Private
Oral
Chris&Freeman&
Private&Oral&Review&
Title 14 Code of Federal Regulations (current regulations are found at ecfr.gov)
• Part 1: Definitions
• Part 23: Airworthiness Standards
• Part 43: Preventative Maintenance
• Part 61: Pilot Certification requirements, privileges/limitations
• Part 91: Flight Rules
Charts
• Sectional: revised semi-annually
• Terminal (TAC): revised semi-annually [used to navigate busy airspace]
Airport Facility Directory (A/FD)
o A/FD revised every 56 days (8 weeks)
o The table of contents for each issue is listed below:
• Abbreviations
• Legend, Airport/Facility Directory
• Airport/Facility Directory
• Heliports
• Seaplane Bases
• Notices
• FAA and National Weather Service Telephone Numbers
• Air Route Traffic Control Centers
• Flight Service Station Communication Frequencies
• FSDO Addresses/Telephone Numbers
• Preferred IFR Routes
• VOR Receiver Check
• Parachute Jumping Areas
• Aeronautical Chart Bulletin
• Tower Enroute Control (TEC)
• NWS Upper Air Observing Stations
• Enroute Flight Advisory Service (EFAS)
Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)
o Provides pilots with a vast amount of basic flight information and ATC procedures
o Revisions are made and published every 196 days by the FAA; FARs and AIM are
included together in the FAR/AIM which is printed by ASA and revised annually
Advisory Circulars [find list on faa.gov]
The FAA issues advisory circulars (ACs) to provide a systematic means for issuing nonregulatory material of interest to the aviation public
• They are used in order to:
• Provide a clearly understood method for complying with a regulation
• Resolve a general misunderstanding of a regulation.
• Help the industry and FAA effectively implement a regulation
• Expand on standards needed to promote aviation safety including the safe
operation of airports
Practical Test Standards (PTS)
• Outlines the areas of operation in which you will be tested during your practical test and
the standards for each
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Principles of Flight
Newton’s Laws:
1. An object will remain at rest unless acted on by an outside force
2. Force = Mass x Acceleration
3. For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
Bernoulli’s Principle:
• As velocity increases, pressure decreases
Four Forces&
• Lift [In simple terms, Lift = Pitch x Power]
•
•
•
Where:
L = Lift
CL = Coefficient of Lift [Angle of Attack]
ρ = Air Density
V = Velocity (of air over wing)
A = Surface Area
Weight [stems from CG: the point at which you could balance the airplane]
Thrust: accelerate mass of air rearward, equal and opposite force forward
Drag: Induced (decreases with airspeed) + Parasite (increases with airspeed)
• Parasite: resistance of air produced by part of the airplane
 Form: frontal area of airplane components
 Skin Friction: surface is rough
 Interference: intersection of wings
• Induced: rearward component of lift (greater AOA = more induced drag)
Angle of attack: The angle between the chord line and the relative wind
• Or the angle between pitch and the flight path
Angle of incidence: angle between the chord line and the longitudinal axis of airplane [fixed]
creates more thrust
pfactor downward moving propeller
bite of air
blade takes
Left-turning tendencies: [HIGH POWER, SLOW AIRSPEED, HIGH PITCH]
bigger
• P-Factor: greater AOA on downward blade [can be right tendency at negative AOA] than the upward moving blade
• Torque: Propeller turns clockwise; equal and opposite counter-clockwise [roll left]
• Gyroscopic precession: force applied to spinning object felt 90 degrees later [tailwheel]
• Spiraling slipstream: airflow around airplane strikes vertical stabilizer [yaws left]
:
a
.
Load Factor = lift / weight [G-Force] (increase in load factor leads to increase in stall speed)
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Privileges and Limitations (HSBCSSG) – 61.113
Not act as PIC for Hire
Pay at least pro-rata Share for operating expenses
May be PIC for Business (no pax/property)
May be PIC for a Charitable, nonprofit, or community event
Reimbursed for Search & Location (govt)
Aircraft Salesman demonstrate aircraft (200 hrs)
May tow Glider if meet 61.69
One-Time Endorsements (61.31) [Need each before flying aircraft with the following equip]
Complex Endorsement (retractable gear, flaps, and controllable-pitch propeller)
High-Performance Endorsement ( > 200 hp each engine)
High-Altitude Endorsement (Pressurized airplane)
Tailwheel Endorsement
Required Docs
Pilot – RPPM [If student solo; also need logbook w/ endorsements]
• Radio license (INTL)
• Pilot Cert
• Photo ID (govt)
• Medical
If lost: temp valid for 60 days – 61.29
Change of permanent address (notify FAA w/in 30 days) – 61.60
Medical Duration – 61.23
If you FAIL medical, may receive Statement of Demonstrated Ability (SODA) [more tests]
Under Age 40 [2nd class medical after 12 mo is still a 2nd class medical but w/ 3rd class privileges]
4-
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Chris&Freeman&
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Age 40 or Older
↳ years)
Airplane – AROW SPARROW
• Airworthiness (visible to pax)
o No expiration; all maintenance performed
• Registration (valid 36 cal mo. Unless FDTCC)
 Registered in Foreign country
Supplements:
 Destroyed
anything required by the
 Ownership Transferred
manufacturer to be in the plane
 Owner loses Citizenship
Placards
 Canceled by written request by owner
o Temp Registration [pink copy] (valid 90 days; no INTL)
• Operating Limitations/Placards (POH)
• Weight & Balance/Equip List (POH)
Pilot Operating Handbook (serial number specific); Pilot Information Manual (general)
Aircraft Inspections (AAVIATES) – 91.409, 411, 413, 207, 417
Owner/Operator must show compliance (91.417); PIC must determine if airworthy (91.7)
• Airworthiness Directives (urgent: immediate compliance/recurring: time frame)
• Annual (12 calendar mo) [A&P mechanic with Inspection Authorization]
o Can count as 100 hr
• VOR Check (30 days prior to IFR flight) [pilot checks]
• 100 hr (Hire only) [A&P mechanic]; Based on Tach time
o Can exceed by 10 hrs if going to place for inspection; Same due date
• Altimeter (24 calendar mo prior to IFR)
• Transponder (24 calendar mo)
• ELT (12 calendar mo) [can test during 5 min after top of the hr]
o Replaced/recharged if in use >1hr
o 50% of battery life expired
• Pitot-Static System (24 calendar mo prior to IFR)
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AD: legally enforceable rules
issued by the FAA to correct an
unsafe condition of a product
ex: aircraft engine, propeller.
