THE TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE
1.0 Nature
1.1: This was the traffic flow between North Africa and West Africa through the Sahara Desert.
1.2: In practical terms, it involved trade contacts between North Africans and the populations of
the Sudanese states, who in turn related with their counterparts in the forest zone.
1.3: The trans-Saharan trade existed well before the birth of Christ, but it received an added fillip
from about the first century AD with the camel (“ship of the desert”) as the principal transport
animal.
1.4: Until about the eighth century, the control of the trans-Saharan trade was in the hands of the
desert Berbers. But the initiative was taken over by the Muslim population of the North African
states following the establishment of Islam there from the eighth century.
2.0 Routes
2.1: The trans-Saharan trade was carried on along a complex network of routes. However, our
area's routes may be broadly grouped into three branches.
2.2: Westerly branch: Linked Morocco with the region of the Senegal River and the upper reaches
of the Niger River.
2.3: Central branch: Linked Algeria with the commercial centres on the middle reaches of the
Niger.
2.4: Easterly branch: Linked Tunisia and Tripoli with Hausaland and Kanem-Borno in the Lake
Chad area.
3.0 Commodities
3.1: The commodities traded can be divided into two categories. First, there were state necessities
such as gold and slaves sent north; and salt, horses and weapons, which went south.
3.2: The other category of items were luxury goods, and they included expensive cloth, pepper,
ivory, kola nuts, and leather goods.
3.3: Gold was obtained from the forest belt. There were four major goldfields: Bambuhu (Bambuk)
in the regions of the Upper Senegal (Eastern Senegal/Western Mali); Bure in the Upper Niger
(Guinea); Lobi in the Upper Volta (southwestern Burkina Faso); and the Akan forests (modern
Ghana) south of the Volta River.
3.4: Salt was mined in the Sahara regions, where there were large deposits of hard rock salt. These
were quarried for export. The major salt-producing centres were Teghazza (Northern Mali),
Taodeni (northern Mali), Idjil (Central Mauritania) and Bilma (Northeast Niger).
4.0 Significance
4.1: The trans-Saharan trade was important in the rise and growth of the Sudanese states.
4.2: In their heyday, the cities of Kumbi Saleh, Jenne, Timbuktu, and Gao emerged as the emporia
for the import and export trade.
4.3: In the Central Sudan, Kanem-Borno and the Hausa states emerged as important termini of the
trans-Saharan trade.
4.4: The trans-Saharan trade was an important medium in the diffusion of North African cultural
influence, especially Islam, in the Sudanese states.
GHANA
1.0 Growth
1.1: The Soninke constituted the principal group in the empire of Ghana. At the height of its power
in the eleventh century, the empire extended over parts of the present-day Republics of Senegal,
Mauritania, and Mali.
1.2: Little is known concerning the earliest period of the history of Ghana. Available evidence
suggests that Ghana was already founded by the end of the fourth century.
1.3: By the eighth century, when Arab traders first visited Ghana, it had emerged as a powerful
state in the Western Sudan. In the next two centuries, Ghana developed into a vibrant empire.
1.4: The development of Ghana into a powerful empire is most closely associated with its
progressive involvement in the trans-Saharan trade.
2. 0 Administration
2.1: The king of Ghana was highly revered by his subjects. People could only approach the king by
prostrating full-length with their heads covered in dust. No one could sneeze in the presence of the king.
Only the king and his crown prince wore sewn clothing, others draped unstitched wears. On his demise, the
king was buried with his attendants and a sizeable portion of his property in the belief that he would continue
to live a royal life in the world beyond.
2.2: He publicly dispensed justice and assisted in administration by a Council of Ministers. At the
height of Ghana’s power in the eleventh century, the king’s government had come to include also
Muslim Arab traders who acted as interpreters, scribes, and treasurers.
2.3: For provincial administration, the local rulers and those of the vassal states ruled their subjects.
To secure and guarantee the loyalty of vassal rulers, they were required to send their sons to the
king’s court as hostages. The king also exacted tributes from his vassal rulers.
2.4: For the defence of the state and imperial expansion, the king of Ghana could muster a
considerable number of warriors.
3.0 The Almoravids
3.1: The ascendant position of Ghana in the Western Sudan was marked by its conquest and seizure
of the commercial town of Awdaghust (Southern Mauritania) in 992, which it wrested from the
Sanhaja Berbers.
