WEEK 6: DIVINE COMMAND THEORY & NATURAL LAW
THEORY
-
Jews
-
Christians
Divine Law Theory: St. Augustine
He is also called as Saint Augustine of Hippo
One of his works left a lasting influence – the City of
God was widely read in Augustine’s time and
throughout the
Middle Ages and still demands attention today.
The City of God
The City of God was written in response to pagan
claims that the collapse of the Roman Empire by
barbarians was one of the consequences of the
abolition of pagan worship by Christian emperors.
The collapse of the Roman Empire gave rise to
Christianity to become the official religion.
St. Augustine responded by asserting, to the
contrary, that Christianity saved the city from
complete destruction and that Rome’s fall was the
result of internal moral decay.
DIVINE COMMAND THEORY
It proposes that an action is morally good if it is
commanded by God.
The theory asserts that what is moral is determined
by what God commands, and that for a person to be
moral is to follow his commands.
That the source of Morality is God. God is Moral
and Good.
What To Do?!
READ THE BIBLE!
THE BIBLE
Leviticus 19:28; Do not cut your bodies for the
dead or put tattoo marks on yourselves
Timothy 2:9; I also want the women to dress
modestly, with decency and propriety adorning
themselves, not with elaborate hairstyles or gold or
pearls or expensive clothes
Leviticus 19:16; do not go about spreading slander
among your people
On Reading the Bible:
OLD TESTAMENT
The Euthyphro Problem
This problem or dilemma presents two questions to
ponder.
1. Is an action morally right because God commanded
them? Or
2. Is an action commanded by God because it is
morally right?
Analysis of the Euthyphro Problem
Is an action morally right because God commanded
them?
Is an action commanded by God because it is
morally right?
NATURAL LAW THEORY
THOMAS AQUINAS
Thomas Aquinas is also known as the “Angelic
Doctor”
He lived at a critical juncture of western culture
when the arrival of the Aristotelian corpus in Latin
translation reopened the question of the relation
between faith and reason
TRANS: MICHAEL GABRIEL JIMENEZ
NATURAL LAW THEORY
A theory which believes that the nature of man is
Good.
Accordingly, “Good” is the natural goal of man and
that our actions are driven towards this “Good”.
What is consistent with the Natural Law is right and
what is not in keeping with the Natural Law is
wrong.
Hence evil deeds are unnatural and immoral.
The goal of man is to exercise the nature of being
“Good” by following his nature.
HOW DOES A MAN UNDERSTAND HIS NATURE?
Aquinas believed that God imbued everyone with
the right scope of knowledge to fully tackle life and
understand our nature.
These are the instinctive knowledge that promotes
good because God supposedly promotes good. We
are provided “reason”, for us to act and pursue the
good.
Laws of Nature are discernible by human reason.
Thus, humans are morally obliged to use their
reasoning to discern what the laws are and to act in
conformity with them.
Humans have a natural drive to eat, drink, sleep
and procreate. These actions are in accord with a
natural law for species to survive and procreate.
Thus activities in conformity with such a law are
morally good. Activities that work against that law
are morally wrong.
BASIC GOODS
LIFE
REPRODUCTION
EDUCATING OFFSPRING
SEEK GOD
LIVE IN SOCIETY
AVOID OFFENSE
SHUN IGNORANCE
BASIC GOODS WITH REASON
PROHIBITION
POSITIVE INJUNCTION
WEEK 7: CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE AND
UTILITARIANISM
CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
Objective:
Understand the theory of Categorical Imperative
Key Concepts: Duty and Good Will
Three Axioms
1. Principle of Universalizability
2. Principle of Humanity
3. Principle of Autonomy
Immanuel Kant
German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
was an opponent of utilitarianism.
Immanuel Kant argued that the supreme principle of
morality is a standard of rationality that he dubbed
the “Categorical Imperative” .
HYPOTHETICAL IMPERATIVES VS CATEGORICAL
IMPERATIVES
Hypothetical Imperatives
If; Then
Categorical Imperatives
Categorical Imperative states that doing good is an
obligation.
We are doing good because we must! (GOOD as a
DUTY).
It is the product of rational insight and as rational
agents we can understand and know them as the
great truths that they are.
