreading disease, and an effective way to keep them away was to
scare those spirits away by displaying pictures of powerful good
spirits.
The Edo period saw multiple prophetic savior yōkai who follow the
same pattern as amabiko. These yōkai all appear briefly (usually
from out of the sea), deliver a prophecy, and then vanish.
Newspapers circulated these stories with illustrations of the yōkai so
that people could hang them in homes as protective charms.
Of the other amabiko-pattern yōkai (including amabie, arie,
hakutaku, hōnengame, jinja hime, kudan, and others) amabie’s story
and physical description are so similar to amabiko’s that they may be
the same yōkai. The name amabie may have arisen from confusion
between the characters コ (ko) and エ (e), which look similar in
handwritten script.
As amabiko’s name is usually written phonetically with katakana
rather than kanji, its meaning remains vague. However, it is
sometimes written using kanji, and the meaning changes from
source to source. 尼彦 (nun boy), 天 彦 (heavenly boy), 海 彦 (sea
boy), ⾬ 彦 (rain boy), and 天 ⽇ ⼦ (sunlight child) are some of the
many ways to write amabiko.
A
T
H
D
アリエ
: none; this is its name
: oceans
: unknown
A
: Arie are prophetic aquatic yōkai with bulbous bodies
covered in shiny scales. They somewhat resemble sea lions. They
walk on four legs, and have long, thin tails. Their extended necks
stick straight up from the center of their bodies, and they have hairy
manes.
B
: Little is known about arie as there is only one recorded
sighting. However, they fit the amabiko pattern of yōkai. They live in
the ocean, can speak and deliver prophecies, and are powerful good
spirits whose image alone is enough to repel evil and sickness.
O
: The only recorded arie sighting appeared in Kōfu hibi
shinbun on June 17, 1876. The report was virtually identical to many
other aquatic prophetic yōkai which appeared in the latter half of the
19th century. The article was printed along with an illustration of the
arie.
L
: A strange creature was sighted in the waters off Higo
Province (present-day Kumamoto Prefecture). After nightfall, the
creature emerged from the water and began walking along the
roadside calling out to people. Passersby were scared, so nobody
approached the creature. Eventually the flow of traffic died out.
A government official heard the rumors about the strange creature.
He went to see it for himself. When he approached the creature, it
spoke to him: “I am the leader of the scaled beasts of the sea. I am
called arie.” The creature then foretold a six-year bumper crop and
an outbreak of cholera. He informed the official that anyone who
hung up its image and prayed to it would be protected from the
disaster.
After delivering its message the arie went back into the sea and was
never seen again.
H
T
A
H
D
豊年⻲
: fruitful year turtle
: kame onna (“turtle woman”)
: oceans
: unknown
A
: Hōnengame are aquatic yōkai with fortune-telling
abilities. They live in the seas around Japan. Hōnengame have
bodies of large turtles, with broad, hairy tails protruding from their
shells. They have heads of human women with long, flowing black
hair. Horns often sprout from the tops of their heads.
B
: Hōnengame spend most of their lives deep in the sea,
away from human activity. They rarely appear before humans, only
coming to shore when they have an important message to deliver.
I
: Hōnengame deliver prophecies of bountiful harvests,
which gives them their name. They also warn of coming epidemics,
droughts, famines, or other disasters. Like many prophetic marine
yōkai, their image was thought to have powerful protective abilities.
Hōnengame illustrations printed in newspapers or sold as talismans
and charms were believed to protect against disease and evil spirits.
O
: A hōnengame sighting was recorded in 1669. A turtle-like
creature calling itself kame onna appeared on the shores of Echigo
Province (present-day Niigata Prefecture). Its body glowed brilliantly,
attracting a crowd of people. As they approached the creature, it
spoke to them. It foretold a bumper crop which would be followed by
an epidemic. It also informed them that if they were to hang its image
in their homes and pray to it morning and night, they would avoid
illness. Then the kame onna slipped back into the sea and was not
seen again.
A newspaper from 1839 describes a sighting from Kishū (presentday Wakayama and Mie Prefectures). On the 14th day of the 7th
month, a hōnengame was captured alive by fishermen. It was
measured as having a girth of 5.5 meters and a length of 1.71
meters. An illustration of the creature was circulated and used as a
talisman against evil.
U
T
H
D
海出⼈
: person from the sea
: oceans
: unknown
A
: Umidebito are prophetic yōkai which live in the seas
off Japan. They have the heads, arms, and torsos of human women
and scales like fish or dragons. The lower half of their bodies are
hidden inside large spiral shells like a conch or a sea snail.
B
: Umidebito spend their lives deep in the sea. They
occasionally surface to deliver prophecies foretelling bountiful
harvests and devastating illnesses.
I
: When umidebito surface, they ride the waves using
their shell like a boat. They call out to humans, searching for
someone to whom they can deliver their message.
O
: Umidebito follow the common pattern of prophetic yōkai.
They emerge from the sea to deliver their warning and offer salvation
in the form of their image. This theme was prevalent through the Edo
and Meiji periods, increasing dramatically in the latter half of the 19th
century.
L
: An umidebito was sighted in Fukushimagata, Echigo
Province (present-day Niigata Prefecture) in mid-April of 1849.
According to reports, a bright light was spotted during the evening off
the shore. Witnesses heard a woman’s voice call out from the light.
Most people were too afraid to approach the light, but a brave
samurai named Shibata Chūsaburō approached the light to see it
with his own eyes. As he approached, the voice said:
“I am an umidebito who lives in these seas. A bumper crop lasting
five years will begin this year in every province. However, in
November, a great sickness will spread and kill 60% of the
population. Those who see me or my picture will be spared. Go
quickly and spread this message!”
After delivering her prophecy the umidebito vanished.
Y
T
H
D
ヨゲンノトリ
: prophecy bird
: holy mountains
: unknown
A
: Yogen no tori are prophetic birds which resemble twoheaded crows. One head is black and the other white, both of which
can speak.
B
: Yogen no tori are holy animals, sent by the gods when
there is an important message to deliver.
I
: Yogen no tori deliver sacred messages to humanity.
Merely an image of them is powerful enough to keep away diseasespreading evil spirits. Regularly looking at a picture of a yogen no tori
is said to protect you from harm.
O
: Yogen no tori belong to the popular Edo period phenomenon
of prophetic yōkai warning of outbreaks and offering their image as
protection. Infectious diseases like cholera are spread by invisible
means, and for most of history there were no known cures or
effective methods of prevention. Amulets, talismans, and images of
holy spirits might not have done much to prevent sickness, but the
desire to cling to any promise of salvation in the face of an unknown
threat is understandable.
L
: A cholera outbreak struck Japan in the summer of 1858.
During the outbreak, a government official named Kizaemon from
Kai Province (Yamanashi Prefecture) discovered the legend of the
yogen no tori. He reported it in Bōshabyō ryūkō nikki, a journal which
detailed the outbreak.
According to his report, a yogen no tori was sighted in December of
1857 near Mount Haku in Kaga Province (Ishikawa Prefecture). The
bird proclaimed, “Around August or September of next year a
disaster will occur, killing 90% of the world’s population. Those who
gaze upon my image morning and night and believe in me will be
spared from this suffering.”
Kizaemon believed the yogen no tori to be a messenger from the
gods. He declared it to be a symbol of the great power of Kumano
Gongen. An illustration of the bird was printed alongside the report
so people could see it and receive its divine protection.
K
T
A
shūgen
狐の嫁⼊り
: a fox’s wedding; sun shower
: kitsune no yometori, kitsune no kon, kitsune no
A
: Kitsune no yomeiri are beautiful yet eerie processions
which happen before the wedding of a kitsune. They appear as long
strings of phantom lights stretching over a large area. Kitsune no
yomeiri resemble old fashioned Japanese bridal processions, in
which the bride would travel to her new home among a parade of
lanterns.
B
: Kitsune weddings usually take place during the deep
quiet of night, but they can also take place in the day during a sun
shower. Rain falling while the sun shines was said to be a kitsune
trick meant to send humans running indoors so that they could hold
their wedding away from prying eyes.
O
: Whenever rain and sun appeared together, people believed
that kitsune were having a wedding nearby. Today, the common
Japanese phrase for a sun shower is kitsune no yomeiri.
L
: A folktale from Miyazaki Prefecture describes a kitsune no
yomeiri. A man was traveling in the mountains one sunny day, when
suddenly it began to rain. “A kitsune must be getting married!” he
thought. He noticed a beautiful woman ahead of him on the road.
She turned and smiled in his direction. He followed her, and every
time she turned and smiled at him, his heart fluttered.
The woman broke a few branches from a tree and slid them into her
hair. They turned into beautiful hairpins. She traced her fingers along
a large tree trunk and circled around it. Her clothing transformed into
a fabulous white bridal kimono. “This woman must be a kitsune!” the
man thought as he stared in amazement.