3.2: Ghana’s troubles started with the formation of the Almoravids, a militant Muslim movement
that arose from among the Sanhaja Berbers of Western Sahara composed of three main branches:
Lamtuna, Juddala, Mussufa. The Sanhaja had converted to Islam since the first half of the eighth
century.
3.3: In 1039, the leader of the Juddala tribe called Yahya ibn Ibrahim arrived from a pilgrimage to
Mecca with a Berber Islamic preacher named Abdullah ibn Yasin. The Juddala leader had returned
with the preacher to enhance the quality of Islamic practice among his people.
3.4: Ibn Yasin’s views were considered too puritanical, and so when in 1041ibn Ibrahim died, the
Juddala expelled ibn Yasin from their society.
3.5: Ibn Yasin withdrew into seclusion but succeeded in drawing along with him a sizeable body
of followers from among the Lamtuna. In 1042, he came out of his hideout with a resolve to
prosecute a Jihad among the Sahanja tribes. His followers were called al-murabitun, corrupted in
European languages as Almoravids. By 1053, he had succeeded through force and persuasion in
winning all the Sanhaja sub-groups to his movement.
3.6: In 1054, the Almoravids moved against and captured Sijilmasa (in Morocco). Sijilmasa, a
northern terminus of the trans-Saharan trade routes, was controlled by the expanding Zenata
Berbers, who were the enemies of the Sahanja. In the same year (1054), the Almoravids regained
Awdaghust from Ghana
3.7: Ibn Yasin was killed in battle in 1059 and was succeeded by Abu Bakr ibn Umar as the head
of the Almoravids. The Almoravids engaged Ghana in several skirmishes until they conquered it
in 1076 and forced many citizens to adopt Islam. Abu Bakr died in 1087, and thereafter the
Almoravid movement collapsed in the Western Sudan. His supporters held on to the conquest in
Morocco, from where they took Spain also till 1147.
4.0 The Decline of Ghana
4.1: Ghana immediately regained its independence, but irreparable damage had been done to its
power and prestige.
4.2: The years under Almoravid rule had weakened Ghana’s links with the people she had
controlled, and her authority over them was lost in some of the former provinces. Some people
split off and became separate kingdoms. Among those who established a new and separate
kingdom were the Soso, a Soninke subgroup.
4.3: Ghana was finally eclipsed when in 1203, Sumanguru Kante of the Soso inflicted a crushing
defeat on Ghana.
4.4: Sumanguru’s ascendancy was cut short by the emergent state of Mali, which by 1240 had
established control over the territories of the Soso and Ghana.
THE MALI EMPIRE
1.0 Establishment
1.1 The empire of Mali rose from among the Mandinka, who refer to their territory as Manding.
They are also popularly known as the Malinke, while Mali is used for the name of their territory.
1.2 The Malinke had been organised into several chiefdoms by the beginning of the thirteenth
century. Kangaba was the most dominant of the chiefdoms.
1.3 In 1224, Sumanguru Kante of the Soso Kingdom brought the Malinke under his political sway.
1.4 In about 1230, a Kangaba prince called Sundiata returned from exile and succeeded in uniting
all the Malinke chiefdoms under his leadership. At the head of this united force, he defeated
Sumanguru in 1235 at the Battle of Kirina.
1.5 Sundiata thereafter established his authority over the Soso territory and began building a new
state from among the Malinke. The city of Niani was established as the capital.
2.0 Growth
2.1 By 1255, when he died, Sundiata had already laid the foundations for transforming his new
state into an empire.
2.2 Sundiata was succeeded by his son Mansa Ulli (1255-70), during whose reign Mali
experienced further expansion. Important commercial centres such as Walata, Timbuktu, and Gao
were incorporated into the empire.
2.3 However, the momentum was halted under the reigns of the next three rulers in the period
between 1270 and 1285.
2.4 In 1285, a high official of the state called Sakura usurped the throne. By the time he died in
1300, Sakura had relaunched Mail on the path of greatness.
3.0 Zenith
3.1 It was during Mansa Musa's reign (1312-37), Mali attained the peak of its power and prosperity.
3.2 He maintained an administrative machinery designed to ensure good governance.
3.3 Trade and commerce expanded as the various trade routes and centres were made safe by the
security agents of the state.