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Recent Flight Experience – 61.57
(May take safety pilot with you [at least private])
To carry pax:
Day: 3 to/lnd w/in 90 days
• Same category/class/type (3 landings in multi; not current in single)
• Tailwheel: full stop
Night: 3 to/lnd w/in 90 days
• 1 hr after sunset to 1 hr before sunrise
• Same category/class/type
• All airplanes full stop
If not night current, must land by 1hr after sunset; can’t takeoff till 1hr before sunrise
NIGHT: The period between evening civil twilight to morning civil twilight [Navy Air Almanac]
Sunset to Sunrise: Position lights need to be on
Flight Review – 61.56
Every 24 calendar months in order to remain current
any authorized instructor may conduct; receive logbook endorsement
Minimum: 1 hr oral, 1 hr flight (applicable level to type of certificate)
If you don’t pass, fly again (does not mean FAIL)
Required Entries in Logbook
Must log:
• Training time for new certificate
• To show currency (flight review/to carry pax)
Instrument and Equipment Requirements – 91.205 (Red indicates NOT required for C172)
VFR Day (A-TOMATOE-FLAMES)
o Airspeed indicator
o Tachometer for each engine
o Oil pressure gauge for each engine using pressure system
o Magnetic compass
o Altimeter
o Temperature gauge for each liquid cooled engine
o Oil temperature gauge for each air-cooled engine
o Emergency locator transmitter, if required by 91.207
o Fuel gauge indicating the quantity in each tank
o Landing gear position indicator if retractable gear
o Anti-collision (beacon or strobe) lights after March 11, 1996
o Manifold pressure gauge for each altitude engine
o Emergency equipment if for hire beyond power-off gliding distance from shore (flotation
gear, pyrotechnic)
o Seat belts for all occupants 2 years or older (metal-metal) & approved shoulder harness
after July 18, 1978
VFR Night (FLAPS)
*Also need VFR day items
o Fuses (one spare set or 3 spares of each kind) [circuit breakers]
o Landing light (hire)
o Anti-collision lights (beacon or strobe)
o Position lights (nav)
o Source of electrical power adequate for all equipment including radios (Battery)
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Inoperative instruments & equipment – 91.213
With MEL (Minimum Equipment List) [list of equipment that CAN be inop]:
[ERAU does not have MEL’s; generally for large airplanes/operations]
To get MEL:
• Manufacturer sends list to FAA Flight Evaluation Board (FEB)
• FEB (if approved) sends to FSDO (Master MEL)
• Operator requests MMEL from FSDO, then makes changes
• Operator sends back to FSDO, who makes further changes or approves it
• If approved, sends back Letter of Authorization to Operator.
• Approved MEL + LOA = Supplemental Type Certificate
Equipment that can’t be included in a MEL:
– Equipment required for aircraft’s type certification and safe operation
– Equipment required by AD
– Equipment required by 91.205
If an inoperative item is included in an MEL, inop instrument may be deferred, placarded
inoperative, and flight may be conducted
Without MEL
Flight CAN be conducted if equipment is not required by:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Kinds of Operation Equipment List (KOEL) [PIM 2-12]
Comprehensive equipment list [PIM 6-17]
91.205
Airworthiness Directive
Inop equip is removed (maintenance)/deactivated [pull breaker] (placarded “inoperative”)
Pilot determines aircraft can still be operated safely
Inop equip found prior to flight:
• Cancel, obtain maintenance, or defer item with above process
In flight:
• Consult POH or discontinue the flight
Aircraft with inoperative required instrument or equipment may be operated under a special
flight permit
Special Flight Permits – 21.197 [Call FSDO] (MET-ECW)
Aircraft that do not meet airworthiness requirements but capable of safe flight, for the following
purposes:
• Flying aircraft to place for Maintenance
• Delivering or Exporting the aircraft.
• Production flight Tests
• Evacuating aircraft from areas of danger (hurricane)
• Customer demo flights
• Allow aircraft to operate overWeight for flight over water, or over land areas
where fuel is not available (ferry flights)
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Weather Information
Study ERAU Weather Information Sheet! [Available at flight line]
• Know Issue Times, Valid Times, Criteria
Reference Aviation Weather Services (AC 00-45G)
• Decodes every report
• Appendix in back explains all abbreviations
• Plotting chart for wx in appendix
Bring the following to checkride and be able to explain/read the following:
METAR (hourly observation at airport)
TAF (forecast w/in 5sm of airport)
FA (area forecast; area in between airports)
Surface analysis (fronts, pressures)
Radar summary (rain only; NOT clouds)
Winds/Temps aloft (FD)
Significant WX prognostic chart
Convective outlook chart
ATIS/AWOS/ASOS reports (in flight)
SIGMETs/Convective SIGMETs (What’s the difference?)
AIRMETs (3 types)
PIREPs (most accurate)
Windshear reports
Icing/Freezing level Chart
Determine go/no go decision (whenever in doubt NO GO!)
Sources of Weather
Official Briefing Outlets (Provides a transaction number)
• Flight Service Station (1-800-WXBRIEF) [MOST ACCURATE!!!]
• CSC DUATS (duats.com)
• DTC DUAT (duat.com)
• FOREFLIGHT
Types of Briefings
Standard: most detailed (used for flight planning)
Abbreviated: used to update a previous standard briefing
Outlook: used when departure is > 6 hrs away; follow-up standard brief advisable
Unofficial (NOT a briefing; use for charts/reports)
• Adds.gov/Aviationweather.gov (good for charts)
• TIBS (Recording; numbers in AFD)
• Weather.com
Inflight
• EFAS Flight Watch 122.0 (above 5000; 6am-10pm local)
• HIWAS (listen over a VOR/RCO)
• ATIS/AWOS/ASOS
• FIS-B through UAT receiver [ADS-B] (radar, METARs, etc)
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NOTAMs (Notice to Airmen) – obtained during official briefing
• Types: runway, aerodrome, obstruction, nav, communication, airspace, taxiway, service
NTAP (Notice to Airmen Publication): Updated every 28 days
• Published NOTAMs [once published, will not show in briefing]
FDC NOTAMs (Flight Data Center)
• Instrument Approach Changes
• TFRs
• Chart changes
WEF (When in Effect) Ex: 1401301200 [2014, Jan, 30, 1200z]
Preflight Action – 91.103 (WX-KRAFT)
PIC must be familiar with: (local flight/x-c flight)
WX: weather
Known ATC delays (info in briefing)
Runways lengths of intended use
Alternate airports (if needed)
Fuel Requirements
Takeoff & landing distance
*Weight & Balance not required but need to know weight to compute takeoff/land distances;
cannot operate aircraft outside of limitations [so it is implied]
Fuel Requirements – 91.151
Day: To Destination + 30 min
Night: To Destination + 45 min
*considering wx; at planned cruise power
Flight Rules (Part 91)
Authority of PIC - 91.3
• PIC may declare emergency and deviate from any rule (written report if requested by
FAA)
Careless/reckless operation – 91.13
• Endanger the life or property of another
Dropping objects – 91.15
• Can drop objects as long as does not cause harm to life/property on ground
Alcohol/Drugs – 91.17
• 8 hrs bottle to throttle (Riddle: 12 hrs)
• 0.04% BAC
• under the influence (hungover)
• any drug that affects normal faculties
• no passengers that appear to be intoxicated or drugs (unless medical patient)
Electronic Devices – 91.21
• Under IFR can only operate:
o Voice recorders
o Hearing aids
o Heart pacemakers
o Electric shavers
Seat Belts – 91.105
• Crewmember: takeoff/landing/en-route: seat belt; takeoff/landing: shoulder harness too
• Passenger: over 2 yrs old; must wear during takeoff/landing/movement on surface
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Right-Of-Way Rules – 91.113 (DBGTAH)
• Landing: right of way over aircraft on ground (if 2: lower has right of way)
• Overtaking: overtaken has right; pass on the right side
• Head on: both right
• Converging: Aircraft to the other’s right has the right of way.