The woman continued on to a bamboo grove. Countless kitsune
began to emerge. They carried long ornate chests and a palanquin
which they brought to the bride for her to enter. Each guest was
wearing a splendid kimono decorated with a family crest. “I was right!
It’s a kitsune wedding!” The man was excited to witness something
so rare.
The man followed the procession deeper and deeper into the
mountains. It arrived at a large manor with a thatched roof. The
kitsune entered the manor. “This must be where the ceremony will
take place!” thought the man. He searched for a way to spy on the
ceremony, finding a small hole high up in the wall. He climbed upon
a large stone step and stretched his legs to reach the hole. From
there he could see the manor’s interior. It was decorated with
expensive dining tables, and kitsune were seated around them.
“Why, it’s just like a human wedding!” he thought as he watched the
ceremony.
After some time, the man grew tired. He stepped down from the
peephole and lit his pipe. As he puffed, the scenery changed before
his eyes. What was a great straw-thatched manor just a moment ago
became a wooden shrine. The stair he had been standing on
became the pedestal of a great stone lantern. And the hole in the
wall became the hole of the stone lantern. The guests and tables
were nowhere to be seen. There was no sign that anything had
taken place at all.
Even though he was aware they were kitsune, he had still been
bewitched by their magic.
Y
T
A
H
D
妖狐
: strange fox
: kitsune, bake gitsune
: forests, fields, and mountains
: omnivorous; especially fond of fried tofu
A
: Yōko literally means “strange fox.” It refers to magical
foxes in the context of folklore. Normally they are referred to simply
as kitsune; although terms like yōko and bake gitsune are helpful to
distinguish between the animals and the folklore. Yōko appear
essentially identical to ordinary, non-magical foxes. As they grow
older and more powerful, they undergo physical changes. For every
hundred years of life they acquire an additional tail, up to a maximum
of nine.
B
: Kitsune have a complex society which mirrors human
society. They are divided into two main categories: yako and zenko.
Yako are wild kitsune who have no master. They are not concerned
with social advancement, and enjoy playing tricks on humans. Zenko
are good kitsune who serve the god Inari. They continue to acquire
new social ranks and honors as they age, and they do not harm
humans.
Kitsune are most famous for their ability to change forms. To learn
this skill, young kitsune place an object on their head, face the Big
Dipper, and pray. The object is usually a human skull or a bone from
a cow or a horse. Other objects may be incorporated into this spell to
improve the disguise. For example, to disguise itself as a cook a
kitsune might place a piece of kitchenware on its body. To transform
into one of their favorite disguises–a beautiful young woman–they
use leaves, a lily pad, or duckweed, which transforms into long,
elegant hair. As kitsune grow more powerful, they no longer need
props to create complex disguises.
F
F
Almost every village in Japan has stories about kitsune
creating mischief or performing good deeds for the locals.
Some kitsune are well known across entire regions. Two
kitsune in particular are so famous that everybody knows their
names: Kuzunoha and Tamamo no Mae.
Kuzunoha was kind and loving, and is a perfect example of a
zenko, or good kitsune. She fell in love with a human and
gave birth to Abe no Seimei, who became Japan’s most
powerful sorcerer. Tamamo no Mae, on the other hand, was
as wicked as kitsune can be. She tried to murder the emperor
and destabilize the entire country, but she was thwarted by
Abe no Yasuchika, a descendant of Abe no Seimei. Tamamo
no Mae is remembered as one of the most dangerous yōkai
ever to exist.
Z
T
A
H
D
善狐
: good fox, virtuous fox
: reiko, inari kitsune, osakitōge
: forests, fields, mountains, and shrines
: omnivorous
A
: Zenko are good kitsune who serve the gods and
perform good deeds.
B
: Zenko society is extremely complex. It mirrors human
society, with families and tribes, ranks, and various levels of awards
and degrees. Sources disagree on the exact structure of zenko
society. According to one common classification, Zenko are divided
into five groups based on fur color: tenko (heavenly foxes), kinko
(gold foxes), ginko (silver foxes), byakko (white foxes), and kokuko
(black foxes). Another classification divides them into three social
ranks with no regard for coloring: tenko (heavenly foxes), kūko (sky
foxes), and kiko (spirit foxes). Still other classifications exist.
Individual shrines such as the Fushimi Inari Shrine in Kyōto often
have their own degrees and ranks to bestow upon hard-working
zenko. The one area where everyone agrees is that zenko stand in
stark contrast to yako (wild foxes).
Evil behavior frequently attributed to kitsune is always the work of
yako, not zenko. Whereas yako have no interest in advancement in
kitsune society, zenko work hard to improve themselves and
increase their social standing. Zenko may occasionally play tricks or
pranks on people, but they do not seriously harm or kill humans.
Zenko serve the gods as messengers, facilitating communications
between humans and kami. They are most often found in the service
of the Shintō deity Inari or the Buddhist Dakini. Zenko can even be
enshrined as gods themselves, or as manifestations or emanations
of higher deities.
O
: Kitsune monogatari, part of the Edo period essay collection
Kyūsensha manpitsu, is a well-known source on the structure of
kitsune society. It claims to be the recorded words of a kitsune who
possessed a human and discussed the different tribes of zenko and
the ranks of kitsune society through its host’s mouth. The kitsune
made a very clear point that there was a distinction between
benevolent zenko and wicked yako.
Y
野狐
T
: wild fox
A
: nogitsune, yakan
H
: forests, fields, and mountains
D : omnivorous; fond of wax, oil, sake, and lacquer; also feed on
human life force
A
: Yako are low-ranking, wild kitsune that do not have
divine souls or serve as messengers of the gods. They are known for
tricking, tormenting, and possessing humans. All wicked kitsune are
yako. However, not all yako are necessarily wicked.
B
: Yako are the lowest-ranking members of kitsune society.
They are comfortable in this position and do not aspire to increase
their standing.
Yako are cautious and have a keen danger sense. They dislike
bright light and hide from the sun. They are afraid of bladed objects
and run from swords and knives. They are frightened of dogs as
well. A yako disguised as a human might accidentally reveal their
true form when startled by a barking dog.
Yako recognize signs of human activity and hide when possible.
However, they often sneak into villages at night to steal favorite
foods: wax candles, lamp oil, lacquer, alcohol, and fried tofu.
I
: Yako are notorious tricksters. One of their favorite
tricks is transforming into humans or objects. They use this power to
play pranks, steal things, or punish those who have hurt them. They
also seduce foolish men, using sex to drain their life force and
increase their own power.
Yako are famous for kitsunetsuki–possession by a kitsune.
Sometimes they do this to punish humans they dislike. Other times it
is simply for their own amusement. They prefer to possess women.
They feed off women’s life force, draining energy from their victims.
Despite frequent conflicts, yako occasionally have positive
relationships with people. Stories tell of yako repaying people who
do them good deeds. However, yako are notoriously unreliable. If
you ask one to guard an object, it will only do so for a short time
before it forgets its promise and wanders off. There are sometimes
marriages between men and yako disguised as beautiful women.
However, when the disguise is inevitably discovered these stories
end in tragedy.
O
: Yako are known by different names. The most common
one–nogitsune–is an alternate reading of the kanji in its name.
Yakan is more archaic, and originally referred to a different animal.
Yakan are beasts from Buddhist scriptures. The term literally means
“wild dogs.” They are cunning, and resemble small, yellow dogs with
fluffy tails. They can change their shape, and their true form is
unknown. Yakan live in packs and howl at night like wolves. In the
original Sanskrit yakan referred to jackals. Jackals were viewed as
servants of evil spirits, as they linger around burial grounds and eat
carrion. As jackals do not exist in China, when Buddhism was
transmitted to China, yakan were assumed to be foxes, martens, or
wild dogs. In Japan, yakan were associated with foxes and merged
with native kitsune folklore. Thus, the evil behavior of jackals in
Indian and Chinese folklore became the wicked deeds of kitsune.
B
T
A
H
⽩狐
: white fox
: shirogitsune
: forests, fields, mountains, and shrines
A
: Byakko are kitsune with pure white fur. They can have
anywhere from one to nine tails depending on their age.
B
: Byakko are the most common of the tribes of zenko, or
good kitsune. They are associated with Shintō and devote their lives
to the service of the deity Inari.
I
: Byakko are revered by humans as messengers or
even incarnations of the gods. Statues of byakko are frequently
found as decorations inside of Inari shrine grounds. Images of
byakko are often sold by shrines as charms.