Moral law consists entirely of categorical
imperatives.
Hence, moral statements/actions falling under
categorical imperative are universal. It is an
absolute act that needs to be followed without
exemptions.
Good Will
A moral agent has to act from good will.
To act from good will is to act with a desire to do
your duty for duty’s sake. Regardless of the
consequence.
Actions without good will have no moral worth.
Categorical Imperative: Duty & Good Will
Simply put, moral action must be understood as in
the nature of duty and done out of good will.
It must be done, regardless if it will benefit the moral
agent or not.
In categorical imperative, the nature of a man is
rational, as he is aided by reason. The rational
man’s goal is to do his DUTY.
In doing so, these moral acts must fall under
categorical imperatives. Thus, it must adhere to the
3 formulations as morality is a set of Maxims or
Axioms. (Constant Principles)
TRANS: MICHAEL GABRIEL JIMENEZ
The Three Axioms
1. Principle of Universalizability
An action is right, if and only if you could rationally
will it to be universal.
One must, “Act only on that maxim through which
you can at the same time will that should become
universal law without contradiction”
“Act only on that maxim through which you can at
the same time will that should become universal
law without contradiction”
Act becomes a Maxim = Rule and/or a principle of
action
Maxim as universal law, means to have everyone in
a similar situation to always act according to the
same rule.
2.
3.
-
-
Principle of Humanity
Ends in Themselves
Principle of Humanity – Act as to treat
humanity/man as an end, not as a means
only.
It is about treating people (& ourselves) as
an end in themselves – as a being of
intrinsic value, NEVER MERELY as
THINGS or TOOLS to be used for your
own purpose or satisfaction.
Principle of Autonomy
Principle of Autonomy – When a moral agent acts,
he must understand that he is not only a
follower of universal law (moral law). He is also a
giver of universal law.
Every single act is a permission to universalize
it and to become the moral law. Hence if you cheat
on an exam, you are allowing it to be the act of
all, which makes cheating morally right.
Video Link
Kant & Categorical Imperatives: Crash Course Philosophy
#35
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8bIys6JoEDw&list=PL8d
PuuaLjXtNgK6MZucdYldNkMybYIHKR&t=0s
Readings
(See attached files)
Reading 9.1Kantian Ethics
https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1wc7r6j.6?seq=1#metadata_i
nfo_tab_contents
Reading 9.2 Immanuel Kant: Moral Theory
https://www.iep.utm.edu/kantview/
UTILITARIANISM
Objective
Comprehend the concept of Utilitarianism
Principle of Utility
TRANS: MICHAEL GABRIEL JIMENEZ
-
Consequential
Hedonism
Act Utilitarian vs. Rule Utilitarian
John Stuart Mill
John Stuart Mill was the most influential English
language philosopher of the nineteenth century.
He was a naturalist, a utilitarian, and a liberal whose
work explores the consequences of a
thoroughgoing empiricist outlook.
Utilitarianism
It states that the Good should coincide with the
Common Good, or that which gives benefit for man,
both for individuals or in certain groups.
Principle of Utility - moral actions are those which
would produce the greatest good for the greatest
number of people.
It likewise promotes the greatest number of
pleasures for the greatest number of people and the
least amount of pain for the greatest number of
people.
Utilitarianism is both hedonistic and consequential.
Consequential, because the intention in doing the
act is immaterial so long as the result of the act
produces the greatest good for the greatest number
of people.
Hedonistic, because hedonism puts emphasis on
how man is a pleasure seeking animal by nature
driven by what is pleasant for his well-being.
Its goal is to attain Ataraxia or bliss thus man
decides or acts based on his indulgent pleasure i.e.
attaining what is pleasant.