1. Distress
2. Balloon
3. Glider
4. Aircraft Towing/refueling another
5. Aircraft
6. Helicopter
Aircraft Speed – 91.117
Also,
200 KIAS in
VFR corridor
250
KIAS
FAR$91'AIRSPEED'RESTRICTIONS'
10,000’MSL
&
4NM
B
2,500’
200 KIAS
&
&
&
200
200
kts
kts
&
C
&
D
Minimum Altitudes – 91.119
Min 2000’ AGL over
Wildlife/forest areas
Light Gun Signals – 91.125 (Loss of Communication: Refer to In Flight Guide)
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VFR Weather Minimums – 91.155
Special VFR – 91.157
Wx below VFR Minimums
can still takeoff/land if SVFR
Some airports “No SVFR”
Available below 10,000 MSL
VFR Cruising Altitudes – 91.159
Above 3000’ AGL
• East is “least” (odd)
• West is “best” (even)
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Aircraft Lights – 91.209
Anti-Collision (red [beacon] or white [strobe]): ON all times while operated (unless for safety)
Position lights (NAV): ON sunset to sunrise
Supplemental O2 – 91.211 (cabin pressure altitudes)
12,500 – 14,000 MSL: required crewmembers after 30 min
Above 14,000 MSL: required crew entire time
Above 15,000 MSL: each occupant provided
Above FL 250: 10-min supply for each occupant
Above FL 350: one pilot must wear mask unless below FL 410 with quick-donning mask
Above FL 350: if one pilot leaves the controls, the other must wear a mask
Transponder Use – 91.215 (sends pressure alt to ATC; facility corrects for current altimeter)
Above 10,000 ft MSL
Within Mode C Veil (surrounding Class B)
Within/Above Class C (NOT required if below Class C)
Flight across ADIZ
Mode A: gives ATC position
Mode C: gives ATC position w/ altitude
Mode S: same as Mode C + ADS-B capability
Mode B/D: Military
Codes: [IDENT: our ID tag flashes on ATC radar screen]
1200: VFR
1204: Pattern at KDAB
7500: Hijack
7600: Lost Comms
7700: Emergency
7777: Military Intercept Procedures
Aerobatic Flight – 91.303
Intentional maneuver involving abrupt change in attitude, not necessary for normal flight
Cannot operate:
• Over congested area, open air assembly, below 1500 ft, < 3sm visibility, within 4 nm of
federal airway, or within surface lateral boundaries of B, C, D, or E for an airport
Parachutes Required – 91.307 (except for spins in CFI course)
Bank > 60 degrees; pitch > 30 degrees (up/down)
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Airspace
Special Use Airspace (W-CRAMPN) [AIM 3-4]
Warning Areas (hazardous to non-participating aircraft; off the coast)
Controlled Firing Areas (not charted; lookout will stop ops if aircraft spotted; info in A/FD)
Restricted Airspace (info on sectional; CAN fly through if cold or ATC clearance)
Alert Areas (high volume of flight training)
Military Operating Areas (info on sectional; CAN fly through even if HOT; avoid if possible)
Prohibited Airspace (info on sectional; do NOT fly through)
National Security Area (info on sectional; CAN fly through unless prohibited by 99.7)
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Other Airspace (MTV-PAT) [AIM 3-5]
Military Training Route (on sectional [Ex: IR1206] IR: IFR, VR: VFR; 4 numbers: < 1500 AGL)
Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFR) (Published by FDC NOTAM; NEVER fly through)
VFR Routes (on TAC charts; navigate B airspace; VFR corridor is Class E tube through Class B)
Parachute Operations (on sectional & AFD; avoid overflying)
Airport Advisory (info in AFD; service provided when tower closed)
Terminal Radar Service Area (TRSA) (Approach control for Class D airports)
Weight & Balance
Weight x Arm = Moment; (Compute for every addition of weight; add to total)
• Arm: distance in inches fwd/aft of datum (+arm: aft; -arm: fwd)
• Datum: imaginary vertical line in which all measurements are made from (near firewall)
Start w/ Basic Empty Weight (BEW) & Moment [aircraft specific; found in POH] (Riddle: ETA)
• BEW includes unusable fuel, oil, etc
Reference chart for Arms at different stations [PIM 6-13] (Fuel arm in notes)
Fuel = 6 lb/gal
Emergency kit (Riddle: 10 lbs in Baggage Area 2)
Total Moment/Total Weight = CG
• CG: aircraft balance point
Subtract trip fuel to find weight & CG when landing
Compare Weights/CGs with chart [PIM 6-16]; GTW & GLW must remain w/in limits
Max Ramp weight: 2558 lbs
Max Takeoff weight: 2550 lbs (will burn 8 lbs during taxi)
Max Landing weight: 2550 lbs
Normal Category [Load limits +3.8 G’s, -1.52 G’s] (flaps up)
• Assume not recoverable from spin!
Utility Category [+4.4, -1.76] (flaps up)
• Used for spins and more abrupt maneuvers
• Part 23 certification rules: must be recoverable from spins
ZFW: zero fuel weight (everything on board except fuel)
GTW: gross takeoff weight
GLW: gross landing weight
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Performance [Know how to explain all performance charts in PIM]
Excessive Weight (Heavy) = Bad Performance
[more lift required; aircraft flies at higher AOA; more induced drag]
Takeoff speed
Takeoff roll
Rate of climb
Range (dist)
Stall speed
Approach speed
Landing roll
Endurance (time)
Va
Increases
Increases
Decreases
Decreases
Increases
Increases
Increases
Unchanged
Increases
Forward CG = Bad Performance
[more tail-down (nose-up) force required; aircraft flies at higher AOA; more induced drag]
Takeoff speed
Takeoff roll
Rate of climb
Range (dist)
Stall speed
Approach speed
Landing roll
Endurance (time)
Stall recovery
Increases
Increases
Decreases
Decreases
Increases
Increases
Increases
Unchanged
Better
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Vy: Best rate of climb (max alt in shortest time; ex: “expedite climb”)
Vx: Best angle of climb (max alt in shortest distance; ex: obstacle at end of runway)
Absolute Ceiling: Rate of climb not possible [where Vy & Vx meet]
Service Ceiling: 100 fpm rate of climb possible
Pressure: Weight of the air above you [higher pressure at sea level; lower on top of mountain]
• Std pressure: 29.92” Hg
• Pressure decreases 1” Hg/1000 ft
Pressure Altitude: Height above the standard datum plane (SDP)[Set 29.92” Hg]
• As pressure decreases, the SDP decreases; pressure altitude increases
• True altitude will decrease unless set current altimeter setting
To solve for Pressure altitude (PA):
[(Standard – Current) x 1000] + True Altitude = PA
[(29.92 – 29.82) x 1000] + 34 (KDAB) = PA
PA = 134 ft
If you set 29.82, altimeter will read 34 ft
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ExEw8Ckudf4 (Title: “Pressure Altitude” 9:52)
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High to Low, look out below!
