Human Performance
and Limitations
in Aviation
in Aviation
Third edition
R.D. Campbell
MBE, DFC, AFC, FRAeS, MBAC
and
MB, BCh, MRCS, LRCP, MFOM, DAvMed, DFFP, FRAeS
Blackwell
Science
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Human Performance
and Limitations
M. Bagshaw
b
Blackwell Science Ltd
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Library of Congress
Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Campbell, R.D.
Human performance and limitations in aviation/
R.D. Campbell and M. Bagshaw.Ð3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-632-05965-6
1. AeronauticsÐHuman factors. I. Bagshaw,
M. (Michael) II. Title.
TL553.6 .C35 2001
629.132'52Ðdc21
2001037960
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# R.D. Campbell and M. Bagshaw 1991; the estate
of R.D. Campbell and M. Bagshaw, 1999, 2002
Preface
Part 1
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
ix
Human Factors: Basic Concepts
Human Factors in Aviation
Competence and limitations
Becoming a competent pilot
Accident statistics
Flight safety concepts
Part 2 Basic Aviation Physiology and Health Maintenance
2
The Basics of Flight Physiology
2.1 The atmosphere
Composition
Altitude
The physical gas laws
2.2 The respiratory and circulation systems
Functional anatomy
The hypobaric environment
Hypoxia
Oxygen systems
Cabin pressurisation
Rapid decompression
Decompression sickness
Barotrauma
Hyperventilation
Effects of acceleration
2.3 The high altitude environment
Ozone
Cosmic radiation
Relative humidity
3
Man and the Environment: The Sensory System
3.1 The central and peripheral nervous system
Central nervous system
1
3
3
5
6
7
9
11
11
11
12
13
15
15
19
21
26
27
27
28
29
30
31
33
34
35
37
39
39
39
v
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Contents
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
Peripheral nervous system
The autonomic nervous (vegetative) system
Workings of the nervous system
Vision
Functional anatomy of the eye
The visual field ± scanning techniques
Binocular and monocular vision
Night vision
Hearing
Functional anatomy of the ear
Flight related hazards to hearing
Effects of altitude change
Equilibrium
Functional anatomy of the vestibular system
Motion sickness
Integration of sensory inputs
Orientation
Sensory illusions and spatial disorientation
Vestibular illusions
Visual illusions
Approach and landing errors
Prevention of disorientation
Health and Hygiene
Personal hygiene
Common minor ailments
Colds
Influenza
Gastro-intestinal upset
Problem areas for pilot health
Hearing loss
Defective vision
Hypotension
Hypertension
Coronary artery disease
Obesity
Nutrition
Tropical climates and epidemic disease
Intoxication
Tobacco
Alcohol
Drugs and self-medication
39
40
40
42
42
46
49
51
52
52
53
54
55
55
57
60
60
60
61
63
64
67
69
69
69
70
71
71
72
72
74
77
78
79
80
81
83
86
86
87
90
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vi Contents
Toxic hazards
Carbon monoxide
4.5 Incapacitation during flight
Symptoms and causes
Operational coping procedures
Flying after SCUBA diving
Part 3
5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
7
7.1
8
8.1
8.2
Basic Aviation Psychology
Human Information Processing
Attention and vigilance
Perception
Perception illusions
Perceptual subjectivity
Memory
Short-term memory (sensory)
Long-term memory
Working memory
Motor memory (skills)
Response selection
Learning principles and techniques
Motivation
Human Error and Reliability
Reliability of human behaviour
Hypotheses of reality
Theory and model of human error
Error generation
Ergonomics
Economics
Social environment
Decision Making
Decision-making concepts
Structure phases
Limits
Risk assessment
Practical application of risk management
Avoiding and Managing Errors:
Cockpit Management
Error management
Safety awareness
Risk area awareness
Error proneness
vii
93
94
95
95
97
97
99
101
103
104
105
106
106
107
108
109
110
110
110
114
116
117
118
119
119
120
123
124
125
126
126
126
127
129
132
132
133
133
134
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Contents
Contents
8.3
8.4
8.5
9
9.1
9.2
10
10.1
10.2
10.3
11
11.1
11.2
11.3
Error sources
Situational awareness
Multi-crew co-ordination
Co-operation
Group dynamics
Leadership and management styles
Individual duty and role
Advantages and disadvantages of team work
Communication
Communication models
Verbal and non-verbal communication