F
L
White-furred kitsune are often referred to by the name myōbu,
an official rank for ladies in the imperial court. During the
Heian period, a noblewoman named Shin no Myōbu regularly
visited the Fushimi Inari Shrine and climbed to the top of
Mount Inari to worship. Her devotion impressed an old kitsune
named Akomachi who lived in the shrine. Akomachi offered
protection and divine wisdom to Shin no Myōbu. Thanks to
the kitsune’s divine guidance, Shin no Myōbu improved her
standing in the court and was awarded a higher rank. She
granted her old rank of myōbu to Akomach in gratitude. Since
then, the kitsune of Mount Inari have been known as myōbu,
in honor of the rank bestowed upon Akomachi.
K
T
A
D
⿊狐
: black fox
: kurogitsune, kuroko, kokko, genko
: forests, fields, mountains, and shrines
A
: Kokuko are rare kitsune who show themselves only
during the reign of a peaceful leader. They have thick, black fur and
are slightly larger than other kitsune. They have from one to nine
tails depending on their age. Kokuko live in northern climates like
Siberia and Hokkaidō. They seldom appear in Japan south of the
Tōhoku region.
B
: Kokuko are one of the five families of zenko. They have
pure, good hearts and stand in contrast to yako. In onmyōdō, kokuko
are associated with the cult of the North Star. They are said to be
incarnations of the Big Dipper. They also serve Inari, although they
are far less common than byakko.
L
: In 1771, the lord of Hokkaidō, Matsumae Michihiro,
married a noblewoman from Kyōto. His bride was a devoted
worshipper of Inari, and frequently visited Inari shrines where kitsune
made their homes. When she moved to be with her husband, many
kitsune followed her. Unfortunately, she died soon after marrying.
The kitsune who had accompanied her returned to Kyōto.
One day, Michihiro’s retainers went hunting in the mountains. They
saw a rare black kitsune and shot it. Michihiro was pleased when
they brought the creature back. But shortly after that, strange things
began to happen.
Michihiro offered the rare kitsune’s meat as a present to one of his
retainers. After eating it, the retainer became sick. He was
immediately struck deaf. Death soon followed. Michihiro had the fur
of the kitsune hung out to dry. However, every night a kitsune
appeared at the castle and demanded the skin be returned. When
Michihiro heard of this he refused. One morning after that, the skin
was missing, torn off the drying frame. Then, local fishermen began
complaining they could no longer catch herring.
Michihiro was troubled. He believed the dead kitsune placed a curse
on his domain. He consulted a temple and had the priest perform
one hundred nights of prayers for the kitsune. On the ninety-ninth
night, the priest had a vision. A black kitsune appeared to him,
explaining it was one of the kitsune who came from Kyōto. It had
made a family with a local kitsune and didn’t return with the others.
After being killed by Michihiro’s retainers, it was unable to pass on. It
remained as a vengeful spirit. It told that priest that if they would
build a shrine, it could pass on and serve the area as a guardian
spirit.
The priest told Michihiro what the kitsune had told him. Michihiro built
an Inari shrine for the black kitsune nearby and enshrined it there.
That shrine exists today: the Genko Inari Shrine inside the Kumano
Shrine in Matsumae, Hokkaidō.
G
T
A
H
A
Dakini.
銀狐
: silver fox
: gingitsune
: forests, fields, mountains, temples and shrines
: Ginko are silver-furred kitsune who serve the goddess
I
: Ginko symbolize the moon, and serve as a
counterpart to kinko, who symbolize the sun.
Ginko and kinko are two of the five families of zenko. While byakko
and kokuko are associated with the god Inari and Shintō, ginko and
kinko are associated with the goddess Dakini and Buddhism. They
are pure, holy spirits. They represent the moon and sun and usually
work together.
K
T
A
H
A
⾦狐
: gold fox
: kingitsune
: forests, fields, mountains, temples and shrines
: Kinko are golden-furred kitsune who serve Dakini.
I
: Kinko symbolize the sun, while their counterparts
ginko symbolize the moon.
I
D
When Buddhism was brought into other countries, it merged
with local belief systems to make it more acceptable to the
populace. By the time Buddhism gained wide acceptance in
China, it had absorbed many features of Chinese folk religion.
In Japan, this mixture of Chinese and Indian Buddhism was
syncretized further with Shintō. Each kami was said to be a
local emanation of one of the many buddhas, bodhisattvas,
and other spirits in Buddhist cosmology. Major figures
syncretized based on similarities in iconography, stories, or
features of their worship. The Chinese depiction of Dakini and
the Japanese Inari shared enough similarities that they were
associated with each other.
The syncretization of Buddhist figures with Shintō deities can
be a controversial subject. There are some who say that Inari
and Dakini are two aspects of the same figure. Others say
Inari and Dakini are completely different beings who were
confused with each other.
D
T
A
H
D
荼枳尼
: none; a transliteration of the Sanskrit term dakini
: Dakiniten, Daten, Shinko’ō, Kiko Tennō
: the sky
: human hearts, blood, and flesh
A
: Dakini is an esoteric goddess and an important figure
in Shingon Buddhism. She is the Japanese interpretation of dakini
sky spirits from Indian cosmology. In Shintō-Buddhist syncretism she
is associated with the kami Inari. Dakini is usually depicted as a
beautiful, half-nude woman carrying a wish-granting jewel and riding
a white fox.
B
: Dakini serves Benzaiten, the goddess of wisdom, and
Daikokuten, the god of grain. She is said to be willing to grant any
wish.
I
: Dakini is revered across Japan as a goddess of food,
grain, foxes, and good fortune. She was an important goddess to the
nobility and samurai classes during the Middle Ages. Both the
shōgun and the emperor venerated Dakini, believing that failure to
do so would bring an end to their rule. Secret rituals relating to
Dakini worship were passed down orally through the imperial
household and remain an integral part of imperial enthronement
ceremonies. The deepest secrets of her esoteric worship are said to
grant unlimited power. Among the gifts that Dakini granted her
worshipers was knowledge of the future. Also was the ability to trap
kitsune and use them to possess enemies.
O
:Dakini were originally a race of wrathful Indian sky spirits.
They served Kali and looked like beautiful, nude women. Dakini were
energetic, wise, and muse-like. They carried swords for cutting out
hearts. Dakini feasted upon human flesh and drank blood from
skulls. When they listened to the Buddha’s teachings, they converted
to Buddhism. Along with this came a promise to stop killing people,
and to feast only upon the meat of the recently dead. To ensure they
wouldn’t starve, dakini were granted the power to see six months
into the future. This way, they could wait near people who were
going to die soon. When they died, dakini could feast upon their flesh
before other carrion-eating demons arrived.
Because they feed upon carrion, dakini were associated with jackals.
Jackals did not exist in China, but they were described as clever,
wicked, magical beasts who look like dogs and feed on humans.
That description matched Chinese folklore about foxes who disguise
themselves as beautiful women and feed on human life force.
Jackals became synonymous with foxes. Dakini also became linked
with foxes.
As Buddhism was transmitted though India and China to Japan,
dakini fused with other religious and folkloric concepts. In Japan,
dakini changed from a race of sky spirits into a single figure
resembling both a goddess and a demon. As a result of her long and
complicated history, and the esoteric nature of her religious practice,
Dakini is known by many different names. She is called Shinko’ō
(“Dragon Fox Queen”), Kiko Tennō (“Noble Fox Empress”), and
many more due to her syncretism with Inari.
L
: Genpei seisuiki, an extended narrative of the Tale of the
Heike, describes an encounter with a servant of Dakini. Long ago, an
impoverished young samurai named Taira no Kiyomori went hunting
and shot a fox. To his surprise the fox transformed into a beautiful
woman. She explained that she was a servant of Dakini. She
promised that if Kiyomori spared her life, she would see to it that all
his wishes would come true. Kiyomori let her go free and began to
pray to Dakini. Sure enough, Kiyomori’s luck soon changed. His
family rose to prominence and he became wealthy and powerful.
The Taira became the most powerful samurai clan in Japan for a
time. Kiyomori’s success is often credited to Dakini’s influence.
A
T
A
H
D
阿紫霊
: “Azi” spirit
: ashi, ashireiko
: forests, fields, and mountains
: omnivorous
A
: Ashirei are the lowest-ranking and youngest kitsune.
This rank is held from infancy until one hundred years old.
Consequently, the vast majority of kitsune belong to this rank.
B
: Around the age of fifty, kitsune begin ascetic training to
develop magical skills. They travel to holy mountains and study
ancient occult practices involving worship of the sun, moon, and
stars. Young kitsune develop their shape shifting abilities at this age.
By the time an ashirei has reached a hundred years of age, it has
honed its magical skills enough to be promoted to the next rank:
chiko.
I
:Because it is the most populous rank, kitsune which
humans encounter are usually ashirei. Before they develop sufficient
magical powers, ashirei are easily caught in snares, injured, or even
killed by hunters and dogs. Only after a great deal of magical training
can they pose a threat to humans. Once ashirei understands magic,
they become dangerous to humanity. They may seek revenge
against people who wronged their family.