Hot to Cold, Look Out Below!
Density Altitude (DA): PA corrected for outside air temperature
• STD OAT = 15 C (surface)
• STD lapse rate: - 2 C / 1000 ft
All performance charts solve for Density Altitude [PA + OAT = DA » Performance]
•
The altitude at which the airplane performs [high density altitude = bad performance]
As temperature increases, air density decreases; density altitude increases (bad performance)
As humidity increases, air density decreases; density altitude increases (bad performance)
DA = PA + 120 (OAT – STD) [remember to use temp at specific altitude: Winds Aloft]
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Systems [PIM Ch. 7]
Airframe
o Semi-Monocoque structure (Aluminum Alloy)
• Front/Rear spars, ribs, stringers, skin wrapped around
• Shares load while maintaining the integrity if the airframe is damaged
Wing
o Semi-monocoque
o The wings house integrated fuel tanks at inboard end of each wing
o Inboard half: rectangular wing
• Reduce cost, simple mass to produce. Stall at wing root first.
o Outboard half: tapered
• Reduce weight and drag because of smaller wing area; poor stall characteristics
o Wing modified with a wing twist [Washout]
• Angle of Incidence decreases from wing root to wing tip
• Ensures stall progresses from root to tip; aileron effectiveness
o Dihedral [lateral stability]
• Greater AOA on lowered wing
Cabin Doors
o Windows open up to 163 knots (Vne)
Baggage Compartment
o Divided into two sections
• Section A up to 120 lbs
• Section B up to 50 lbs
• Combined may not exceed 120 lbs
Flight Controls
Primary: ailerons, elevator, and rudder
Secondary: flaps and trim tabs [elevator + rudder]
Ailerons
o Cables and pulleys connected to a bell crank which operates push-pull rods
o Differential drag due to more lift on upward wing creates adverse yaw
o Differential
• Up more than down; corrects for adverse yaw
o Frise type characteristics
• Correct for adverse yaw by lowering the leading edge of the upward aileron into
the relative wind
o Surface is corrugated with ridges to increase structural strength
o 3 balance weights per aileron
Elevator
o Cables and pulleys that operate a bell crank that rotates the elevator surface
o Balance weight is fitted to prevent flutter at high airspeed
o Corrugated for structural strength
o Equipped with horn balance (assist the up and down movement)
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o
Incorporates a servo trim tab on the right side of elevator
• Full nose-up (wheel down) position, tab moves full down. The air flowing under
the horizontal tail surface hits the tab and forces the trailing edge of the elevator
up, increasing the elevator’s AOA, pitching the nose higher.
Rudder
o Cables and pulleys connected to the rudder pedals
o Ground adjustable trim corrects for spiraling slipstream
o Fitted with horn balance and balance weight
Balance Weight
o CG of control surface too far aft of hinge
• Can oscillate causing vibrations and structural failure at high speeds (flutter)
o Balance weights shift control surface CG forward toward hinge
Horn Balance
Extension of the control surface forward of the hinge to ease movements
• If the elevator is deflected downward, the horn balance moves upward creating a moment
with the relative wind that assists the elevator movement.
Flaps
o Single-slotted
• Delay boundary separation @ low speeds, high AOA
• Reduces induced drag
o Electrically driven by reversible DC motor in right wing
o Extended/Retracted symmetrically by pushrod in right wing connected to pushrod in left
wing by a cable
o Four pre-set flap positions: UP, 10, 20, FULL (30) [will go in between]
o Main bus must be powered to extend or retract, cannot function off standby batt
Static Wicks
Insulated pieces of metal connected to control surfaces to provide a clear path for the discharge of
static electricity back to the atmosphere. As the aircraft moves through the air, friction strips
electrons from the atmosphere and causes them to build up on the skin. Mostly encountered when
flying through precipitation or electrically charged cloud. Can cause interference of
communication and navigational systems
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o
o
Each control surface has two static wicks
One bonding strap to provide link from the aircraft structure
Landing Gear
o Main gear comprised of two tubular struts; flexibility helps with absorption
o Nosewheel fitted with an oleo pneumatic strut with a steering mechanism.
• Absorb shocks and dampen oscillations
• A combination of nitrogen and oil balances the movement of the strut
• Needs to be properly pressurized; should see 3 inches of inner strut
o Nosewheel also has shimmy damper which limits oscillations
• works the same way as oleo pneumatic strut
o Steering is actuated by push-pull rods and limited to 30 degrees
Brake System
Single disc brakes mounted on each main gear and hydraulically actuated
o Independent of each other for differential braking
o Pilot rudder pedals each compress cylinder [behind pedals] connected through hydraulic
line to each brake pad, compressing on the disc
o Copilot pedals push pilot pedals down
o Parking brake pulls pilot pedals down [traps hydraulic pressure]
o Symptoms of brake failure
• Gradual decrease in braking action
• Noisy or dragging brakes
• Soft or spongy pedals
• Excessive travel and weak braking action
o Solution:
• Let up on pedals, then apply heavily (restore hydraulic pressure)
Tires
o
o
o
o
Goodyear Flight Custom III pneumatic tires
Rubber tube protected by Kevlar belt [airworthy until see yellow chord]
Two treads prevent hydroplaning
• Hydroplaning Speed = 9 * √Tire Pressure
Red dot indicates lightest part of the tire and should be aligned with the inflation valve
for proper loading
Engine
The C172SP is equipped with a Lycoming IO-360-L2A engine with a dual magneto and
alternator system. 180 hp @ 2700 RPM
o IO-360: I- Fuel-Injected, O- Horizontally-Opposed, 360 cubic inch displacement
o Horizontally-opposed (Flat 4)
• cylinders on opposite sides of the crankshaft.
• More compact, aerodynamic advantage, air-cooled more efficiently
o Direct-drive
• Crankshaft directly converts the motion of the pistons into rotary motion
• No need for a reduction gearbox ⇒ reduces overall friction and noise
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o
Fuel-injection [no carburetor]
• Precisely meters fuel to each cylinder ⇒ increased performance/fuel economy
• Fuel vaporization takes place in the hot cylinder eliminating the hazard of icing
Air-cooled
• Cooling fins increase the surface area which helps with cooling
• Engine baffles redirect cool airflow below cylinders to prevent hot spots. Without
baffles, only top part of cylinders would cool.