3.4 The power of Mali under Mansa Musa was complemented by promoting Islam and links with
the Muslim world. In 1324 Mansa Musa embarked on a pilgrimage to Mecca via Egypt.
3.5 He created such an impression of prosperity in the course of the pilgrimage that Mali was to
appear on two world maps prepared by Europeans later in the fourteenth century.
3.6 Mansa Musa was succeeded by his son Muhammad who reigned for four years. Suleyman, a
brother to Mansa Musa, ruled afterwards. The power of Mali was maintained under the reign of
Suleyman (1341–1360).
4.0 Decline
4.1 Between Suleyman’s death in 1360 and 1400, there were as many as six rulers. The period was
characterised mainly by dynastic wrangling and coups d'état.
4.2 The deterioration continued during the fifteen century. In about 1420, the ruler of the rising
state of Songhai carried war into Niani; simultaneously, Mali’s control over Timbuktu was
threatened by attacks from the Mossi in the south and the Tuaregs in the north. The Tuaregs
eventually captured the town as well as Walata in 1434.
4.3 From then until about the seventeenth century, when it finally ceased to exist, the Mali Empire
gradually shrank to its original Malinke territories from which it had developed into imperial
status.
THE SONGHAI EMPIRE
1.0 Growth
1.1 The Songhai comprised the Sorko (fishermen), the Gow (hunters), and Do (farmers). The
Sorko were the dominant element.
1.2 The Songhai state had been established as early as the seventh century under a line of kings
titled Dya, with a capital at kukiya. But by the tenth century, the capital had been shifted to Gao,
which was becoming an important commercial centre.
1.3 The presence of Muslim traders also resulted in the conversion of the Dya ruling dynasty to
Islam in about 1019.
1.4 The Songhai State was incorporated into the Mali Empire during the mid-thirteenth century.
But Songhai regained its independence in 1275, under Ali Kolon, who established a new dynasty
titled Sunni.
1.5 The independence won by Songhai was short-lived for the energetic Sakura, who usurped the
Mali throne in 1285 again brought Songhai under Mali control.
1.6 Mali rule over Songhai was eventually terminated in the last quarter of the fourteenth century
as the power of Mali declined.
2.0 Sunni Ali
2.1 Under the reign of Sunni Ali (1464-92), Songhai was transformed into an imperial state.
2.2 Sunni Ali was a soldier-king. He possessed a seasoned and well-organised army of infantry
and cavalry wings. He also had a naval fleet
2.3 He attacked and conquered the two commercial centres of Timbuktu (1469) and Jenne (1473).
2.4 In the south, Sunni Ali led several expeditions against the Dongo, the Mossi, the Kebbawa,
and the Borgawa. His most outstanding achievement in this direction was in 1483 when he inflicted
a crushing defeat on the Mossi, thus ending intermittent Mossi invasions into the Niger valley and
the Songhai area since the mid-thirteenth century.
2.5 At the time of his accidental death, Sunni Ali was the master of a great empire based on the
Niger. The empire extended from Dendi [on the Nigeria/Niger border] in the east to the frontiers
of the gradually shrinking Mali in the west.
The Kanuri State of Kanem-Borno
1.0 Geographical Coverage
1.1 The history of the Kanem-Borno Empire may broadly be divided into two phases. The first
phase covered the period from c. ninth to the fourteenth century when the seat of government was
at Njimi in Kanem, east of Lake Chad, while the second phase lasted between the fifteenth to the
early nineteenth century when the capital was located at Ngazargamu in Borno, west of Lake Chad.
1.2 Altogether, the boundaries of the empire at various times extended over parts of the modern
Republics of Niger, Chad, Cameroun, and a large section of present Yobe and Borno States in
Nigeria.
1.3 The dominant and ruling group in the Kanem-Borno Empire were the Kanuri, and this is why
the empire is often referred to as the Kanuri Empire and the two periods mentioned above as the
first and second Kanuri Empires, respectively.
2.0 Growth and Expansion
2.1 The Kanuri were before the end of the first millennium AD speakers of related language groups
who had evolved one or two petty states by the ninth century. However, from the mid-ninth
century, they all gradually came to be consolidated into a single kingdom and people. The king
was addressed by the title of Mai.