Act Utilitarian vs. Rule Utilitarian
Act Utilitarian An act is morally right if it produces at
least as much happiness as any other acts that the
person could perform at that time. SHORT TERM
Rule Utilitarian - An act is morally right if it conforms
to a rule that leads to the greatest good in the long
run, hence the correctness of the rule is determined
by the amount of good it brings about when
followed. LONG TERM
Readings
(See attached files)(See attached files)
Reading 10.1UtilitarianismReading 10.1Utilitarianism
https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1wc7r6j.5?seq=1#metadata_i
nfo_tab_conthttps://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1wc7r6j.5?seq=
1#metadata_info_tab_contentsents
Reading 10.2 Utility and HappinessReading 10.2 Utility and
Happiness
https://reasonandmeaning.com/utilitarianism-in-detail/https://r
easonandmeaning.com/utilitarianism-in-detail/
Video Link
Utilitarianism: Crash Course Philosophy #36
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-
WEEK 8: EGOISM AND ALTRUISM
EGOISM
Selfishness
At the end of this presentation YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
HAVE AN UNDERSTANDING OF ETHICAL
EGOISM
CLEAR MISCONCEPTIONS ON THE TOPIC OF
ETHICAL EGOISM
DIFFERENTIATE ACTIONS THAT ARE EGOISM
AND RATIONAL EGOISM
SEE EGOISM AS A PRACTICAL ETHICAL
OUTLOOK
EGOISM
You see it as bad.
Example; Friend:Pa-print paps?! Me: Hindi ko
kaya(state reason here) Friend:“Selfish mo naman
bro!”
Misconception on egoism
Traditionally we see egoism as an ethical theory
that must be frowned upon.
Being an egoist (someone who practices egoism as
their ethical theory) is someone that is bad
Being selfish is an outlook that we must not have
and we must be selfless.
What Is Ethical Egoism?
The pursuit of living is striving for the goal which is
directed by our self-interested values.
One of the leading proponent of ethical egoism is
Ayn Rand
Rand on altruism
“Altruism declares that any action taken for the
benefit of others is good, and any action taken for
one's own benefit is evil. Thus the beneficiary of an
action is the only criterion of moral value - and so
long as that beneficiary is anybody other than
oneself, anything goes.” – Ayn Rand
For Ayn Rand altruism it promotes self-sacrifice and
its end goal is death hence she sees it as evil.
ALTRUIST IS EVIL
FOR EXAMPLE – in the case of survival; you and a
stranger on a deserted island and both of you are
hungry you have a coconut that you can eat the
stranger doesn’t know about; what do you do?
Ethical Altruism would posit that you give up the
coconut to the stranger, compromising your
survival. (your death)
And if both of you with an altruistic outlook, no
one would ever eat the coconut. (both dead)
Eating the coconut would be egotistical because
you would promote yourself over the other.
Egoism vs rational egoism
Egoism is bad in the sense that we would act on our
own impulse and act on a whim. As a rational being
one must use their rational capability.
RAND ON EGOISM
She claimed that as a human being that is capable
of using reason it’s only rational to be an egoist.
TRANS: MICHAEL GABRIEL JIMENEZ
-
Hence she coined the term “rational egoism” and
this is what is morally good
HOW IS RATIONAL EGOISM GOOD?
A RATIONAL MAN WOULD HOLD HIS/HER OWN
LIFE AS THE HIGHEST VALUE, HIS
RATIONALITY AS THE HIGHEST VIRTUE
THE HAPPINESS AS THE FINAL GOAL AND
PURPOSE OF HIS/HER LIFE VIRTUE ARE
STANDARDS OF RATIONAL BEINGS
On man and living
“Man—every man—is an end in himself, not a
means to the ends of others; he must live for his
own sake, neither sacrificing himself to others nor
sacrificing others to himself; he must work for his
rational self-interest, with the achievement of his
own happiness as the highest moral purpose of his
life.” – Ayn Rand
“The purpose of morality is to teach you, not to
suffer and die, but to enjoy yourself and live.” – Ayn
Rand
What is ethical or morally good is the action that
would promote oneself and living with the guidance
of reason – egoism.
ALTRUISM
Or popularly known as SELFLESSNESS.
Objectives
At the end of this powerpoint presentation you
should be able to:
Define what is altruism
Who coined the term and its etymology
Determine if charlet is a good or bad moral agent.
Determine whether an action is ethically altruistic
What is ALTRUISM?
-
-
ALTRUISM - ETYMOLOGY
THE WORD ALTRUISM CAME FROM THE LATIN
WORD “ALTER” MEANING “OTHER” AND IT
WAS COINED BY “AUGUSTE COMTE”
Altruism for Auguste Comte can simply be
summarized by “living for the other” in other
words it’s about the “selfless concern for the welfare
of the other” Popularly known as the Father of
Sociology
WHEN CAN WE SAY AN ACTION
IS ALTRUISTIC?