• Prolonged flight at slow airspeeds and high power not recommended
 Climb: 75-85kts
Air Induction
o The air intake is located below the engine cowling
o Uses air filter to remove contaminants before flowing to the fuel/air control unit.
o If air intake became clogged
• Alternate air door would automatically open by suction
 10% power loss (Unfiltered)
Oil System
o Wet sump oil system (gravity fed back to the sump located under engine)
o Total capacity 9 quarts (20W-50: All temperatures PIM 8-15)
• 8 in the sump, 1 in the oil filter
o Minimum oil is 5 quarts (Riddle: 6, x-c: 7)
o Strainer
• Located inside sump; remove solid particles before pump
o Pump
• Toothed gears driven by crankshaft, pressurizes oil
o Bypass
• Cold oil ⇒ straight to filter
• Hot oil ⇒ oil cooler
o Oil Cooler
• Matrix that spreads out oil allowing it to be cooled
• Cooling dependant on airflow
o Filter
• Removes small contaminants
• If clogged
 Spring-loaded relief valve back to sump
o Then lubricates engine components before returning to sump
o Oil purpose
• Protect engine from friction (physical barrier between parts)
 Reduces heat, engine wear, corrosion
• Carries away heat and contaminants
o Break –in for new engine
• Seat the compression rings in cylinder walls
 Use mineral oil free of additives [ERAU maintenance has mineral oil]
• After 50 hrs
 Ashless dispersant oil containing metallic additives (clean engine)
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Magneto
o
o
o
o
Self-contained engine-driven generator producing high voltage for spark to ignite fuel/air
(engine must be running)
4 cylinders
• 2 spark plugs/cylinder fed by independent magnetos (redundancy)
• More complete burn ⇒ better performance
Impulse coupling [engine starting]
• Spring inside magneto winds up when engine rotates at low speeds
• When spring unwinds
 Spins rotating magnet at high speed generating a sudden high voltage for
spark plugs (engine start)
• Engine starts: centrifugal force inside magneto disengages impulse coupling
Turning ignition switch OFF grounds primary circuit (shuts off spark)
• If engine does not shut off
 Defective switch, loose ground ⇒ “hot” magneto
 Engine could start if propeller turned rapidly
Exhaust
Exhaust gas is directed through a muffler on the right side of cowling
o Reduces noise and directs exhaust gas away from aircraft
Starter
o
o
o
o
o
Master – ON
Ignition – START
• Closes circuit – energizes starter relay
• Current flows to starter motor
Electro-mechanical solenoid connects bendix gear to the engine flywheel
• Begins rotation [impulse coupling helps start]
Ignition – BOTH
• De-energizes starter relay
 Disconnects bendix gear from flywheel
Limitations
• 1st attempt: 10 sec on, 20 sec cooling
• 2nd attempt: 10 sec on, 20 sec cooling
• 3rd attempt: 10 sec on, 10 min cooling [then start over]
Propeller
McCauley two-bladed, fixed pitch, aluminum alloy, anodized to retard corrosion. 76 in diameter
Fuel System
The fuel system consists of two vented integral fuel tanks, a three-position fuel selector, auxiliary
fuel pump, fuel shutoff valve, fuel strainer, engine driven pump, fuel/air control unit, fuel
distribution valve, and fuel injection nozzles
o Total: 56 gallons, Usable: 53 gallons, Unusable: 3 gallons
o Tabs: 35 gallons
o Vents: Left wing, 2 fuel caps interconnected by fuel vent line
o Sumps: 13 total: 5 each wing, fuel selector, reservoir, and strainer
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o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Approved Aviation Grades: 100LL (blue) 100 (green); mixed (clear)
• Using too low an octane can result in uncontrolled firing.
 Detonation: uncontrolled firing of fuel/air mixture usually from hot spots
within the cylinder
 Pre-ignition: uncontrolled firing within the cylinder before the
compression cycle is reached
Low lead means that the fuel contains low levels of tetra-ethyl-lead and improves the
overhaul life of the engine by reducing valve and cylinder head deposits
Unusable fuel
• contaminants, water, which sink to the bottom
 water has higher specific gravity
Fuel indication [only reliable when empty]
• Electrical resistance sensors.
• Low resistance – full fuel
• High resistance – low fuel
• Low Fuel light at 5 +/- 1 gallons
• Ranges 0-24 gallons [per side], rest is unreadable
Fuel selector
• Left, right, or both
• Left and right only in cruise
Fuel reservoir (FAA: 1 tank per engine)
• Capacity – 1 gallon
• Floor of copilot seat
Fuel return line
• Prevents vapor lock (fuel vaporizes in lines)
Fuel shutoff valve
• Mechanical linkage in the event of an emergency
Fuel pumps
• Auxiliary fuel pump located under copilot floorboard [priming/redundancy]
• Engine-driven fuel pump
 Constant fuel supply from strainer to fuel/air control
Fuel/air control unit
• precisely meters the amount of fuel going into the engine based on the volume of
air going passed the throttle
• fuel control unit
 mechanically linked mixture control valve [amount of fuel]
Fuel distribution (spider)
• Located above engine
• Evenly distributes fuel to fuel injector nozzles (introduced for combustion)
Refueling
• Better at night (warmer temperatures expand fuel)
Electrical System [28V DC system; 2 batteries, 1 alternator (charges batts/powers all buses if
batts charged)]
o Main battery
• 24 volt, 12.75 amp per hour [-12.75 amps: last 1 hr; -25 amps: last 30 min]
 powers electrical ½, cross feed, and essential buses [avionics ½ if on]
 @ 20 volts standby takes over
 located in front of firewall on pilot side
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o
o
o
Standby battery
• 24-volt, 6.2 amp per hour lead acid battery
 powers only essential bus
 located behind PFD, cooled by fan
 last 30 mins if charged
 @ 20V shuts off
Six Busses [PIM 7-46]
• Electrical Bus ½
• Cross Feed Bus
• Essential Bus
 PFD
 ADC
 AHRS
 GEA
 Com 1
 Nav 1
 Stby lights
• Avionics Bus ½
Alternator Control Unit (ACU)
• Voltage regulator controls and maintains the output voltage of the alternator
constant not respective to RPM like a generator.
• If the voltage from alternator spikes above 31.75 V, the ACU will automatically
disengage the alternator field, then relying on batt.
External Power is located on left side of engine cowling through door
Vacuum System [standby attitude indicator] (gyro relies on rigidity in space)
• Engine driven pump
• Regulator to provide constant pressure
Environmental System
Ventilation
o Air intakes on the leading edge of each wing for front and rear ventilation
o A vent door on right side of engine cowling can be opened to mix cooler air with warm
Heater
o Air is routed under engine to the hot muffler shroud and then fed to the floor vents
'
Safety Equipment
o Stall warning independent of electrical system
• Low pressure on top of the wing moves forward (suction)
o Seatbelts/Airbags
• Two front seats have integrated airbags in the lap belt.
