Peace settlements (1919-1923): WW1: 1914-18 Central Powers: Germany, Austro-Hungarian, Bulgaria, Ottoman Empire The Allies/Entente Powers: France, UK, Russia, US, Italy, Japan WW2: 1939-45 The Axis Powers: Germany, Italy, and Japan The Allied Powers/Big Four: US, UK, USSR, China Many believed peace treaties would based on U.S. President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points outlined during WW1 for a postwar peace settlement. But too open-ended, imprecise, and subjective to differing interpretations “self-determination” and “democracy” were not in the 14 points but were both seen to be the foundation Wilson wanted and encouraged nationalist aspirations in Europe Germany had humiliated Russia in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918) recognized the independence of Ukraine, Georgia, Finland gave up Poland and the Baltic states to Germany, Austria-Hungary (39% population) ceded Kars, Ardahan, Batum to Turkey Lenin bitterly called the settlement “that abyss of defeat, dismemberment, enslavement and humiliation.” Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Ottomans humiliated Rumania in the Treaty of Bucharest (1918) return southern Dobruja to Bulgaria give Austria-Hungary control of the passes in the Carpathian Mountains Peace settlements (1919-1923): 1 lease oil wells to Germany for 90 years Treaty of Versailles, 1919 Perspective: Ferdinand Foch, 1919 (French military theorist and Commander in WW1): “This is not peace. It is an armistice for 20 years.” Perspective: Kershaw, “The Versailles Treaty and the Paris Peace Conference, which were meant to make future wars impossible, did just the opposite. ” Context: 6/28/1919 in the Palace of Versailles (France) six months after the armistice that ended the actual fighting (WW1) Ended war between Germany and most Allied Powers Germany was not allowed to participate but was forced to sign the final treaty Other Central Powers signed different treaties with the Allies Main point: Article 231 (opening article) “War Guilt clause”-"The Allied and Associated Governments affirm and Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies.” Aim - Causes Big Four (France, Italy, UK, US) united: agreed to make Germany accept its responsibility for the war (e.g. attacked France twice in 40 years, invaded neutral Belgium, committed atrocities against civilians) Main concerns: Punishment for the high costs of WWI Stop Germany from ever being able to start another European war However: Germany was economically important to Europe Britain: soft punishment (protect economy, trade) Peace settlements (1919-1923): 2 France: wanted harsh crushing punishments, but the danger of the spread of Bolshevism Issues - Significances Territory - Germany to lose 13% of European territory Resulting in the loss of 10% of its population Including rich agricultural and industrial regions Shandong to Japanese-21 demands Alsace-Lorraine to France rich agriculture All colonies lost Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania gained from Russia in Treaty of Brest-Litovsk now lost “Mandates” governed by LON, given to victorious countries (Tanzania, Cameroon, Togo to Britain) Military Proud German army from 4.5 Million soldiers to 100,000 conscription barred Ruhr/Rhineland to France and Belgium: demilitarized, lost essence of capitaliron ore coal, agricultural land Navy reduced to 15,000 men – no submarines Banned all air force Economy - Article 231: War Guilt Clause – that Germany had caused WWI and so was responsible for all damages Legally Germany had to pay reparations for the war damages 6.6 million pounds 1921 reparations set at 132 Billion Gold Marks (Gold Marks meant that it was a fixed currency not affected by inflation) Peace settlements (1919-1923): 3 With territories lost including industrial land and raw materials – reparations more difficult to pay Responses – consequences (on Germany) Germany: Germany was not treated fairly Perspective: Deutsche Zeitung (German News on the day the Treaty was signed) "Today...the disgraceful Treaty is being signed...The German people will... reconquer the place among the nations to which it is entitled.” Economic terms: unemployment, inflation, damaging but fixable (Charles G. DawesThe Dawes Plan 1924) Real damage = political and psychological: national pride and prestige damaged immense sense of humiliation, resentment Germans did not recognize their military defeated → Germans in shock and did not accept when the treaty was announced Germany was undestroyed after 4 years of war no allied troops had stood on German land at the armistice (German soldiers still occupied much of Belgium) Radical right in Germany (Ludendorff and Hindenburg): German army was undefeated = military defeat not obvious, ambiguous Treaty was denounced as a ‘Dictat’ – a dictated peace Social Division: “Stabbed in the Back” Resent the Weimar Republic’s Party (the Socialists) for signing the armistice Right: the socialist strikes lost the war, not the German army Result: Hitler promised to overturn it→Future WW2 Rise