O
: The term ashirei comes from Azi, an evil fox spirit from a 3rd
century Chinese legend. Azi is pronounced Ashi in Japanese.
A soldier named Wang Lingxaio was repeatedly lured away from his
post by a beautiful woman named Azi. One day, he deserted his post
completely. Wang’s commanding officer, Chen Hao, suspected the
woman was a demon. Chen gathered his men and dogs and tracked
Wang to a cave. They found him lying on the floor inside, half
transformed into a fox. He was helpless, repeatedly calling out for
Azi. After he was rescued, Wang confessed that the pleasure of
being with Azi was incomparable to anything he had ever
experienced.
Azi’s name became synonymous for a beautiful, honey-mouthed
temptress with a wicked heart and a cruel lust for torturing men. Her
legendary seduction and destruction of a good man became the
pattern for countless future kitsune stories.
C
T
A
H
D
地狐
: earth fox
: chikojin
: forests and wilderness, often found near human areas
: omnivorous
A
: Chiko are kitsune with a considerable amount of
magical power. This is the second rank of kitsune society, above
ashirei. Chiko have physical bodies and still resemble ordinary foxes,
but they sprout additional tails as they age. The oldest and most
powerful chiko can have up to nine tails.
B
: After one hundred years of age, a kitsune can advance
from ashirei to chiko. Most chiko are between one hundred and five
hundred years of age. For kitsune who wish to continue to advance,
this is a period of intense ascetic practice.
Chiko is the highest rank which yako can achieve. No matter how
many years they may live, no matter how many tails they grow or
how powerful they become, a yako will never advance beyond this
social rank. This does not necessarily limit their power. Tamamo no
Mae, the most famous and powerful nine-tailed kitsune, only held the
rank of chiko.
I
: Chiko may be wicked, beneficent, or indifferent
towards humans. All chiko are powerful; how they use this power
depends upon whether they want to continue to rise in kitsune
society or not. Chiko who advance to higher ranks must give up
wicked deeds such as playing pranks on humans or draining their life
force in order to gain more power.
K
T
A
H
D
気狐
: spirit fox
: senko (wizard fox)
: usually found near Inari shrines
: none; they no longer need food
A
: Kiko are between five hundred and a thousand years
of age. Spiritual beings without true physical bodies, they can appear
in many different forms. Kiko is the third rank of kitsune society,
standing above ashirei and chiko, and below tenko and kūko. All kiko
are zenko who serve the kami Inari. Most are white-furred (byakko)
kitsune, but black (kokuko), gold (kinko), and silver-furred (ginko)
kiko also exist.
B
: At around five hundred years of age, good chiko may
advance to the next rank of society and become kiko. They shed
their physical bodies, becoming spiritual entities. Their duty is to act
as servants and messengers of the Shintō deity Inari Ōkami. The
vast majority of kitsune in Inari’s service are kiko. Their magical skills
are vaster than those of chiko, but they still have a great deal of
service and training to complete before attaining the higher ranks of
kūko and tenko.
I
: While lower-ranking kitsune like chiko are known for
taking human form to drain the life force of humans, kiko are are less
likely to act maliciously. Instead, kiko often take human form to help
people. Some of them even fall in love with humans and live with
them in disguise for many years. One of the best-known stories of a
kitsune falling in love with a human is Kuzunoha, the mother of Abe
no Seimei.
K
T
A
H
D
空狐
: sky fox
: Inari kūko
: the sky
: none; they no longer need food
A
: Kūko are ancient kitsune who have risen to the
highest levels of kitsune society. A kitsune takes the rank of kūko
after reaching three thousand years of age. As being of pure spirit,
they do not have physical bodies. When they appear, they take on a
rather human-like appearance, with ears resembling a fox, and no
tails at all. They are telepathic, clairvoyant, and can even see the
future. Their level of magical power is the highest it will ever be–on
par with the gods.
B
: Although they are the oldest and most powerful kitsune,
kūko are the second-highest ranked in kitsune society. Tenko are
younger but ranked higher. This is because after three thousand
years, kūko have reached a sort of retirement age where they are no
longer working in the service of Inari. Younger kitsune still actively
serve the gods, while a kūko’s duties are more like a privy council or
a venerated elder.
I
: When kūko interact with human beings, it is only to
do good. They might increase the prosperity of a temple or a
household. They might help a good and honest person achieve fame
for their skills. Or they might possess a pure-hearted but foolish
person in order to teach them a lesson. When a kūko possesses a
human, it doesn’t cause mental disorder or sickness in the way
commonly associated with kitsune possession.
L
: The Edo period book Kyūsensha manpitsu tells a story of
an encounter with a kūko.
A kitsune who had been living in Kyōto for a long time decided to
make a journey to Edo. Along the way, he stopped to rest at the
house of a samurai named Nagasaki Genjirō. He decided to “borrow”
the body of one of Genjirō’s servants–a sickly fourteen-year-old boy.
He spoke through the boy and described to Genjirō the different
ranks of kitsune society and the differences between good and bad
kitsune. He explained that while yako often harm humans, zenko
only possess stubborn or foolish humans to teach them important
lessons. Zenko use their magic to help people. The kitsune
explained that he was, in fact a zenko, merely inhabiting the
servant’s body temporarily.
The kūko remained in control of the servant’s body for five days.
During this time, he entertained Genjirō’s household and neighbors
with tales of the Genpei War, the Battle of Dannoura, and the Battle
of Sekigahara. After everyone had been thoroughly entertained, the
kūko departed the servant’s body–but not before he used his magic
to cure the diseases and ailments the boy had been suffering from.
As a gesture of thanks for Genjirō’s hospitality, the kūko left behind a
signed calligraphic scroll containing the secret inner teachings of
Hakke Shintō.
T
T
A
H
D
天狐
: heavenly fox
: amatsu gitsune
: the sky
: none; they no longer need food
A
: Tenko are good kitsune at least one thousand years
old who possess god-like divine powers. Tenko is the highest rank in
kitsune society. They can fly, they have clairvoyance, and they can
see into the future. Tenko are spiritual beings without physical
bodies. Their actual appearance depends upon the form they decide
to take. They often appear as beautiful human-like goddesses with
vulpine features: gold, silver, or white fur, and multiple (usually four)
bushy tails.
B
: The rank of tenko is achieved after one thousand years of
age by kiko who have been pure and have ceased to commit all
wicked deeds. Their level of power is practically indistinguishable
from a god’s. Only kūko are older and more powerful than tenko.
However, the rank of kūko is something like retirement for kitsune;
an elder stateman. Tenko is the pinnacle of kitsune society.
I
: Tenko are treated as gods by humans. They
sometimes grant boons and favors to people who revere them. Like
all kitsune, tenko can possess humans, but they do not do so to play
pranks. A human possessed by a tenko gains the tenko’s power of
clairvoyance and can predict future events.
T
=T
?
In Nihon shoki, it is recorded that in 637 CE a meteor shot
across the sky above Japan from east to west. As it fell, it
shook the earth like thunder. A monk named Min who
witnessed the event explained that it was not a shooting star,
but an amatsu gitsune. The characters he used to write
amatsu gitsune were the same characters used to write
tengu. His explanation has become a source of debate over
whether tenko and tengu are related to each other. Some
sources say that tengu are the oldest tenko (i.e., kūko), while
others dismiss this theory as nonsense.
M
T
政⽊狐
: Masaki the fox
A
: Masaki gitsune is powerful nine-tailed kitsune who
appears in Kyokutei Bakin’s epic novel Nansō satomi hakkenden
(“The Chronicles of the Eight Dogs”), finished in 1842.
L
: Long ago, when Kawagoi Moriyuki oversaw Shinobu no
Oka Castle, a pregnant kitsune took shelter beneath the floorboards.
Moriyuki’s kind wife let her stay there and give birth. When a footman
named Kaketa Wanazō captured and killed the kitsune’s mate,
Moriyuki’s wife took pity on the kitsune. She slipped her food to help
raise her young. The cubs grew up healthy and left the nest. Then,
the kitsune began to plan her revenge on Wanazō.
Wanazō was having an affair with Masaki, the nanny of Moriyuki’s
infant son Takatsugu. One night, Wanazō and Masaki secretly
slipped away from the castle. The kitsune followed them. Once away
from the safety of the castle, she transformed into a bandit and
threatened Wanazō with a sword. Wanazō and Masaki ran for their
lives. They slipped off the road into the river and drowned.
The kitsune had her revenge, but she felt bad that the young
Takatsugu lost his nanny. To repay the kindness Takatsugu’s mother
had shown her, she transformed into Masaki and took her place as
Takatsugu’s nanny. For two years Masaki the kitsune raised
Takatsugu.
