Optimizing the Work-Academic Balance: Enhancing Well-Being and Academic
Performance of Working Students
A Study Presented to
Mr. Julian Sian Jr.
As a Partial Requirement for
Field Study Methods
Bachelor of Science in Psychology
Carlos Hilado Memorial State University
By:
Abellera, Antonette T.
Dela Torre, Dazerylle May L.
Marquez, Jahleel M.
Pedimente, Benedict D.
Chapter 2
Review of Related Literature
This section discusses the relevant works of literature which will contribute to the
development of the study. Additionally, these literary sources will provide essential insights
to substantiate the study. This is divided into three parts: (1) Theoretical Literature, (2)
Conceptual Literature, and (3) Research Literature.
Part One, Theoretical Literature, examines the established theories of Maslow's
Hierarchy of Needs and Lazarus and Folkman’s Transactional Model of Stress and Coping.
Part Two, Conceptual Literature, focuses on introducing key variables influencing this
study. The literature encompasses scholarly discussions on Student Employment, the
Academic Performance of Working Students, and the Well-being of Working Students.
Part Three, Research Literature, focuses on existing works that are related to this
study. This includes the Dual Impact of Student Employment, Academic Workload and Time
Management, and the Role of Support in Managing Work and Academic Responsibilities.
Theoretical Literature
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow's hierarchy of needs posits that addressing lower-level needs is a prerequisite
for higher-level needs to serve as motivators. The five components of this hierarchy, labeled
as conative needs, are characterized by a motivational essence. Maslow often referred to them
as fundamental needs, organized in a hierarchical structure where each ascending level
signifies a higher but less essential requirement for survival. Lower-level needs take
precedence over higher ones; they must be fulfilled or substantially met before higher-level
needs come into play. For instance, individuals pursuing esteem or self-actualization must
first satisfy their needs for food and safety. Consequently, hunger and safety hold precedence
over both esteem and self-actualization (Feist, Feist, Roberts, 2021, p. 525-553).
In the study titled "Understanding and Motivating Health Care Employees:
Integrating Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, Training, and Technology," by Benson and Dundis
(2003), they delved into the application of Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Model
within the context of the rapidly evolving healthcare industry. Acknowledging the significant
challenges posed by industry-wide changes, including reorganization, mergers, and the
escalating role of technology, the research seeks to evaluate the relevance of Maslow's Model
in addressing the nuanced needs of healthcare employees. Through a comprehensive
examination, the study highlights the alignment of Maslow's Model with contemporary
workforce concerns such as security, social belongingness, self-esteem, and
self-actualization. Notably, the research identifies key issues, emphasizing the increasing
demand for training in the healthcare sector and the associated challenges and opportunities
presented by technology. By applying Maslow's Model as a framework, the study aims to
provide insights into the universal individual needs underlying these challenges. The
conclusion posits that, particularly in the face of heightened demands and resource
constraints, employee motivation can be enhanced by strategically integrating Maslow's
Model, technology, and training, thus fostering a deeper understanding of workforce
dynamics within the dynamic healthcare environment. This research contributes to the
literature by offering a nuanced exploration of motivational factors and their intersection with
training and technology in the healthcare sector, presenting implications for both theory and
practice in workforce management and organizational behavior.
Maslow's groundbreaking hierarchy of needs, proposed in 1954, categorized human
requirements into physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization. Lester
et al. (1983) and Strong and Fiebert (1987) developed distinct inventories to measure aspects
of Maslow's theory. Lester’s 50-item scale gauged the satisfaction of basic needs, while
Strong and Fiebert's test assessed their relative importance. Lester's 1990 study compared
scores from both inventories and explored correlations with depressive and manic tendencies.
Results indicated inconsistencies challenging Maslow's hierarchical sequence, with safety
needs correlating positively with depression contrary to expectations. The study underscores
potential differences in the constructs measured by these inventories, prompting the need for
more refined measures in understanding the intricate dynamics of human needs and
psychological health (Lester, 2013).