2.2 The state was from the last quarter of the eleventh century ruled by a dynasty called Saifawa.
The founder of this dynasty was Hume (c. 1075–1086). Hume traced his descent from Saif ibn
Dhu Yazan, a Yemeni-Arab hero of the sixth century, and it is for this reason, the dynasty is
referred to as the Saifawa.
2.3 By the twelfth century, the Saifawa had established a unified kingdom in Kanem (east of Lake
Chad), with its seat of government at Njimi. Imperial expansion commenced from the reign of
Hume’s successor, Dunama (c. 1086–1140). He is said to have had a force of 100,000 mounted
soldiers and 120,000 foot soldiers.
2.4 Dunama was followed by a string of successors, especially in the thirteenth century, committed
to far-flung imperial expansions to secure the state's commercial benefits. In this connection,
available sources lay particular stress on the imperial activities of Dunama Dibalami (c. 1210–
1248), who at most times led his military expeditions in person. He secured control over Fezzan
on the trans-Saharan trade route and Traghan, a place well over 800 miles from Njimi, establishing
a governor there for commercial considerations.
2.5 Dunama Dibalami was also noted for his Islamic zeal. As a Muslim reformer, he destroyed a
sacred object called Mune, which was believed to contain the guardian spirit of the state; and as a
patron of learning, he built a hostel in Cairo for Kanem people.
3.0 Political Decline
3.1 But the thirteen century marked the apogee of Kanuri history in Kanem. The turn of the
fourteenth century saw a Kanuri state on the brink of collapse. This was because the opening years
of the century were of civil wars. These were compounded by external problems. Thus, military
engagements with the So, who inhabited the southern and western sides of Lake Chad, resulted in
the death of four Mais in succession, all before 1325. East of Kanem were the Bulala, whose
incursion into Saifawa land became progressively devastating. Indeed, the Bulala wars filled most
of the second half of the fourteenth century such that in the 1360s and the 1370s, five Mais fell on
the battlefield fighting the Bulala. Unable to bear the situation any longer, Mai Umar Ibn Idris
(1382–87) gave up Kanem and sought refuge in the country of Borno, west of Lake Chad. For all
practical purposes, the evacuation from Kanem by the Saifawa marked the end of what is often
being referred to as the First Kanuri Empire.
3.2 But even though the Saifawa moved westwards, their troubles were yet to be over. Not only
were they continually subjected to incessant Bulala attacks–which resulted in the death of two
more Mais just before the end of the fourteenth century–but the fifteenth century opened with the
fragmentation of the Saifawa royal lineage into two branches. The result, of course, was rivalry
for the throne, disregard of proper succession procedures and the successful contention of
pretenders to the throne. Also, the political instability denied the Saifawa of permanent capital in
their new homeland. For the better part of the first half of the fifteenth century, capitals were
continually shifted with the installation of new Mais.
4.0 Revival
4.1 The Saifawa drift into political abyss was halted with the accession to the throne of Ali Ghaji
(1465–1497). Indeed, he has often been described as the founder of the Second Kanuri Empire,
which was to endure till the early periods of the nineteenth century.
4.2 Of the many measures taken by Ali Ghaji in the revival of Kanuri power, three were of
particular importance. Ali Ghaji’s first concern was building a new capital since there had been no
permanent capital since the evacuation from Njimi. A new capital was built at Ngazargamu, which,
sited as it was west of Lake Chad, was far from the enemies of the Kanuri (the So in the south and
Bulala in the east) and well placed for future extension into the eastern parts of Hausaland.
4.3 To maintain the internal security thus gained and defend the kingdom against external attacks,
Ali Ghaji raised the strength of the royal army. His major campaigns were directed against the
Bulala, and his successes in these battles broke Bulala power. He thus bequeathed to his successors
a military legacy that saw Kanuri power at its heights in the next two centuries.
4.4 But perhaps the most important achievement of his reign was the elimination of the
segmentation of the ruling dynasty and enabling the circumstances for succession by his direct
descendant. Thus, he was succeeded by his son, Idris Katakarmabe (1497–1515), and grandson,
Muhammad (1515–38), respectively. The re-introduction of the system of direct succession
(primogeniture) forestalled dynastic wrangling, which had been a source of political instability in
the Kanuri state in the past two centuries.