Communication barriers
Conflict management
Personality
Personality and attitudes
Development
Environmental influences
Individual differences in personality
Human Overload and Underload
Arousal
Stress
Stressors
Stress overload
Anxiety and its relationship to stress
Effects of stress
Stress management
Coping strategies
Sleep and fatigue
Stages of sleep
Performance and alertness
Management of fatigue
Preventative measures
Advanced Cockpit Automation
Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages
Disadvantages
Automation complacency
Working concepts
In Conclusion
Bibliography
Index
135
136
136
138
138
140
141
142
142
143
146
147
147
149
149
150
151
151
157
157
158
161
164
165
165
167
168
170
171
172
174
175
178
181
181
181
183
184
186
187
188
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viii
Travel by air is a relatively safe means of transport, and there has
been a great improvement in the accident rate since 1960. This is due
to enhancements in technology, manufacturing standards, maintenance, operational procedures and training.
However, human error continues to be cited as a major cause in
over 70% of aviation accidents. It is widely agreed that a better
understanding of human capabilities and limitations, both physical
and psychological, could contribute to a reduction in human error
and improve flight safety.
The first edition of this manual was published in 1991 to provide a
readable introduction to the basic concepts of human factors in
aviation. There was recognition of a particular need for the
enhancement of judgement and decision making, particularly
amongst private pilots, and the manual was aimed at increasing the
necessary knowledge.
In 1992 the UK Civil Aviation Authority introduced an examination in Human Performance and Limitations for applicants for all
private and professional pilot licences. In Europe, the Joint Aviation Authorities have published the Joint Aviation Requirements
for Flight Crew Licensing (JAR-FCL 1) which was adopted in 1996
and implemented 1 July 1999. Subpart J details the syllabus for the
Human Performance and Limitations examination and this manual
has been completely revised and rewritten to encompass the syllabus requirements.
The opportunity has been taken to remove some information
which, although of interest to pilots, is not a requirement for the
JAR-FCL examination and is readily available from other sources
(e.g. the chapter on first aid). The coverage of basic aviation psychology has been greatly expanded although, continuing the principle of the first edition, consciously avoiding the use of excessive
ix
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Preface
Preface
jargon and technical language. The basic aviation physiology section
now includes topics on the high altitude environment and on health
maintenance.
Ron Campbell died in 1996. The first edition of this manual
evolved from his belief in the importance of teaching judgement and
decision making in flying training. It is a privilege to continue his
vision in the preparation and production of this third edition.
Since preparation of the second edition of this manual in April
1999, the JAA have expanded the knowledge requirement of
applicants for professional pilot licences. Also, training in Multi
Crew Co-operation (MCC) is now a mandatory requirement for
gaining a JAA Air Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL), and this
manual covers the syllabus for the human factors module. It also
provides material for training in Crew Resource Management
(CRM) and for Simulated Flight Instructor (SFI) core courses.
Although this manual encompasses the syllabus requirement for
flight crew licensing, the original objective of covering the basic
concepts of human factors in aviation remains unchanged. Aviation
is truly international and this easy-to-read manual will be of interest
and value to all aviation professionals, medical practitioners and
human factors specialists world-wide.
I am grateful for the assistance of Laurie Benn and Brian Johnston of the Department of Civil Aviation Studies, London Guildhall
University, in ensuring that this manual continues to meet the
requirements of subpart J of JAR-FCL 1. However, any errors or
omissions are mine.
Michael Bagshaw
September 2001
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x