Moreover, in the context of using Maslow's hierarchy as a strategic framework, Hale et
al. (2018) conducted a study addressing the widespread issue of burnout in graduate medical
education, emphasizing its negative impact on career satisfaction, personal well-being, and
patient outcomes. Despite existing interventions targeting isolated contributors to burnout, the
authors propose Maslow's hierarchy of human needs as a comprehensive framework for
wellness initiatives. They advocate for a holistic approach, considering both personal and
professional needs, and adapting Maslow's model to guide graduate medical education
programs. The study reviews current interventions, organizing them into a scaffold for
programs interested in supporting wellness. The model may aid in resident assessment,
program evaluation, and as a scorecard for Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical
Education reviews.
Lazarus and Folkman’s Transactional Model of Stress and Coping
Cognitive assessment encompasses primary and secondary assessments and potential
reassessment, with the latter evaluating a person's ability to cope with possibilities in a given
situation. Coping, following the assessment, can induce a shift in the person's relationship
with their environment or their emotional stress level, influenced by factors such as
personality traits, symptoms of depression, and social influences. Understanding the
Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping (TTCS) requires insight into the evolution of
stress research, defining stress as a reaction, a stimulus, and a transaction. Stress as a reaction,
identified by Hans Selye in 1956, portrays stress as a defense mechanism with physiological
patterns, leading to both positive and negative outcomes based on cognitive interpretation.
Stress as a stimulus, introduced by Holmes and Rahe in the 1960s, sees stress as a significant
event necessitating adjustment, with a universal threshold beyond which sickness occurs.
Stress as a transaction, developed by Lazarus and Folkman, considers stress a product of
interactions between a person and their environment, involving multiple systems within an
individual: cognitive, physiological, affective, psychological, and neurological.
In a study by Elberich, Gieselmann, Mathes, and Pietrowsky (2019), the research
aimed to redefine nightmare distress, particularly focusing on the appraisal of such distress
using Lazarus' transactional model of stress. The argument was centered on the notion that
individuals experience greater distress when they perceive their nightmares as threatening
and harmful (primary appraisal in Lazarus' terms) and lack adequate coping skills to manage
the stressor (secondary appraisal). To empirically validate these assumptions, the Cognitive
Appraisal of Nightmares (CAN) questionnaire was tested in two studies involving patients
with distressing nightmares, employing exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses (N =
504 and N = 402). The CAN demonstrated good psychometric properties and plausible
correlations. Interestingly, the CAN sum score proved more distinct from nightmare
frequency compared to the commonly used Nightmare Distress Questionnaire (NDQ),
emphasizing that frequency and distress represent distinct aspects of patients' suffering. The
NDQ was specifically linked to post-nightmare acted-out behaviors, while the CAN was
associated with the physiological and emotional consequences of nightmares. The study
suggests that, for a comprehensive and theory-driven understanding of how individuals
appraise their nightmares, the CAN questionnaire may be a valuable tool.
However, Goh and Sawang (2010) undertook a study with the objective of revising
Lazarus and Folkman's transactional model. According to them, despite over three decades of
research, the comprehension of the transactional processes involving appraisal, stress, and
coping remains limited. This knowledge gap has prompted calls for more targeted research
into the comprehensive process underlying these variables, yet such research remains scarce.
The current investigation focused on examining Lazarus and Folkman's (1984) transactional
model of stress and coping. A total of 129 Australian participants, engaged in full-time
employment roles such as nursing and administration, were recruited, comprising 49 males
(mean age = 34, SD = 10.51) and 80 females (mean age = 36, SD = 10.31). The analysis of
three path models revealed additional direct links between primary appraisal and stress level
at time one and between stress level at time one and stress level at time two, supplementing
the original paths in Lazarus and Folkman's transactional model (primary appraisal-secondary
appraisal-stress-coping). This study contributes further insights into the transactional process,
enhancing our understanding of how individuals appraise, cope with, and experience
occupational stress.
Conceptual Literature
Student Employment
The exploration of the role of student employment in academic life has been a subject
of increasing interest, particularly in light of significant shifts in the circumstances
surrounding student work. According to "The Condition of Education" (2020), a substantial
percentage of undergraduate students aged 16 to 64 are employed while enrolled in school. In
2018, the data revealed a higher employment rate among part-time students (81 percent)
compared to full-time students (43 percent). This dual commitment to work and academics is
underscored by the potential influence on academic performance, an aspect that has been both
positively and negatively associated with previous research (Dundes & Marx, 2006; Pike,
Kuh, & Massa-McKinley, 2008, as cited in "The Condition of Education", 2020).