One day, Masaki dozed off and part of her disguise failed. The young
Takatsugu was startled. He cried out, “Nanny’s face turned into a
dog!” Masaki knew if people learned that Takatsugu had been raised
on beast’s milk, it would bring shame on him as a warrior. With tears
in her eyes, she fled the castle before anyone could learn of her
deception.
Masaki moved to a field in Ueno and contemplated her life. Although
she had lived for hundreds of years, she had not lived a meritorious
life. Her divine power was low. She had killed people–even though
they were her enemies. Masaki dedicated her life to charity and
helping others. She disguised herself as an old woman and opened
a tea shop. She sheltered travelers from the heat and cold. She gave
refuge to orphans. She talked star-crossed lovers out of suicide
pacts. She clothed and fed the hopelessly poor. Over twenty years,
Masaki saved the lives of 999 people. In that time, she reached her
one thousandth birthday. Her tail split into nine strands, and her fur
became white. Masaki became clairvoyant, which is how she sensed
that Takatsugu was in danger.
Masaki summoned all nearby kitsune. They transformed into
warriors and followed Masaki to rescue Takatsugu. After saving him,
Masaki revealed her identity. She told him of their past connection
and informed him that through her years of hard work and virtue she
had earned the favor of the emperor of heaven. She was to
transform into a koryū (“fox dragon”)–a kitsune so powerful and
virtuous that it is indistinguishable from a dragon–and ascend to
heaven, leaving the earthly world behind.
Masaki left the teahouse and dove into Shinobazu Pond. A moment
later, clouds formed, and rain began to pour from the sky. As the
storm blew, a great white kitsune dragon emerged from the pond.
The tea shop and all its tea utensils and furniture were sucked up
into the sky. After a few moments, the thunder, wind, and rain
subsided, the sky cleared, and Masaki disappeared.
Y
⼋尾狐
T
: eight-tailed fox
A
: Yao no kitsune are powerful kitsune with eight tails.
O
: An encounter with a yao no kitsune was recorded by Kasuga
no Tsubone in Tōshō daigongen notto, a document of praise and
thanks to the deified founder of the Edo shogunate Tokugawa
Ieyasu.
L
: In 1637, Tokugawa Iemitsu came down with a terrible
illness. As he lay on his deathbed, he experienced a revelation. He
dreamed an eight-tailed kitsune appeared to him, sent from Nikkō
Toshōgu. The kitsune told Iemitsu that he would recover from his
sickness, and then it vanished.
When Iemitsu awoke his fever was gone. He quickly recovered, just
as the kitsune predicted.
The eight-tailed kitsune from Nikkō Toshōgu and Iemitsu’s
extraordinary recovery served as evidence of the divinity of Iemitsu’s
grandfather. Iemitsu had a scroll commemorating the yao no kitsune
commissioned from the shogunate’s official painter Kanō Tan’yū.
O
T
⼄姫狐
: princess fox
A
: Otohime gitsune is a kitsune who lived on a mountain
called Hatahikiyama in what is now the village of Kyūhirota in
Kashiwazaki City, Niigata Prefecture. She was known to the villagers
only by her disembodied voice heard in the woods–nobody had ever
seen her true form. Otohime was worshiped by the villagers as a
goddess.
B
: Otohime was clairvoyant. Whenever the villagers called
out to her from the base of her mountain, she answered their
questions.
L
: When a farmer lost one of his tools, he approached the
foot of Hatahikiyama and asked Otohime for help. A voice came from
the woods and said that he had left it next to his shed. When some
food was stolen from the village, Otohime’s voice told villagers the
name of the thief and where he was hiding. The villagers recovered
their food and chased away the thief. Soon, thanks to Otohime’s
help, there were no wicked people left in the village.
One autumn, a villager’s garden was torn up by wild animals and
most of his vegetables were destroyed. Fearing he would run out of
food during the winter, he set some traps deep in the woods to catch
the beasts that destroyed his crops.
Soon, the farmer heard a voice call out from deep in the forest. It
was a call for help. It was the unmistakable voice of Otohime.
The man hurried into the woods. He climbed up the mountain to
where he heard the voice. Finally, he reached the exact spot where
he had set his traps. There, caught in one of his snares, was the
body of a large, beautiful, white-furred kitsune. But it was too late;
she was dead.
The voice of Otohime was never again heard in the village.
O
T
おとら狐
: Otora the fox
A
: Otora gitsune is a one-eyed, three-legged kitsune
from Aichi Prefecture. He is best known for kitsune tsuki–kitsune
possession of a human. Otora gitsune was particularly renowned for
possessing the sick and infirm. He had a powerful personality.
Humans possessed by him adopted his mannerisms.
B
: People possessed by Otora gitsune exhibit a few telltale
signs. They experience an excess of discharge from their left eye.
Their left leg aches unexpectedly. They talk endlessly about the
Battle of Nagashino, that time they got shot, and other personal
adventures that they never experienced.
I
: Otora gitsune could usually be exorcised by a priest.
However, there were times when his possession was exceptionally
strong. In those cases, victims were recommended to travel to the
Yamazumi Shrine in Hamamatsu for an exorcism. This is because
Yamazumi Shrine is dedicated to wolves. Many rituals performed
there invoke the power of wolves to chase away sickness and evil
spirits. As kitsune are terrified of dogs and wolves, these exorcisms
are particularly effective at curing kitsune tsuki.
O
: Otora gitsune lived in the Inari shrine grove at Nagashino
Castle. After the Battle of Nagashino, the castle was burnt to the
ground. Its Inari shrine was abandoned and never rebuilt. Otora
gitsune became enraged and turned his vengeance against locals by
possessing them. His first target was a woman named Otora, the
daughter of a wealthy family. It is from her that the Otora gitsune got
his name. From then on, Otora gitsune possessed villager after
villager, causing mischief across the region.
L
: Otora gitsune became one-eyed as a result of the Battle
of Nagashino. He was observing the battle from his grove when a
stray bullet struck his left eye. There are a few stories about how he
lost his left leg. Some say he was eavesdropping on a meeting of
generals deep in Nagashino Castle when his shadow fell across the
paper sliding door. The lord of the castle saw the shadow and,
believing it to be a spy, swung his sword and severed the kitsune’s
leg. Another version says that he transformed into a crow, perched
on a wall, and cawed loudly every day. This annoyed a bowman who
lived nearby. The bowman shot an arrow at the crow, severing its
leg.
Otora gitsune was killed by a hunter while napping on the banks of
the Sai River in Nagano Prefecture. However, his legacy was carried
on by his progeny. His grandchildren took up the name Otora gitsune
and continued to possess people. They told their grandfather’s
stories through human mouths.
H
T
name
⽩蔵主
: literally “white storehouse keeper,” a Buddhist priest’s
A
: Hakuzōsu is both the name of a monk and the kitsune
who killed him, took his place, and performed his duties faithfully.
The story has been adapted many times over the centuries, with the
names, places, and other details changing across different
adaptations.
O
: Ehon hyaku monogatari places the story in Yamanashi
Prefecture, at the base of Mount Atago. The kyōgen play
Tsurigitsune is based on a 14th century version of this story from
Shōrinji, a temple in Sakai, Osaka.
L
: Long ago lived a man named Yasaku. Yasaku made his
living trapping foxes and selling their pelts in the market. An old,
silver-furred kitsune lived in the mountains where Yasaku worked.
The kitsune had lost all his friends and family members one by one
to Yasaku’s traps until at last only he remained. He decided he would
teach the trapper a lesson.
The kitsune disguised himself as Yasaku’s uncle, a monk named
Hakuzōsu. Then he paid Yasaku a visit. He scolded him for hunting
foxes and asked him to stop. He preached the Buddhist precept that
killing any living being is a grave sin. He referenced the legend of
Tamamo no Mae, whose sins caused her to be transformed into a
boulder as a punishment. He even gave Yasaku money in exchange
for the rest of his snares. Yasaku agreed and promised to stop killing
foxes. Pleased, the kitsune skipped back into the forest.
However, the money did not support Yasaku for long. He quickly
spent all he had been given. He visited his uncle to ask for more
money. The old kitsune realized that if Yasaku spoke to Hakuzōsu
his deception would be discovered. The kitsune went ahead of
Yasaku and found the monk. He lured him into the forest and
devoured him. Then he disguised himself as Hakuzōsu again. When
Yasaku arrived, the kitsune scolded him for being wasteful and sent
him away empty handed.
For the next fifty years, the old kitsune lived in the temple as
Hakuzōsu. He faithfully performed the monk’s duties every day.
Nobody ever realized that Hakuzōsu was a kitsune in disguise.
One day, a deer hunt took place at a nearby farm. Everybody in the
village gathered to watch, including Hakuzōsu. However, when
Hakuzōsu arrived, two of the hunters’ dogs smelled the kitsune and
became agitated. They leaped upon Hakuzōsu and quickly ripped
him to pieces. When the dogs were finally called off the old monk it
was too late. All that was left was the torn body of an old, silverfurred kitsune.