THE HAUSA STATES
1.0 Geographical Coverage and Origin Traditions
1.1 The Hausa are predominantly located in northern Nigeria in the present-day Sokoto, Zamfara,
Kebbi, Kaduna, Katsina, Kano and Jigawa States. They also inhabit parts of the Niger Republic,
while Hausa-speaking colonies are to be found in the northern parts of the Republics of Ivory
Coast, Ghana, Togo, Benin, and as far as the western sections of the Republic of Sudan.
1.2 Bayajidda /Daura Legend: The Hausa were administered in a number of states, which
developed between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries. According to tradition, these states were
established through the agency of a legendary figure called Bayajidda. The development of the
Hausa states is attributed to the offspring of this figure. The Bayajidda, or Daura legend as it is
called, relates that at an unspecified date in remote times, Bayajidda fled from Baghdad, his home
country, to Kanem. He was, however, subsequently to flee again from Kanem in fear of the Mai.
He travelled westwards to Daura in Hausaland, whose people were deprived of water from a well
by a sacred snake. Bayajidda killed the snake, and in gratitude and admiration, the queen of Duara
married him. The marriage produced a son called Bawo, whose six sons became founders of
dynasties that established six Hausa states. Thus, Gazaura founded a dynasty in Daura; Kumaiyu
in Katsina; Bagauda in Kano; Zamagari in Rano; Gunguma in Zazzau; Duma in Gobir. Another
dynasty was established in Garun-ta-Gabas by Biram, a son of Bayajidda, through an earlier
marriage with the daughter of the Mai of Kanem. These states then became known as the Hausa
Bakwai (i.e., the Hausa [pure] seven); as district from another set of seven states known as the
Banza Bakwai (the bastard seven) said to have been founded by dynasties established by
Bayajidda’s grandchildren through concubines. The Banza Bakwai are: Zamfara, Kebbi, Gwari,
Yawuri, Nupe, Kwararafa (Jukun), and Oyo.
1.3 Although historians generally agree that the Bayajidda legend need not be regarded as authentic
history, there is still no consensus on its interpretation. A recent interpretation is that the element
of marriage in the story suggests that the early states were forged on marriage alliances. The aspect
concerning the Banza Bakwai is probably an attempt to underscore the historical links between the
Hausa and their more important neighbours.
2.0 Rise of States
2.1 By the beginning of the fourteenth century, some of the Hausa states had begun to experience
political and economic expansion due to increasing involvement in the trans-Saharan trade. In
terms of political administration, each state was governed by a king addressed as Sarki and chosen
from among members of the ruling lineage.
2.2 By the end of the fourteenth century, Kano had emerged as the most prominent Hausa state. A
period of territorial conquest began under the reign of Sarkin Kananeji (1390–1410). He is said to
have spent most of his reign on the battlefield. Evidence of the involvement of his kingdom in the
trans-Saharan trade is shown in the fact that he employed new military equipment such as padded
horse armour, iron helmets, and coats of chain mail. Muhammad Rumfa (1463–99) had an even
more successful career. To his reign is attributed several administrative innovations. Other
highlights of his reign included: (a) the extension of the Kano city walls and the building of new
gates, (b) the establishment of the Kurmi market, the main market in Kano; (c) the adoption of
royal symbols to include horses, drums, flags, Ostrich-feather fans, and the long copper horns
[Kakaaki]
2.3 Two other notable Hausa states during our period were Katsina and Zazzau. Both states
achieved remarkable political and economic growth under the reigns of Muhammad Korau (1445–
93) and Muhammad Rabo (last quarter of the fifteenth century), respectively. Indeed, the two rulers
are traditionally regarded as the first Muslim kings of their respective states.
3.0 External Influences
3.1 Hausaland also experienced external influences in varied forms. During the fifteenth century,
some of the Hausa states were brought under the political sway of Kanem-Borno. In the process,
Kanuri cultural elements were introduced into Hausaland. For example, the Hausa states adopted
such Kanuri titles as galadima, chiroma, and kaigama.