The context of student employment has been shaped by historical and structural
changes in higher education, as exemplified by the experiences of students in the United
Kingdom in the early 1990s. During this period, significant alterations in the support
available for higher education occurred, including the shift of tuition costs from the state to
students themselves. This change, coupled with factors such as increased enrollment, labor
market deregulation, and tuition hikes, contributed to a substantial increase in student
employment (Taylor et al., 1999; Watts & Pickering, 2000, as cited in Outerbridge, 2016).
The study further delves into the multifaceted reasons students choose to work while
pursuing their studies. While financial gain emerged as a common and crucial factor among
the sixteen participants interviewed, the motivations varied. Some participants used their
earnings to cover the costs of their education, while others utilized the funds for non-essential
items and activities, seeking financial independence from their parents. Moreover,
participants highlighted their desire to gain valuable work experience, with the aim of
enhancing their prospects for co-operative education programs, involvement in student clubs,
or securing full-time employment post-graduation.
Collectively, these insights paint a comprehensive picture of the dynamic relationship
between student employment and academic pursuits. The prevalence of student employment,
driven by financial considerations and a desire for practical experience, reflects the evolving
landscape of higher education. Understanding the motivations and consequences of student
employment contributes to a broader understanding of how students navigate the intricate
balance between work and academics in their educational journey.
Academic Performance of Working Students
The exploration of the impact of student employment on academic performance has
yielded diverse perspectives, reflecting the intricate relationship between work and academic
commitments. Participants in various studies shared narratives highlighting the multifaceted
effects of employment on their academic journey. Notably, the positive correlation between
working and improved grades was attributed to the development of enhanced time
management and interpersonal skills gained on the job. Additionally, heightened confidence
and conflict resolution abilities were identified as contributing factors to academic success
(Outerbridge, 2016).
While qualitative accounts shed light on the positive aspects, Zeims' (2017)
qualitative dissertation introduced a nuanced narrative, providing a deeper understanding of
the lived experiences of working students. This qualitative study acted as a valuable
complement to quantitative research, offering insights into the role balance within an
educational context. Surprisingly, the study revealed no significant relationship between role
balance and academic performance, challenging established theories that suggested a positive
association between balanced life roles and indicators of well-being, such as GPA. The
unexpected result prompted a call for continued research into how students navigate and
balance their diverse roles, recognizing the need for a more detailed exploration of the
challenges encountered by working students in achieving a balanced work-academic life.
Expanding the examination of work-life balance, Dolapihilla's (2020) study delved
into methodologies and frameworks for assessing this delicate equilibrium within an
academic setting. However, a notable gap in the application of specific measurement tools for
student employees emerged, emphasizing the necessity for tailored approaches to the unique
circumstances of students juggling work and academics. Dolapihilla's findings resonated with
those of a survey conducted by the University of Melbourne, revealing an inversely
proportional relationship between time spent on paid work and time dedicated to university.
The study identified significant negative correlations between work responsibilities,
workload, and work-life balance, emphasizing that increased work demands are linked to
decreased work-life balance.
In a broader context, the combined insights from these studies underscore the
complex interplay of work-related factors, work-life balance, and academic commitment
among student employees. While the positive aspects of work experience contribute to
improved academic performance, the challenges of balancing work and academic roles, as
highlighted by qualitative research, necessitate tailored solutions to address the intricate
dynamics faced by working students in their pursuit of a balanced work-academic life. The
overarching theme remains focused on understanding the complexities and challenges
associated with the symbiotic relationship between work and academic commitments in the
lives of students.
The Well-being of Working Students
The literature on the challenges faced by students balancing work and academic
commitments presents a comprehensive view of the various impacts on mental health, social
interactions, and overall well-being. McGregor's (2015) study sheds light on the hurdles
experienced by students engaged in term-time work, revealing that a substantial proportion,
notably 39%, grapple with stress, while a smaller percentage, 2%, face challenges related to
depression. Workplace stressors, such as a lack of supervisory support, long working hours,
and encounters with difficult individuals, contribute to enduring challenges that affect
concentration. Interestingly, a small 2% find a positive impact on mental health, citing work
as a welcome distraction.