• Crash sensors located underneath the fire extinguisher designed to deploy if it
senses certain G forces
o Fire Extinguisher
• Halon 5BC
• Spray from 5 ft away
• Helps to prevent Class B/C fires
• A: Ash, B: Bottle, C: Circuit
o ELT [may turn ELT on to test during first 5 min of the hour; max of 3 cycles]
• When activated [turn on/crash sensor], distress frequency is announced on 121.5
• New 406Mhz system EPIRB (uses GPS derived location)
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G1000 [Refer to G1000 systems and failures power point on Blackboard]
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The Garmin G1000 system incorporates the following line-replaceable units (LRU’s):
• GDU: Display Unit
• GMA: Audio Panel
• GDC: Air Data Computer
• GRS: Attitude Heading Reference System
• GIA: Integrated Avionics Unit
• GMU: Magnetometer
• GTX: Transponder
• GEA: Engine/Airframe Unit
• GDL: Data Link
Mag Compass
Filled with kerosene which won’t freeze at high altitude like water
• Acceleration errors (east/west heading)
o ANDS: accelerate north, decelerate south
• Dip errors
o UNOS: undershoot north, overshoot south
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Pitot-Static [airspeed, altimeter, vertical speed indicator]
• Three sources: Pitot tube + static source + alternate static source
• Airspeed Indicator: Dynamic pressure (pitot) – Static pressure (static) = airspeed
o Dynamic pressure enters diaphragm expands/contracts against static pressure
o Types of airspeed (ICE-T)
 Indicated: read on instrument
 Calibrated: IAS corrected for installation errors
 Equivalent CAS corrected for compressibility at high speeds (blood clot)
 True: CAS corrected for non-standard temp
• Altimeter: aneroid wafer (sealed) expands/contracts with decrease/increase in static press.
o Types of altitude (ITA-PD)
 Indicated: read on instrument
 True: MSL
 Absolute: AGL
 Pressure: height above SDP
 Density: Pressure alt corrected for non-standard temp (performance)
• VSI: measures differential pressure [trend of pressure = climb/descent]
o Current static press enters diaphragm; old static press enters case (calibrated
leak)
Pitot-Static Blockages
• Pitot tube only = airspeed “0”
• Pitot tube + drain hole = airspeed as altimeter
• Static source
o Airspeed: climb: lower than normal, descend: higher than normal
o Altimeter: freeze
o VSI: “0”
• Alternate static (lower pressure inside cabin)
o Airspeed: higher
o Altitude: higher
o VSI: momentary climb
Icing Design Features
• Pitot-Heat
• Windshield Defroster [turn on cabin HT then open vents on top of glareshield]
• Alternate Air door
• Fuel vent behind wing strut
• Alternate static source
• Fuel additives
VOR Navigation [3 classes: AIM 1-1-8]
• Tune frequency and listen to morse code [push ID button then Nav 1 or 2 on GMA]
• Push the CDI button on PFD to cycle through NAV sources [GPS, NAV 1, NAV 2]
• Use course knob to select desired radial or course-to [push CRS for direct-to VOR]
• Turn to intercept heading and track the CDI
• Station passage: TO/FROM flag flip
• Cone of confusion: within 1 mile, the CDI becomes very sensitive (do NOT chase!)
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Global Positioning System
The GPS is a satellite-based radio navigation system, which broadcasts a signal that is used by
receivers to determine precise position anywhere in the world. The receiver tracks multiple
satellites and determines a measurement that is then used to determine the user location.
GPS Components
The GPS consists of three distinct functional elements: space, control, and user.
o Space – consists of over 30 Navstar satellites called a constellation.
• The satellites are in six orbital planes (four in each plane) 11,000 miles above the
Earth
• The DOD guarantees at least 5 satellites are in view at all times.
o Control – consists of a network of ground-based GPS monitoring and control stations
that ensure the accuracy of satellite positions.
o User – consists of antennas and receiver/processors on board the aircraft that provide
positioning, velocity, and precise timing to the user.
• By knowing the precise location of each satellite and precisely matching timing
with the atomic clocks on the satellites, the aircraft receiver can accurately
measure the time each signal takes to arrive at the receiver (186,000 mi/s) and,
therefore, determine the aircraft position. [Pseudoranging: D = R x T]
GPS Operation (If baro-aiding equipment, satellites required are lessened by 1)
o 3 satellites – 2D position [Triangulation]
o 4 satellites – 3D position (altitude)
o 5 satellites – RAIM capability
o 6 or more – extra satellites [still used to enhance position accuracy]
Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)
Improves the accuracy, integrity, and availability of GPS signals. WAAS allows GPS to be used,
as the aviation navigation system, from enroute to instrument approaches.
o Satellites relay data to aircraft and ground stations
o Ground stations send data to Master station which computes correction message
o Master station sends correction message to ground uplink station (GUS), which sends to
Geostationary satellites (GEO)
o Geostationary satellites send error correction to aircraft receiver. Our receivers enhance
position based on error message.
Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM)
o Receiver checks integrity of satellite.
o Excludes satellite if signal is corrupt.
o Can compute RAIM at location (+/- 15 min) on GPS Status page
G1000 Satellite Indications
o # 1 on satellite bar = geostationary satellite (GEO)
o Letter D on satellite bar indicates differential navigation (WAAS)
o Green sat bars = using satellites, blue = standby sats, black bars = not available
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Vspeeds (KIAS) [PIM Ch. 2]
Vs0: (stall flaps down):
40 [start of white arc]
Vs1: (stall flaps up):
48 [start of green arc]
Vx: (best angle of climb): 62
Vy: (best rate of climb):
74
Vfe (flap extension):
[end of white arc]
• 10:
110
• 20-30:
85
Va (maneuvering speed): No abrupt maneuvers above
• 1900 lbs:
90
• 2550 lbs:
105
Vno (max struct. Cruising): 129 [start of yellow arc]
Vne (never exceed):
163 [red line]
Limitations [See Weight & Balance for max weights] (PIM Ch. 2)
•
Takeoff/Landing
o Fuel selector must be both
o Cabin power 12V must be off
o Aux Audio Input must be off
•
•
Flight into known icing prohibited (Use freezing level/AIRMETs)
Icing = 0 C + visible moisture [may occur as high as 10 C]
•
G1000 map/traffic/terrain must NOT be primary means of pilotage/navigation/collision
avoidance/CFIT avoidance
Aeromedical
Hypoxia – inability to intake, transport or utilize O2 by the body
Hypoxic – cannot intake due to reduced pressure
Hypemic – cannot transfer O2
o poor hemoglobin, blood disease, smoking, CO
Histotoxic– cannot utilize O2. “Toxic” = Poisonous.
o Causes: alcohol, narcotics, and poisons. 1oz. of alcohol = 2,000 ft alt.