3.2 Other external influences included the settlement of foreign immigrants. The most notable
were the Fulani, both herdsmen and Muslim clerics. Foreign immigration and involvement in the
trans-Saharan trade led to the introduction of Islam. The religion is said to have been introduced
into Hausaland first in Kano. Its introduction is attributed to the Wangarawa (Malinke traders)
during the reign of Yaji (1349–85). Although royal patronage was initially insignificant, the
increasing commercial prosperity of Kano drew many Muslim clerics to the city. Islam received a
boost under Rumfa. He built mosques and strove to introduce Islamic concepts in administration.
For guidance, he entered into correspondence with a celebrated North African scholar, al-Maghili,
in 1491/2, who in response visited Kano, and wrote a small treatise on the art of government for
his use. The essay was titled “The Obligation of Princes.” In demonstrating his commitment to the
Islamic faith, Rumfa cut down the traditional sacred tree in Kano and erected a mosque on the site.
He also instituted the public celebration of the festivities at the end of the Ramadan fast, the Eid
el-Fitr.
3.3 A similar process of Islamisation was taking place in Katsina during this period. The
Wangarawa are said to have introduced Islam into Katsina under Korau. Korau built a mosque
modelled on those of Gao and Jenne. Like Rumfa, he was visited by al-Maghili, who urged the
application in Katsina of the ideas set out in his treatise. The two immediate successors of Korau
who assumed office in the last years of the fifteenth century also supported the promotion of Islam.
Ibrahim Sura (1493–98) is remembered as a conscientious devotee who forced his subjects to pray
and imprisoned those who refused. After him came Ali (1498–1524), whose steadfastness earned
him the nickname Murabit, i.e., religious warrior.
ISLAM IN THE SUDANESE STATES
1.0 Advent
1.1 Islam came to Sudanese West Africa through North African traders from the eighth century.
For the greater part of the period before 1500, the religion was associated more with the courts
(palaces) of the various states and their ruling classes.
1.2 And even then, there was a lot of syncretistic combination of Islamic and traditional practices
in court ceremonials and observances. Outside the ranks of the ruling classes, Islam was embraced
by traders who were in close contact with the foreigners from North Africa.
2.0 Impact
2.1 With Islam came literacy and Islamic education. The city of Timbuktu, for example, became
from the heyday of the Mali Empire, the foremost centre of Islamic learning in Sudan.
2.2 New ideas on administration were also introduced. Islamic scholars were appointed as advisers
of Sudanese rulers.
2.3 They acted as interpreters, scribes, and treasurers to most of the rulers of the states in the Sudan.
3.0 Western Sudan
3.1 In the empire of Mali, the cause of Islam was most advanced by Mansa Musa (1312–37) and
his brother Mansa Suleyman (1341–1360).
3.2 Suleyman built mosques and instituted the Friday public prayers. He attracted Muslim scholars
to his country and was himself a student of religious sciences, which comprised theology, law, and
Arabic grammar, among other disciplines.
3.3 Under Mansa Musa and Suleyman, Muslim scholars had a privileged status and much
influence. The mosque, the chief Imam’s house, and a few designated areas in the empire were
regarded as sanctuaries for wrongdoers.
4.0 Central Sudan
4.1 In Kano, Islam received a boost under Muhammad Rumfa (1463–99). He ordered the building
of mosques and instituted the observance of festival prayers. He also ordered the cutting down of
the sacred tree of Kano and built a mosque on the site. In so doing, he demonstrated a clear and
official break with the non-Islamic past.
4.2 A similar action to what Rumfa did in Kano had earlier been done in Kanem-Borno during the
thirteenth century when Mai Dunama Dibalami (c. 1210–1248) ordered that the mune, a sacred
object traditionally considered to be significant for the peace of the state, should be cut open. This
action represented an important symbolical break at the state level with local religious cults.
5.0 Overview
5.1 Traditional values and ideas on religion and politics were still well-entrenched. Hence, even
though such empire builders like Sundiata and Sunni Ali had Islamic backgrounds, they drew their
support from the traditional cults at critical points in the development of their states.
5.2 Nevertheless, the factor of Islam in governance could not be ignored. The factor of Islam was
significant in the overthrow of Sunni Baru, Sunni Ali’s successor, by Mohammed Ture. Under
Muhammad Ture, Islam made its greatest impact in Songhai.