Who Or What Determines An Action To Be
Altruistic, Is It The Motives Of The Individual?
Is It The Means Or Action Taken By The Individual
Or Maybe The Benefactor Of The Action
Determines It To Be Altruistic?
Is It Altruistic?
Charlet is driving into a school zone. And so she
started slowing down her car.
She passed by the school zone and no student was
hurt in the process.
IS CHARLET, AN ALTRUIST?
CHARLET, AN ETHICAL ALTRUIST?
Yes?
No?
Is It Altruistic?
What Determines An Action To Be Altruistic?
IS IT THE MOTIVES OR INTENTION?
IS IT THE MEANS OR ACTION CHOSEN?
IS IT BENEFACTOR THE ACTION?
CHARLET A BAD PERSON – NOT AN
ALTRUIST
IF CHARLET IS MOTIVATED BY THE MERE
CONSEQUENCES OF HITTING A CHILD WITH A
CAR - THAT IS ALTRUISTIC
BUT SLOWING DOWN AS MOTIVATED BY THE
FINANCIALLY, EMOTIONALLY AND LEGAL
CONSEQUENCES OF SUCH AN EVENT – IS
SELF-INTERESTED.
SO WHAT IS ETHICAL ALTRUISM?
BUT THE RESULT OF NOT HITTING A CHILD
(benefitted the child)
NOT HAVING ANY NEGATIVE LIABILITIES
(benefitted Charlet)
SLOWING DOWN BENEFITTED THE TWO
PARTIES (Charlet and the Child)
BUT A TRULY ALTRUISTIC BEHAVIOR SHOULD
ONLY BENEFIT THE CHILD AND NOT CHARLET.
EVERYDAY ALTRUISM
WE HAVE DIFFERENT EXAMPLES OF ALTRUISM
IN THE BIBLE WHERE IN SOME CHARACTERS
ARE DEPICTED TO LEAVE THEIR JOBS,
FAMILIES AND SHOWN UNWAVERING
DEVOTION ON HELPING THE OTHER.
AND TRADITIONALLY, BEING A SELFLESS
PERSON IS SEEN AS SOMEONE WITH THE
HIGHEST REGARD.
ETHICAL ALTRUISM
FOR ALTRUISM THE MORAL ACTION IS THE
ACTION THAT IS DONE DIRECTED TO OTHERS.
Actions that directly benefited the “other” are the
actions that are good.
Altruism
Behavior that is normally described as altruistic
when it is motivated by a desire to benefit the other
than oneself for that person’s sake.
ETHICAL ALTRUISM
ALTRUISM IS A FORM OF CONSEQUENTIALIST
ETHICAL THEORY. IT IS SIMILAR TO
UTILITARIAN ETHICAL THEORY
TRANS: MICHAEL GABRIEL JIMENEZ
From the word, consequence. The result
determines if the action is good or not
DIFFERENT FORMS OF ALTRUISM
Who is benefitted by the action determines its moral
value, normally an action that benefitted and is
favorable to anyone else other than the self is good,
Altruism for auguste comte
The Catholic Encyclopedia says that for Comte's
altruism, "The first principle of morality...is the
regulative supremacy of social sympathy over the
self-regarding instincts." Author Gabriel Moran,
(professor in the department of Humanities and the
Social Sciences, New York University) says
"The law and duty of life in altruism [for Comte] was
summed up in the phrase : Live for others."
Living for an altruist is living not for oneself but for
the other.
Such view is supported by Martin Luther King JR. in
this statement
“Every man must decide whether he will walk in the
light of creative altruism or in the darkness of
destructive selfishness. -Martin Luther King, Jr.
WEEK 9: VIRTUE THEORY
Objectives:
Understand the concept of Virtue Ethics
Reflect on the significance of VIRTUE THEORY
Understand how Virtue Ethics in honing one’s
character
Key Concepts of Virtue Ethics
The Function Theory (Telos)
Eudaimonia and Virtue
Virtue as Moderation
Virtue as Habit
Aristotle (384–322 BC)
was a scholar in disciplines such as ethics,
metaphysics, biology and botany, amongst others.