Stagnant – pooling of blood away from brain. Ex: Arm asleep.
o Causes: Sitting, inactivity, shock, g-forces, extreme cold
Symptoms: Tunnel vision, euphoria, cyanosis (blue lips/fingertips), incapacitation
Corrective Action: Descend or put on oxygen (100% aviation grade; not medical)
Hyperventilation
o Low CO2 levels causes brain’s blood vessels and capillaries to constrict
o Reduced blood flow = lack of O2 to brain
Symptoms: lightheaded, slurred speech, unconscious
Corrective Action: Talk, sing, breathe in bag
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Trapped Gas (pressure decreases, volume increases) [descend/climb slowly]
• Middle Ear
• Intestines
• Tooth
Corrective Action: Level off, yawn, swallow, equalize pressure, move around, pass gas
Vision
• Cones: color vision; center of the eye
• Rods: dim light
o Night blind spot in center of eye (look around object)
o Lack of oxygen can greatly affect night vision [fly lower at night]
• Empty-field myopia: eyes get lazy (focus 5-10 ft in front)
Spatial Disorientation (when the following systems do not agree)
• Vestibular – inner ear
• Somatosensory – nerves in skin “seat of the pants”
• Visual – eyes
Illusions (always rely on instruments)
• Leans: prolonged turn; when return to level (feel like turn in opposite direction)
• Coriolis: abrupt head movement (feels like movement in entirely different axis)
• Graveyard spin: spin in one direction; recover (feels like spin in opposite); re-enter spin
• Graveyard spiral: steep descending turn; pilot notices descent, pitches up; tightens turn
• Somatogravic: rapid acceleration: (feels like tumbling backward)
• Inversion: change from climb to level (tumbling backward)
Night
• False Horizon: Ex: row of lights on ground looks like horizon
• Autokinesis: static light will appear to move
Optical Illusions
• Narrow runway: lower approach (illusion of being high)
• Upsloping runway: lower approach (illusion of being high)
• Featureless terrain (black hole approach): lower approach (illusion of being high)
• Clear day: higher approach (illusion of being closer than actual)
Motion Sickness
• Brain receives conflicting messages (anxiety/stress contribute)
• Corrective Action: focus on horizon, open air vents, slow down, straight & level flight
Carbon Monoxide (CO) Poisoning
• Attaches to hemoglobin (cannot transfer 02) [hypemic hypoxia]
• Source is usually exhaust gas most likely from aircraft heater
• Corrective Action: shut off cabin HT, open windows, put on oxygen if avail
Fatigue/Stress
• Acute: short term; get a good night sleep
• Chronic: long term; seek a physician for help
Dehydration
• Headache, dizziness, fatigue
• Drink 2-4 qts in 24 hrs
• Avoid coffee, tea, alcohol
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Alcohol
• Timing disruption, narrows the perceptual field
• Histotoxic Hypoxia
• Body needs 3 hrs to rid itself of 1 drink
Drugs
• Avoid antihistamines (drowsy)
• Reference leftseat.com or consult AME for advice with prescriptions
Decompression Sickness (DCS) or Bends [Scuba Diving] [AIM]
• Nitrogen dissolves in tissues when body is under high pressure while diving
• Flying reduces pressure; nitrogen bubbles settle in joints/brain (can cause death)
• Recommended waiting times:
o Up to 8000 ft: 12 hrs if decompression stop NOT required; 24 hrs (if required)
o Above 8000 ft: 24 hrs
IMSAFE: Illness, Medications, Stress, Alcohol, Fatigue, Eating
Single-Pilot Resource Management (SRM)
The art and science of managing all resources (on-board and external) available to the single-pilot
prior to and during flight to ensure the successful outcome of the flight.
Focuses On:
1. Risk Management
2. Task management
3. Aeronautical Decision Making
4. Situational Awareness
5. Automation management
6. CFIT Awareness (Controlled Flight Into Terrain)
Risk Management
5 P’s:
• Plan (PAVE) [see pg 31]
• Plane (AAV1ATES) [see pg 4]
• Pilot (IMSAFE) [see above]
• Passengers (SAFEST)
o Brief seatbelts, air vents, fire extinguisher, exits, safety equip, traffic watch
• Programming (AIR)
o Autopilot, Instruments, Radios
The 5 P’s should be completed at “Decision Points” (Preflight, Takeoff, Hourly, Descent)
Assess the risk; likelihood vs. severity
• Risk assessment matrix (Riddle)
Hazardous Attitudes
• Resignation: What’s the use? Forget it I give up!
• Anti-Authority: Why should I listen to you?
• Impulsivity: Do it quickly!
• Invulnerability: It won’t happen to me!
• Macho: Come on! I can do this!
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Task Management
1. Aviate
2. Navigate
3. Communicate
Emergency, Abnormal, etc.
Aeronautical Decision Making – Systematic approach to the mental process of evaluating a
given set of circumstances and determining the best course of action.
• 3 P: Perceive, Process, Perform
• DECIDE: Detect, Estimate, Choose, Identify, Do, Evaluate
Situational Awareness – The understanding of flight factors that affect (or could affect) the
pilot/crew and aircraft at any given time
• PAVE: Pilot, Aircraft, enVironment, External Pressures
Automation Management
• Know the system
• Pre-program
• Fly the airplane
• Sterile Cockpit
• Do NOT become complacent
CFIT occurs when an airworthy aircraft is flown into terrain (water or obstacles) with inadequate
awareness of the impending collision.
• Preflight planning [look at Maximum Elevation Figures on sectional]
• Maintain situational awareness
• Fly the airplane
Cross-Country Flight Planning
1. Create Skeleton (from on-course fix)
2. Weather/NOTAMs
3. Select Altitude (Determine TOC & TOD)
4. Determine cruise performance
5. Input winds (Determine WCA, GS, ETE, Fuel Burned)
6. Totals (complete flight plan) [compute fuel on board]
7. Restart at step 3 for next leg
Descent Planning
3 degree glide slope = 318 ft/nm (approx 300 ft/nm) In order to maintain, follow simple tricks
Cruising at 6500 ft: when should we begin descent for traffic pattern?
• Find altitude to lose and multiply by 3; add 5 nm for buffer
• 6500 – 1000 = 5500 ft to lose; 5.5 x 3 = 16.5 nm + 5 = 22nm
Start descent 22 nm prior to airport; How fast do we descent?