Although Hakuzōsu’s deception was exposed, the villagers feared
that the kitsune’s spirit would return and curse them. They buried
him in the shade of a nearby mountain and erected a small shrine.
D
T
A
伝⼋狐
: Denpachi the fox
: Konoha, Konoha Inari Daimyōjin
A
: Denpachi gitsune is a kitsune from Iidaka in Sōsa City,
Chiba Prefecture.
O
: A kitsune named Konoha lived in a hole in the woods in
Iidaka, near a major Buddhist seminary. Young men from all over
eastern Japan went there to study. Konoha heard the young priests
every day reciting their chants and performing their studies. He was
intrigued. He wanted to study too. So Konoha disguised himself as a
young man named Denpachi and slipped into the seminary, blending
in with the other students.
L
: Every morning Konoha transformed into Denpachi and
went to school early. When the other students and teachers arrived,
Denpachi was already performing temple chores, sweeping floors
and preparing meals. Denpachi was an exemplary student. He
poured himself into his studies. He performed his ascetic training
diligently and learned to comprehend the deepest esoteric mysteries.
From time to time, he even instructed other students in some of the
more difficult teachings. Denpachi came to be highly respected
among his fellow students and the faculty.
Though he was a diligent student, Denpachi was occasionally
careless. Students and teachers discovered paw prints leading into
and out of seminary buildings. Occasionally, leaves onto which
Denpachi had copied the Lotus Sutra would be found in the gardens.
Rumors spread that a kitsune was performing mischief at the
seminary. Of course, nobody suspected Denpachi.
For ten years, Denpachi continued to study diligently at Iidaka. One
day, a high priest named Saint Nōke was installed as the new
headmaster of Iidaka. There was a ceremony and a great banquet.
Though alcohol was normally forbidden, the restriction was lifted for
the evening and it turned into a night of wild drinking. The students,
including Denpachi, drank themselves into a stupor. Denpachi
became so drunk that he lost control over his disguise and
transformed back into an animal.
His deception revealed, the other students descended upon
Denpachi. They tied him up and beat him nearly to death. Then they
dragged him before Saint Nōke for judgment. Denpachi kneeled
before the headmaster with tears in his eyes and begged for
forgiveness.
Saint Nōke listened to Konoha’s plea. He was touched by the
kitsune’s sincerity, his success and diligence as a student, and his
passion for helping others. He told the students, “For the teachings
of the Lotus Sutra to have reached the heart of this lowly beast, it is
truly a marvelous thing!” Saint Nōke forgave Konoha.
Konoha promised to serve the temple as a guardian spirit and
protector of the faith. Saint Nōke built a small shrine for him in one
corner of the lecture hall’s front garden. Eventually Konoha came to
be known as Konoha Inari Daimyōjin, a local deity who grants
wishes to farmers, merchants, and students. His shrine still stands
and remains a popular place of devotion.
K
T
A
経蔵坊
: none; this is his name
: Kyōzōbō, hikyaku gitsune (“postman fox”)
A
: Keizōbō is a kitsune who transformed into a young
samurai and served Lord Ikeda Mitsunaka of Tottori Castle as a
message runner during the 17th century.
B
: Keizōbō ran messages from Tottori Castle to Edo. He
could make the journey in a record-breaking three days. Keizōbō
was beloved by his lord for his talent and dedicated service.
Keizōbō is the husband of Otonjorō, another famous kitsune from
Tottori.
L
: Keizōbō was on his way to Edo to deliver an important
message from Lord Ikeda. As he ran past a small village, a rich and
delicious smell wafted up from the side of the road. A farmer was
placing deep fried rats into snares. Keizōbō approached the farmer
in the guise of a young samurai and asked him what he was doing.
The farmer explained that he was laying traps for the foxes who had
been destroying his fields. Keizōbō made a note of it and continued
his run.
Keizōbō arrived in Edo, delivered his message, then turned around
and headed straight back to Tottori. He took the same route back,
which took him by the same village he passed earlier. Once again,
the mouth-watering aroma of fried rat tickled his nose. The smell was
so enticing that even though he knew it was a trap, Keizōbō decided
to try to snatch a fried rat. He moved as quickly as he could. But
poor Keizōbō was not fast enough. He got caught in the snare and
died.
When Lord Ikeda heard that Keizōbō had died he was distraught. He
had a shrine built on the side of the mountain near his castle, and
Keizōbō’s spirit was enshrined there as a guardian deity.
The Nakazaka Inari Shrine where Keizōbō is enshrined still stands in
Tottori City.
O
T
おとん⼥郎
: Otomi the prostitute
A
: Otonjorō is a kitsune who haunted the mountain pass
of Tachimitōge. Otonjorō is a shortened version of Otomi jorō (Otomi
the prostitute)–one of her many transformations.
B
: Otonjorō excelled at transforming herself and bewitching
men crossing the mountains. She was famed for escaping capture
over and over.
L
: One night, a merchant was traveling through Tachimitōge.
On the road ahead he spotted a young woman in a kerchief. He
thought she must be the wicked Otonjorō out hunting men.
The woman called out to the merchant, “Oh merchant! Would you
take me to the nearest village and help me find a man to take me as
a bride?” The merchant decided to trick her before she could trick
him. He would take her to his friend Jūbē’s house and capture her.
He put on his best poker face and told her to come with him.
The merchant led the woman to Jūbē’s house only to discover it was
already decorated in preparation to receive a bride. It was late at
night, but Jūbē’s servants welcomed him inside. They treated him
with the warmest hospitality. Jūbē’s servants offered him a hot bath,
which sounded wonderful to the road-weary merchant. He soaked in
the tub for some time, and eventually the sky began to lighten.
At dawn, the village’s farmers headed out into the fields. They called
out, “Look! That man must have been bewitched by Otonjorō!” The
merchant was startled to see they were all pointing at him! He
suddenly realized he was sitting naked in a dung pot in the middle of
a field, rubbing excrement all over his body. The whole night had
been a trick. He became the laughingstock of the village.
Another legend tells of a village headman who could no longer
contain his anger with Otonjorō’s mischief. He called the villagers
together and promised a reward to anyone who could exterminate
the kitsune. A pair of braggadocious young men volunteered.
The men ventured into the mountains to look for Otonjorō. When
they reached Tachimitōge they spied a fox walking along a small
river up ahead of them. They watched it rub river mud onto its body
and transform into a young woman. She picked up a river stone and
it transformed into a baby, which she cradled in her arms. The two
men followed her until she entered a small mountain hovel.
The men peeked into the hovel and saw an elderly couple cradling
the baby. They burst in and told the couple they were bewitched by a
kitsune and the baby was a stone. But no matter how much they
explained, the old couple would not believe it. They insisted that the
baby was their own grandchild.
The young men had enough. To prove the baby was a stone, they
snatched it out of the elderly couple’s arms and dropped it into a
boiling pot. The baby screamed and died. It did not turn back into a
rock. The young men were mortified. The couple overpowered them,
tied them up, and called for help.
A priest passing by heard the cries. He offered to take the two men
to his temple where he would ensure they spent the rest of their lives
praying for the soul of the dead child. The elderly couple agreed.
They turned the young men over to the priest. He shaved their heads
and took them to his temple deep in the mountains.
Days passed. The two young men did not return home, and the
villagers began to worry. They sent a search party. Near
Tachimitōge, they discovered the two men sitting in a river, covered
in mud. Their heads were shaved, and they were repeatedly hitting a
river rock, chanting Buddha’s name.
O
T
尾無し狐
: the fox with no tail
A
: Onashi gitsune is an old, white-furred kitsune who
haunted the Nagao cape in Aoya, Tottori Prefecture.
B
: Onashi gitsune was exceedingly cunning. Her preferred
modus operandi was to transform into a middle-aged woman and
bewitch people crossing the hills.
O
T
恩志の狐
: the fox from Onji
A
: Onji no kitsune is a wicked, elderly, brown-furred
kitsune who haunted the area between Onji and Iwami in Tottori
Prefecture.
B
: Onji no kitsune loved to trick people traveling in the
mountains alone at night. He appeared some distance ahead of
them and created a magical light. People would think it was the
lantern of another traveler and follow the light. But Onji no kitsune
would lead them deeper and deeper into the mountains and then
abandon them.
S
T
ショロショロ狐
: a nickname based on the sound of falling water
A
: Shoroshoro gitsune is a white-furred kitsune who
haunted the road between Tanegaike and Shichi Mountain in Tottori
Prefecture.
B
: Shoroshoro gitsune preferred to transform into a beautiful
young woman to trick travelers. Her name comes from the
“shoroshoro” sound of water falling in the foothills of Shichi
Mountain.