THE BENIN KINGDOM
1.0 Early Phase
1.1 The Benin kingdom, as symbolized by its monarchy, was established on shaky foundations.
The first three kings or oba of the kingdom are said to have been confronted with formidable
obstacles during their reigns.
1.2 Their authority and power were particularly undermined by a hereditary order of chiefs called
Uzama n’Ihinron. The Uzama chiefs were the kingmakers.
1.2 The king ranked no more than a primus inter pares (first among equals) in the administration
of the kingdom.
2.0 Growth: Ewedo
2.1 But this state of affairs was halted when Ewedo, the fourth oba, assumed office. Ewedo
compelled all chiefs to stand in his presence; formerly, the Uzama remained seated. He also
disallowed them from using swords of state or conferring titles.
2.2 Ewedo built a new palace and instituted a hierarchy of chiefs to serve the palace, whose loyalty
would strictly be to the oba.
2.3 Servants of the oba belonged to one of the three palace associations. The most senior
association was called Iwebo, which took charge of the oba’s wardrobe, including his regalia. The
second was Iweguae, which comprised the ruler’s attendants and domestic servants. The third
association, called Ibiwe, was responsible for duties concerning the needs of the oba’s wives and
children.
2.4 Ewedo also laid the foundation for Benin expansion by conquest.
3.0 Consolidation: Ewuare
3.1 Ewuare instituted a hierarchy of town chiefs similar in structure to that, which already existed
in the palace. His council of state thus comprised palace chiefs—i.e., the heads of the palace
associations—and town chiefs.
3.2 Royal authority was further consolidated by Ewuare’s institution of a chieftaincy title, the
Edaiken, which was to be assumed by the prince designated as the heir apparent (the crown prince).
This measure had the effect of reducing further the influence of the hereditary Uzama chiefs who
hitherto were the kingmakers.
3.3 The religious and sacred aspects of kingship were strengthened. He introduced the annual Igue
festival, which was designed to demonstrate the oba’s mystical powers.
3.4 Benin became a formidable military power and grew into an empire.
3.5 The tempo of Benin military expansion was accelerated under Ozolua, Ewuare’s youngest son,
who acceded to the throne in c. 1481. He is reported to have been killed by his troops because of
his lust for war.
EARLY PORTUGUESE CONTACTS
1.0 Aims and Objectives
1.1 The advent of the Portuguese may be explained by a number of reasons, all of which derived
from the principal aim of establishing an alternative sea route to India.
1.2 the Portuguese intended to undermine the power of the Islamic states of North Africa by
establishing footholds in West Africa. Related to this point was the desire to convert the people of
West Africa into Christianity and to attempt to establish contact with a legendary Christian king
called Prester John, who would assist the Portuguese in their project.
1.3 There was the desire to satisfy European curiosity and inquisitiveness by widening the little
European knowledge of the African continent.
1.4 The third and most important point was the Portuguese desire to gain access to the sources of
the West African gold trade, the knowledge of which filtered to Europe through North Africa.
2.0 Activity
2.1 The most important centre of Portuguese activity was the coastline of modern Ghana, which
they called Costa da Mina ([Gold] Mine Coast) because they were able to establish a gold trade
with the local communities.*
2.2 Another area of Portuguese activity on the West African coast was the region between modern
Sierra Leone and Liberia, which they called the Grain Coast because the Portuguese obtained from
this region a species of sweet pepper known as Malagueta pepper. To the east of the Grain Coast
was the Ivory Coast, where the Portuguese bought elephant tusks.
2.3 On the Lagos Lagoon, the Portuguese traded with the Ijebu. They bought slaves and elephant
tusks from the Ijebu for manillas (brass bracelets).
2.4 The Portuguese had more extensive trade with the Benin Kingdom. Ughoton was the port town
of Benin where the oba made arrangements to receive and control the activities of Portuguese
traders.
2.5 The Portuguese had similar trading relations with the communities on the Forcados River near
Warri and Bonny in the Niger Delta.
*Mina means mine (gold mine). In 1482 the Portuguese constructed the fort of Sao Jorge da Mina,
“Mine of Saint George or St George Mine.” The corruption of this name into its modern form,
“Elmina,” occurred in the period of the Dutch occupation of the fort after 1637.