• (Groundspeed / 2) x 10
• 110 / 2 = 55 x 10 = - 550 fpm
Diversion
• Follow diversion on nav log (watch for airspace)
• Then communicate (ATC + FSS + Eagle Ops)
• 120 kts (GS) = 2 nm / min [Distance / 2] = ETE approx
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Lost Procedures (5 C’s) [Use VORs/visuals/retrace steps]
• Confess (I’m lost) [earlier the better before way off track]
• Climb
• Circle
• Conserve fuel
• Communicate
Wake Turbulence Avoidance [AIM 7-3]
Generated by wingtip vortices or induced drag
• Stay above other aircraft’s path [touchdown point = puff of white smoke]
• Worst when HEAVY, CLEAN, SLOW [requires a higher AOA = greater wake]
• Light quartering tailwind will keep wake over the runway
ATC Separation Standards [Riddle always waits 3 minutes regardless of type/location]
• Departing behind Heavy or 757 from same threshold: 2 minutes
• Departing behind Heavy or 757 from an intersection on same runway: 3 minutes
• Landing behind Heavy: 6 miles
• Landing behind 757:
5 miles
• Landing behind Large: 4 miles
• (Heavy > 300,000 lbs; Large > 41,000 lbs)
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Stall/Spin Awareness
Stall: wing exceeds the critical AOA [approx 16 degrees]
Spin: one wing stalled more than other; 2 conditions MUST occur:
1. Stall
2. Uncoordinated
4 phases of a spin:
1. Entry (pilot provides inputs that lead to spin)
2. Incipient (2-3 turns)
3. Developed (look at turn coordinator)
4. Recovery [PARE]
• Power – IDLE
• Aileron – NEUTRAL
• Rudder – FULL OPPOSITE
• Elevator – PITCH DOWN
*Most common on base-to-final turn when pilot overshoots runway
Traffic Pattern
1. Find Airport
2. ATIS/AWOS/ASOS
3. Call Tower/Request Airport Advisory (if uncontrolled) [10-15 miles out]
4. Approach Briefing/Descent Checklist
To enter:
• Towered: Enter as assigned
• Uncontrolled: Always enter on the 45 (left unless otherwise noted right) [report all legs]
To depart:
• Towered: depart as assigned
• Uncontrolled: climb straight out or straight out until TPA then 45 in pattern direction
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Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO): intersecting runway, taxiway, or other
• PIC should only accept if aircraft can stop within available landing distance (ALD
published in special notices in A/FD)
• Once accepted, must be adhered to unless amended
• If rejected landing necessary, PIC should maintain safe separation, notify ATC
• Normally only issued in VFR weather
• Student Pilots on Solos May Not Accept a LAHSO Clearance!
Pilot Control of Lighting (AIM 2-1-9)
Tower controls lights when open
Lights will remain on for 15 min
• Turn on when close
Set highest intensity first; then lower
Check A/FD for limitations
Airport Beacon (AIM 2-1-10)
Operates sunset to sunrise or during IFR conditions
High Altitude Operations
100% Aviation grade oxygen [not medical which has water vapor which will freeze at high alt]
Types of masks:
• Cannula: for use up to FL180; tube under nose; usually have flow meter
• Diluter-demand: use up to FL400; mixes ambient/oxygen to provide 100% through mask
• Pressure-demand: use above FL400; supplies oxygen under pressure
• Continuous-Flow: usually for passengers; reservoir bag collects oxygen
NTSB PART 830
Aircraft incident:
• an occurrence other than an accident associated with the operation of an aircraft, which
affects of could affect the safety of operations
Aircraft accident:
• an occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft, which takes place between the
time any person boards the aircraft with the intention of flight and all such persons have
disembarked and in which any person suffers death or serious injury, or in which the
aircraft receives substantial damage.
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Serious injury:
• requires hospitalization for > 48 hrs within 7 days from date of injury
• fractures of any bone (except fingers, toes, nose, etc)
• severe hemorrhages, nerve, muscle, or tendon damage
• involves any internal organ
• 2nd or 3rd degree burns on > 5% of the body
Substantial damage:
• damage or failure which adversely affects the structural strength, performance, or flight
characteristics and would require major repair or replacement of affected component
• engine failure or damage
NOT substantial damage:
• bent fairings or cowling
• dented skin
• small punctured holes in skin/fabric
• ground damage to propeller blades
• damage to landing gear, wheels, tires, flaps, engine accessories, brakes, or wing tips
NTSB report must be filed:
• within 10 days after an accident
• an overdue aircraft is still missing after 7 days
• report on an “incident” only if requested by NTSB representative
Immediate notification to NTSB required if:
• flight control system malfunction
• crewmember unable to perform normal duties
• turbine engine failure of structural components
• inflight fire
• midair collision
• property damage exceeding $25,000
• overdue aircraft (believed to be in an accident)
Part 43: Preventative Maintenance
[Refer to AC 43-12A or AOPA’s Guide to Preventative Maint]
• Simple or minor preservation operations and the replacement of small standard parts not
involving “complex” assembly operations
o Ex: Oil changes, wheel bearing lubrication, hydraulic fluid refills, etc
• Must be at least private pilot and perform on the airplane owned by that person
o Must be following maintenance manuals from manufacturer
• Aircraft must not be used for commercial service
• Records: (in maintenance records/logbooks)
o A description of the work performed
o Date of completion
o Certificate number/type held by pilot
Runway Incursion Avoidance [Appendix 1 of PHAK]
Any unauthorized entry onto a runway regardless of whether or not it presents a collision hazard
• Write down taxi instructions; brief before beginning movement [BRIEF HOT SPOTS!]
• “Cleared to Cross Runway 7L”
• If confused while taxiing, STOP!
• At night, turn on all lights when crossing runway
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Tips for Checkride:
Documents you need: (first 10 min of checkride is spent reviewing paperwork)
Logbook
Medical/Student pilot cert
Photo ID
Packet that you will pick up from Marisha
Current sectional chart/A/FD
Plotter/flight computer/equipment
Filled out navigation log
You will receive a cross-country flight plan when we submit your availability.
Get there early and do a good job with your cross-country flight plan. (This can really set the tone
for your checkride!)
Most of the questions will be scenario-based regarding the flight you have planned for the activity
start time. What if your passenger has blue lips? What if your standby altimeter indicator light is
burned out. Can we still go?, why did you choose this altitude? Are we okay on fuel? Do we have
a forward/aft CG? Which one is better? Etc.
Based on weight & balance you may not be able to take full fuel and you may not be able to make
it to your destination airport. In that case you will plan to your first fuel stop.
• If you are able to make it with 30 min reserve fuel, are you really comfortable with just
30 min leftover??? You can have your own personal minimums (use your judgment and
not only the regulations).
Bring all weather listed in PTS to support your decisions (route, altitude, runway in use, etc);
know all valid times and how to read.
You will be asked about symbology on the sectional chart/A/FD (Know it! Use legend if have to)
The examiner will want a go/no go decision on your flight plan. If you have any doubt based on
weather then NO GO! (they cannot fault you for making a safer decision)
When stumped on a question, know where to find the answer and bring ALL
handbooks/FAR/AIM/PIM, etc although you should not be reliant on this material.
• You should have the chapters marked with a post-it so it will be easy to find.
You will not know every question and that is OKAY! Do not guess and say “I would have to look
that up”
• Write it down on a piece of paper to show them that you care to find the answer
When being asked a broad question like “describe our engine,” respond thoroughly but do NOT
talk yourself into trouble “We have a Lycoming IO-360-L2A engine. It’s direct-drive, air-cooled,
horizontally opposed, and fuel injected. ” Let the examiner follow up with any further questions.
Make sure that you do know the “terms” like “horizontally opposed” and not just “cylinders are
on both sides”
GOOD LUCK!!!
37&