T
I
F
K
The eastern part of Tottori Prefecture was known as Inaba
Province in the old days. This small region was home to
several famous kitsune, who are known as the Inaba Five
Kitsune. They are made up of Keizōbō, his wife Otonjorō,
Shoroshoro kitsune, Onashi gitsune, and Onji no kitsune.
Each lived in a different village in Inaba, and they show up
over and over in the local legends of the region.
Like most kitsune, the Inaba Five were fond of deep-fried rats.
If you put up a bunch for sale, one of the Inaba Five was sure
to come and try to trick you out of one. They transformed
leaves into one sen coins and used them to buy the fried rats.
If you were a seller, you would try to rip each coin in half
before accepting it. If it did not rip, it was a genuine coin. But if
it ripped, it was a transformed leaf, and the customer was a
kitsune in disguise.
O
T
おさん狐
: Osan the fox
A
: Osan gitsune is a kitsune from Western Japan. Tales
of her mischief are found throughout Ōsaka, Hiroshima, and Tottori
Prefectures, and most of the Chūgoku region. Whether these all
refer to the same character or different kitsune named Osan is not
clear.
B
: Osan gitsune was stylish and influential. She frequently
traveled back and forth between her hometown and Kyōto and
received ranks and honors from Fushimi Inari Shrine.
I
: Osan gitsune transformed into beautiful women to
seduce men into betraying their wives and girlfriends. She was so
seductive that men young and old would visit her again and again.
Some of them even saw through her disguise, yet carried on their
romantic flings. Osan gitsune was deeply jealous and vindictive. She
was fond of starting lover’s quarrels to break couples up. Women
who interfere in others’ relationships–particularly those involved in
adulterous affairs–are sometimes called megitsune (fox women).
This word is said to have originated from Osan gitsune.
O
: Osan gitsune is said to have lived near Eba, Hiroshima. She
is beloved by the villagers of Eba, who claim her as their own despite
her mischief. By the time she was 80 years old, she had given birth
to over 500 foxes who lived in the vicinity. During food shortages
after World War 2, the locals fed and took care of the city’s foxes.
These are said to be Osan gitsune’s descendants. Today, she is
memorialized in Eba with a bronze statue, and her spirit is enshrined
in a small shrine at Marukoyama Fudōin.
L
: One of Osan gitsune’s favorite pranks was to disguise
herself as a lion and set fire to her tail. In this guise she terrorized
people traveling roads at night. One time she was captured by a
merchant, who threatened to burn her alive. She begged him to let
her go and promised that the following night she would transform
into a daimyō’s procession for him–a rare sight indeed! The
merchant agreed and released her. As promised, the following night
a splendid daimyō’s procession approached the city. The merchant
was thoroughly impressed. He approached the procession to praise
the kitsune. However, it happened to be a real daimyō’s procession
and not a kitsune’s trick. The daimyō was so offended by the
merchant’s impudence that he had him beheaded.
In Tottori, Osan gitsune lived in a place called Garagara near
present-day Tottori City. She appeared to travelers day and night,
and often lured them back to her home. One day she attempted to
seduce a farmer named Yosobei. Yosobei knew that a kitsune lived
in the area, and he was prepared to resist her temptations. When
Osan gitsune approached him, he pretended to be seduced and
followed her back to her house. There, he burned her with fire. Her
disguised faltered and her true form was revealed. Osan gitsune
begged for her life. Yosobei agreed to release her if she swore never
to do harm again. She agreed and fled the area.
Several years later, a man from Tottori encountered a beautiful
young woman traveling alone on the roads. She approached him
and asked if a man called Yosobei still lived in Tottori. The man told
her that yes, Yosobei was alive and well. The woman exclaimed, “Oh
god! How terrifying!” and ran away into the woods.
O
おこん狐
T
: Okon the fox
A
Shizuoka.
: Okon gitsune is a kitsune from Jitōgata in Makinohara,
B
: Okon gitsune was a malicious troublemaker who loved
playing tricks on humans who lived near her home. Her signature
prank was to attack travelers on the road and shave their heads.
L
: A fishmonger was carrying his daily catch through the hills
when an elegant lady approached him to buy some fish. She was
having a party and wanted every single fish he had. The fisherman
was delighted. He had never sold his entire catch so quickly before.
He happily traded his fish to the woman and went home early.
When he told his wife what happened, she became suspicious.
There were no families with that kind of money living anywhere near
the hills. The fisherman agreed it was strange. He checked his
purse. The coins the woman had paid with were gone and in their
place was a handful of leaves. He realized he had been tricked by
Okon gitsune.
The fisherman decided to punish Okon gitsune. He grabbed his staff
and went back to the hills. The hour grew late, but he could not find
the kitsune anywhere. Then he heard a great commotion coming
down the road. A daimyō’s procession was heading straight his way.
The soldiers leading the procession ordered him to make way.
The fisherman jumped off the road and prostrated himself. The
ground rumbled as soldiers, horses, and the daimyo’s palanquin
passed. As he bowed, he thought it odd that daimyō would process
through this rural stretch of hills. Surely this was Okon gitsune
playing another trick on him. This was his chance to catch her! He
jumped up and approached the daimyō’s palanquin.
As he reached for the palanquin’s door, a booming voice came from
within: “INSOLENT PEASANT!”
Such an impudent act meant death. The guards seized the
fisherman and forced him to the ground. A daimyō stepped out of the
palanquin. He drew his sword to cut off the fisherman’s head. The
fisherman begged the daimyō to spare his life.
The daimyo replied, “I will spare your life, but you will shave your
head so all may see your impudence.”
The guards held the fisherman down and shaved his head. He
groveled in the dirt until the procession left. Everyone in the village
would see how foolish he had been. He wrapped his head in a
kerchief and sheepishly returned home.
When he told his wife what happened, she again became
suspicious. There was no way a daimyō would travel through such
rural, backwater hills. The procession was clearly another one of
Okon gitsune’s tricks. Her husband had been fooled again.
But she pointed out that whether it was Okon gitsune or not, if he
had remembered his manners, he would still have his hair.
K
管狐
T
: pipe fox
A
: izuna
H
: mountains and forests of central and eastern Japan; or the
houses of their owners
D : omnivorous
A
: Kudagitsune are a breed of tiny, thin, magical foxes,
about the size of a rat. They can possess and manipulate humans
and are usually found in the service of sorcerers and fortune tellers.
Because of their diminutive size, they can be conveniently hidden on
the body–tucked in a sleeve or pocket or carried inside of a
matchbox or a bamboo pipe, from which they get their name.
B
: Wild kudagitsune behave like other small mammals such
as foxes, stoats, and weasels. They keep to themselves and usually
remain hidden from humans. Only rarely does a kudagitsune allow
itself to be tamed and brought into a human household to serve as a
magical familiar.
I
: Kudagitsune are used by sorcerers in divination
rituals and to place curses upon people. They loyally serve an entire
family. Families with kudagitsune use them to tell fortunes, make
prophecies, and haunt their enemies. Or the enemies of their clients,
if the price is right. When directed, kudagitsune cause sickness and
ill fortune. As a result, such families are often shunned by their
neighbors. Households with kudagitsune are called kuda mochi,
kudaya, kuda tsukai, izuna tsukai or kudashō.
Kuda mochi families can use their abilities to acquire any riches.
They quickly accumulate wealth and power. However, such families
can collapse just as swiftly as they rose. Kudagitsune breed quickly.
Kuda mochi families can find themselves with seventy-five or more
kudagitsune. Having too many kudagitsune brings a family to ruin.
The tiny creatures eat them out of house and home. At the same
time, culling them to keep their numbers in check risks angering a
powerful magical animal. Giving them away to other families carries
its own risks.
O
: Kudagitsune magic originated in the mountains of Nagano
Prefecture, but has spread throughout central and eastern Japan.
Because of their diverse range, kudagitsune are known by many
different regional names. The most famous is izuna, from Mount
Iizuna, a mountain with ancient ties to shamanism.
O
オサキ
T
: varies depending on the kanji used
A
: osaki gitsune
H
: forests and mountains; also found in homes and human
bodies
D : omnivorous; fond of azuki beans mixed with rice
A
: Osaki are small, magical mammals with fluffy tails split
in two at the end. They resemble weasels, mice, or tiny foxes. Some
accounts describe them as a cross between a fox and an owl, a little
bit larger than a house mouse. Their fur is mottled and can be
brown, grey, red, white, or orange. Their noses are white at the tip.
Their ears look like human ears. Some have a black stripe running
from nose to tail.
B
: Osaki are found in Nagano and throughout most of
Kantō. In Tokyo, however, they are only found in the Okutama
Mountains in the far west of the prefecture. This is because the Ōji
Inari Shrine, the head kitsune shrine in Kantō, forbade low-ranking
kitsune like osaki from entering the city.