It is fitting, therefore, that his moral philosophy is
based around assessing the broad characters of
human beings rather than assessing singular acts
in isolation. Indeed, this is what separates
Aristotelian Virtue Ethics from both Utilitarianism
and Kantian Ethics.
The Function Theory (Telos)
Aristotle was a teleologist because he believed that
every object has what he referred to as a final
cause. The Greek term telos refers to what we
might call a purpose, goal, end or true final
function of an object.
Aristotle claims that “...for all things that have a
function or activity, the good and the ‘well’ is thought
to reside in the function”.
Aristotle’s claim is essentially that in achieving its
function, goal or end, an object achieves its own
good. Every object has this type of a true function
and so every object has a way of achieving
goodness.
The Function Theory (Telos)
Humans have an essence and we must adhere to
the function of being a human and develop it in the
process of being virtuous. Aristotle identifies what
the good for a human being is in virtue of working
out what the function of a human being is, as per
his Function Argument.
Function Argument
All objects have a telos.
An object is good when it properly secures its telos.
Given the above, Aristotle directs his thinking towards human
beings specifically.
The telos of a human being is to reason.
The good for a human being is, therefore, acting in
accordance with reason. The Function Theory
(Telos)
Virtue as Moderation
Aristotle refers to virtues as character traits or
psychological dispositions. Virtues are those
particular dispositions that are appropriately
related to the situation and, to link back to our
function, encourage actions that are in accordance
with reason.
For Aristotle, virtue is not a feeling itself but an
appropriate psychological disposition in response
to that feeling; the proper response. The correct
response to a feeling is described as acting on the
basis of the Golden Mean, a response that is
neither excessive nor deficient. The table below
makes it more apparent.
COURAGE
VIRTUE
Virtues are not feelings, but characteristic
dispositional responses that, when viewed
holistically, define our characters and who we
are. If we act in accordance with reason and fulfill
our function as human beings, our behavior will
generally reflect our virtuous personality traits and
dispositions.
To be virtuous will help you attain the pinnacle of
Humanity or attain Eudaimonia.
Ergo: Essence = Golden Mean = Eudaimonia
TRANS: MICHAEL GABRIEL JIMENEZ
Virtue as Habit
Cultivating a virtuous character is something that
happens by practice. Aristotle compares the
development of the skill of virtue to the development
of other skills. He says that “...men become builders
by building” and “... we become just by doing just
acts”. We might know that a brick must go into a
particular place but we are good builders only when
we know how to place that brick properly.
Building requires practical skill and not merely
intellectual knowledge and the same applies to
developing virtuous character traits. Ethical
characters are developed by practical learning
and habitual action and not merely by
intellectual teaching.
Eudaimonia and Virtue
Aristotle uses the Greek term eudaimonia to
capture the state that we experience if we fully
achieve a good life. According to Aristotle,
eudaimonia is the state that all humans should
aim for as it is the aim and end of human
existence. To reach this state, we must
ourselves act in accordance with reason.
Properly understanding what Aristotle means by
eudaimonia is crucial to understanding his Virtue
Ethical moral position.
Eudaimonia has been variously translated and no
perfect translation has yet been identified. While
all translations have their own issues,
eudaimonia understood as flourishing is
perhaps the most helpful translation and
improves upon a simple translation of happiness.
Eudaimonia and Virtue
Aristotle concludes that a life is eudaimon (adjective
of eudaimonia) when it involves “... the active
exercise of the mind in conformity with perfect
goodness or virtue”. Eudaimonia is secured not as
the result of exercising our physical or animalistic
qualities but as the result of the exercise of our
distinctly human rational and cognitive aspects.
According to Aristotle, virtues are character
dispositions or personality traits. Thus, Aristotelian
Virtue Ethics is about an individual's character
rather than following a set of rules. It is about
being rather than doing.
Videos
• Aristotle's Ancient Greek Virtue Ethics
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tE7yEJdUU7g
• Aristotle & Virtue Theory: Crash Course Philosophy #38
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PrvtOWEXDIQ
Readings
• Reading 7 Aristotelian Virtue Ethics
https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1wc7r6j.7