of the paramilitary group in Freikorps (Nazi SA) 1/4 of Germans returning officers + unemployed returning soldiers + youth too young to fight in WWI Peace settlements (1919-1923): 4 Extremely violent, anti-Bolshevik (communist) and anti-Semitic (Jewish socialists attracted by leftwing ideology of social equality) Longed for a cause worth fighting and dying for Felt that SOCIALISTS HAD LOST THE WAR “November Criminals”: factory strikes and the signing armistice wanted REVENGE Allied Powers: Germany was not weakened enough Perspective: W. Carr (British historian), "Severe as the Treaty seemed to many Germans, it should be remembered that Germany might have fared much worse...if Clemenceau had had his way.” The terms were not as harsh as German to Russai in Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 1918 Not harsh enough for French public opinion Germany was helpless, but a wounded giants Rise of other unsatisfied authoritarian states Italy: Perspective: Richard J. Evans "Mussolini's rise to power was a direct result of the chaos and disillusionment that followed World War I." The treaty renewed the sense of national humiliation Before WWI: Defeat in Ethiopia (over 5,000 Italian troops lost) During WWI: Many military defeats (11-12% of all troops died) Hardships for the civilians (1/2 million dead) Majority of wounded, disabled, and incapacitated Repression on civilians caused further resentment toward the government After WWI: No real gain at Versailles after victory (”mutilated victory”) Peace settlements (1919-1923): 5 Feels that European countries did not respect them Extreme pressures on the economy —> further social divisions & legitimacy of the political system as “mutilated victory” = sacrifices had not been worth it Created extreme nationalism, need for a more aggressive foreign policy →1939 Pact of Steel Rome-Berlin Axis agreement to combat the Allied Powers Treaty of Neuilly, 1919 Perspective: Lloyd George (British PM), "We want a peace [that] will be just, but not vindictive” "We want a stern peace...but the severity must be...for justice (not vengeance)” "We want to protect the future against a repetition of the horrors of this war.” Context: 11/27/1919 in Neuilly-sur-Seine, France. Between Bulgaria and the victorious Allied powers Bulgaria – Before WWI -suffered heavy losses in Balkan Wars (1912-13) lost many of its territories Joined the Central Powers 1915 due to promises of regaining these lost territories Armies eventually eliminated, signed an armistice to prevent being occupied led to traditional political parties losing popularity left-wing movements such as communism and socialism increased exponentially the biggest increase in popularity: People's Agrarian Union (leader against the war)\ Attend the versailles conference but exclusively, not allowed to access any area no info Peace settlements (1919-1923): 6 terms of Neuilly were presented and agreed Aims - causes Big Four wanted to strengthen allies and potential future allies from the newly formed countries that emerged from the Austria-Hungarian Empire Mainly the cession of Bulgarian territory to the nations damaged by the German attacks Issues – significances Territory significant loss of Bulgarian lands Aegean coastline to Greece (won in the Balkan War 1913) almost all Macedonian territory to the new state Yugoslavia return captured Romanian land Military army reduced to 20,000 troops military police to 10,000 border patrol to 3,000 four torpedo boats no air force Economy forced to pay 2.25 billion gold francs and send cattle and coal as payments Responses - consequences Perspective: Harold Nicolson (British diplomat) "...we were very stupid men...the treaties imposed upon our enemies were neither just nor wise.” Perspective: Jutta Rudiger (a German woman living in the Ruhr during the French occupation) "There was widespread hunger, squalor (filth, muck), and Peace settlements (1919-1923): 7 poverty...humiliation.” Bulgaria: hardships Terms very similar to Germans’ = sanctions could not be complied or did not apply (much less economically powerful country) Economic crisis: post-war damage + treaty + a poor country mostly peasant smallholders Bulgarian refugees who had to leave Yugoslav Macedonia 200,000 Thrace immigrants returning Political: radicalization of various political sectors & new leftist tendency leaned toward communism and socialism propaganda Bolsheviks introduced into Bulgaria reinforced communist sentiment Nevertheless, the government was able to carry through many social reforms, despite opposition from the landlords and the army officers. Perspective: Georges Clemenceau (France PM) "At last I am no longer anxious. I have obtained almost everything I wanted.” Allies (Greece, Yugoslavia, and Romania): benefited Greece: Thrace was ceded to this country = access to the Aegean Sea, possess important territory in this part of Europe. Yugoslavia: newly formed, receiving more territory = possible to expand border borders Romania: the South Dobruja region was ceded to them Peace settlements (1919-1923): 8