Osaki live in the mountains, but also sneak into human homes. They
are usually invisible but will show themselves at the sound of a pot
lid or a rice container being struck. They are extremely fast and
appear and disappear suddenly. They reproduce quickly and form
large packs which move like a swarm. Osaki have powerful magic
and are often used by the gods as divine messengers.
I
: Osaki can enter human bodies, especially those who
have wronged the osaki or its masters. Victims of osaki possession
suffer bad luck and mysterious injuries. They develop fevers, mental
and physical agitation, gluttonous appetites, and other eccentricities.
Osaki possession can only be cured through exorcism. Villagers are
cautioned not to torment wild osaki to avoid provoking their wrath.
Osaki are kept by humans as magical servants. If kept happy, they
bring great wealth to their owners. Families with osaki are called
osaki mochi or osaki tsukai. When an osaki mochi family’s fortunes
rise, they overflow with wealth while the fortunes of their neighbors
mysteriously decline. Conversely, when an osaki mochi family’s
fortunes fail, they plummet into ruin and never recover.
Osaki ownership is passed down from generation to generation
matrilineally. Great care is taken to keep osaki ownership secret.
Osaki mochi families were historically shunned and mistrusted for
their unnatural abilities. They withdraw from society and avoid
contact with the outside world. Marriage is only permitted with other
osaki mochi families. However, marrying into an osaki mochi family
makes the other family osaki mochi too. If a bride was discovered to
be secretly osaki mochi, trying to marry into a non-osaki mochi
family, the wedding would be be called off. Once a family becomes
osaki mochi, they are always osaki mochi. No magic ritual can
remove osaki from a family line. In a way, the family does not
possess the osaki; the osaki possess the family.
O
: Osaki descend from the nine-tailed kitsune Tamamo no
Mae. When she was killed, her body transformed into a great cursed
stone. When the stone was shattered by a priest, pieces of it flew
through the air and landed in Gunma, where they transformed into
the first osaki.
Osaki can be written with several different kanji. One way is 尾 先 ,
meaning “tail tip,” referring to the shattered tips of Tamamo no Mae’s
tails. Another way is 尾裂, meaning “split tail,” referring to the osaki’s
two tails. Another way is 御先, which comes from the word misaki,
referring to animal spirits employed by the gods as messengers.
Ō
T
王⼦の狐
: the foxes of Ōji
A
: Ōji Inari Shrine is famous for kitsune folklore. Located
in Ōji in Kita City, Tōkyō, it is the head shrine for all kitsune in the
Kantō region.
B
: Every year on New Year’s Eve, the kitsune of eastern
Japan gather in Ōji to give thanks and make wishes for the new year.
O
: Before the 20th century, Ōji was a village of rice paddies and
farms. Visiting kitsune gathered under a huge hackberry tree by the
road. Magical fires used to light their way could be seen for miles
around. Farmers and merchants in Edo would watch for the lights to
predict the coming year’s fortunes. Inari is a god of the harvest and
business, and many kitsune gathering at the shrine would mean a
prosperous year.
L
: A rakugo story called Ōji no kitsune takes place in Ōji.
A merchant returning from a visit to the Ōji Inari Shrine witnessed a
kitsune transform into a beautiful woman. He looked around to see
who her target would be. He was the only person around. Rather
than becoming her target, the merchant decided to turn the tables
and play a trick on her.
He called out to the woman, “Otama! It’s me! Come, let’s have tea
together!” He pointed to a nearby tea shop, Ōgiya. The kitsune
thought she had found her mark and played along. They entered the
shop and took a seat on the second floor.
The merchant let the kitsune order as much as she wanted.
Eventually, drunk and full, she fell asleep on the floor. The merchant
went downstairs, ordered three dishes of tamagoyaki to go, and then
told the shopkeeper that the woman upstairs would cover the bill. He
slipped out.
A server went upstairs to wake up the sleeping woman and ask her
to pay. The kitsune was so shocked that her disguise failed,
revealing her tail and ears. The staff chased her around the
restaurant. They beat her with a broom. Finally, the kitsune managed
to escape. She ran back to her hole in the ground and hid.
The shopkeeper asked what all the commotion had been. When the
staff told him what happened, he scolded them. “This shop owes its
success to the Ōji Inari Shrine. How could you beat one of its
kitsune?” Together, they went to the shrine to apologize and pray for
forgiveness.
Meanwhile, the merchant arrived at his friend’s house. As they
shared the tamagoyaki, the merchant told his friend what had
happened. His friend looked worried. “Kitsune are vindictive
creatures. She will probably place a curse upon your family!”
The following day, the merchant returned to Ōji to make amends.
Near the place where he saw the kitsune the day before, a cub was
playing near a hole in the ground. The merchant apologized to the
cub for his behavior and left a wrapped present beside the fox hole
as a sign of his contrition.
The cub’s mother was inside the hole sulking. The cub told her that a
human came by to apologize for tricking her and had left a present.
She was skeptical, but let the cub to open the box carefully. It was
filled with botamochi–rice cakes covered in brown, mashed sweet
beans.
“They look delicious mom! Can we eat them?” asked the cub.
The kitsune replied, “No. Humans are vindictive creatures. That’s
probably horse shit!”
A
First and foremost, I want to thank my wife for all the unseen effort
she put into The Fox’s Wedding. We decided to produce this book as
locally as possible, so while I painted in my studio she reached out to
local printers to find one who could meet our needs. While I read
amusing ghost stories, she contacted remote town halls and cultural
centers to request information on obscure local yōkai that I insisted
on including. She took care of my health, and she made sure I ate
proper meals and slept on time instead of whatever I would have
done if she wasn’t around.
While The Fox’s Wedding was written, illustrated, put together, and
published by me, there are many people whose work is an important
part of this book. The beautiful typefaces used are The Fell Types,
digitally reproduced by Igino Marini: www.iginomarini.com. The
typeface used for Japanese text is Iwata Gyōsho. The illustrations
were painted digitally in Clip Studio Paint using the fantastic
GrutBrushes by Nicolai: www.grutbrushes.com. The text was edited
by Zack Davisson: www.zackdavisson.com.
Last but certainly not least, I want to thank my patrons and
supporters who helped make this book a reality. That includes the
backers who crowdfunded the project on Kickstarter and Backerkit,
and those who have supported me for years on Patreon. They make
it possible for me to research, translate, and illustrate yōkai full time.
Over 5,500 people backed this project, which is so many that I had
to move the list of names to the end of the book in order to fit
everyone! Thank you all for your support. I hope you’ll continue to
read my books in the future!
The Fox’s Wedding is dedicated to everyone who helped crowdfund
this book, including:
A G Urquhart, A joy to help bring this to reality., A Kitsune named Hua Li, A
Larger World Studios, A Tomlins, A. Banack, A. G. M. O. Prepok, A. Levi
Midcap, A. Speakmon, A. Tipper, A.M. Lopez, A_Square, Aaron & Alyson
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I
Amabiko
Arie
Ashiarai yashiki
Ashirei
Bake ichō no sei
Bekatarō
Biron
Byakko
Chibusa enoki
Chiko
Chōchinbi
Dakini
Denpachi gitsune
Dōmokōmo
Fudakaeshi
Fukuro mujina
Ginko
Gotoku neko
Hainu
Hakuzōsu
Hashika dōji
Hinoenma
Hōnengame
Hōsōgami
Hossumori
Igabō
In no kameshaku
Isogashi
Itsuki
Jigoku tayū
Jūmen
Kame hime
Kamisubaku
Kan no ju
Kanshaku
Kazenokami
Y
Kiko
Kinko
Kinu tanuki
Kizetsu no kanmushi
Kitsune no yomeiri
Kodama nezumi
Kohada Koheiji
Kokuko
Korōri
Koshiita no mushi
Koshinuke no mushi
Kubikajiri
Kuda gitsune
Kūko
Kyūso
Masaki gitsune
Mekurabe
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Minokedachi
Mokugyo daruma
Nakisubaku
Nando babā
Narigama
Nebutori
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Nikusui
Niwatori no sō
Nojukubi
Nomori
Oi no bakemono
Ōji no kitsune
Okon gitsune
Onashi gitsune
Oni hitokuchi
Oni no kannebutsu
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Ōtakemaru
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Otonjorō
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Senbiki no ōkami
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Shikome
Shinigami
Shinshaku
Shio no chōjirō
Shitanaga uba
Shoroshoro gitsune
Shunobon
Subakuchū
Suppon no yūrei
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Tearai oni
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Tenko
Tonshi no kanmushi
Tsuchinoko
Tsutsugamushi
Umidebito
Ungaikyō
Yako
Yakubyō gami
Yama orabi
Yanagi baba
Yanagi onna
Yao no kitsune
Yō no kameshaku
Yogen no tori
Yōko
Yonaki ishi
Zenko
Keizōbō
Kidōmaru
Osaki
Osan gitsune