This complexity in the relationship between work and well-being is further explored
in Outerbridge's (2016) participant interviews, where the preciousness of time emerges as a
central theme. Working students express challenges in managing time for essential activities
such as exercise, eating, sleeping, and spending time with loved ones. The lack of sleep and
increased stress levels are highlighted as top health issues, more often associated with
academic pressure and lack of free time than directly with part-time work. Despite these
challenges, very few participants indicated that their physical exercise habits have been
negatively impacted by part-time work, with some even perceiving physical benefits from
their jobs.
The interconnectedness of these findings becomes evident when considering the time
pressures experienced by working students. McGregor's study highlights how inadequate
time for coursework, coupled with sleep deprivation, contributes to stress, affecting mental
health. Similarly, Outerbridge's interviews reveal that time pressures make it challenging for
students to maintain their overall mental and physical health. Both studies underscore the
significance of time as a critical resource for working students and emphasize the need for
tailored strategies to address the delicate balance between work and academics.
Moreover, McGregor's exploration into the impact of term-time work on students'
social lives aligns with Outerbridge's findings on time constraints affecting social
interactions. McGregor's study reports that 71% of participants experience effects on social
interactions, with 56% facing difficulties in socializing due to work commitments. Tiredness
emerges as a substantial barrier impacting both academic focus and social engagements,
echoing Outerbridge's observations that time pressures affect students' abilities to spend time
with loved ones and engage in activities that contribute to overall well-being.
In summary, these studies collectively highlight the intricate relationship between
term-time work, time pressures, mental health, and social interactions. The challenges
identified, ranging from stress and depression to time constraints impacting exercise and
socializing, underscore the need for nuanced strategies to support working students in
maintaining a healthy balance between their academic and work responsibilities. The findings
from McGregor and Outerbridge collectively emphasize the multifaceted nature of the
experiences of working students and provide valuable insights for educators, policymakers,
and institutions seeking to address the well-being of this student demographic.
Research Literature
The Dual Impact of Student Employment
The impact of employment during the academic tenure of students can manifest in
both positive and negative outcomes on their academic performance. Engaging in work while
pursuing education offers potential advantages by enhancing students' labor market prospects
through the acquisition of practical experience, building professional networks, and fostering
the development of crucial soft skills like time management, communication, and
problem-solving (Light, 2001). According to Darolia (2013), the positive effects of
employment can contribute to an overall improvement in academic performance for certain
students. Occupational activities have the potential to complement academic coursework by
providing real-world contexts, and the structure provided by work commitments may
encourage students to manage their time more effectively. The cultivation of soft skills,
including communication, problem-solving, adaptability, responsibility, and organization, can
be beneficial in both academic and vocational settings. Certain types of work experiences,
such as collaborative research with professors or positions involving a significant number of
peers, may contribute to campus and social integration.
However, the demands of occupational responsibilities on students may pose
challenges to academic achievement by substituting time that could be allocated to studies
and extracurricular activities. With students having fixed time resources, the time dedicated
to work may replace time that could otherwise be spent on academic pursuits, social
interactions, leisure activities, or engagement in extracurriculars. This substitution effect can
have adverse consequences on academic performance, social integration, and overall student
well-being. For instance, the time spent on employment may encroach upon study time, and
research indicates a positive correlation between study time and GPA (Stinebrickner &
Stinebrickner, 2004, 2008). Reductions in study time are therefore expected to negatively
impact academic performance. Additionally, the time devoted to work may limit students'
opportunities to participate in the academic and social community, which is believed to foster
greater commitment to their studies at the institution (Tinto, 1993).
Academic Workload and Time Management
According to Penny and Spector (2005), workload refers to the volume of tasks an
individual needs to complete within a specific timeframe, and when this becomes excessive,
it creates stress known as role overload, which is a stressor linked to job or task demands.
Numerous students often push themselves beyond their physical capacities to meet
assignment deadlines, prepare for exams, and juggle additional responsibilities, resulting in
diminished concentration and subpar academic performance. The demanding academic
workload is a significant factor contributing to this decline, as students find themselves
compelled to hastily complete assignments without acquiring a thorough understanding of the
subject matter. The weight of this workload can prompt students to reassess their commitment
to higher education, contemplating alternative pursuits such as engaging in smaller side
hustles to allocate time for skill development (Yangdon et al., 2019).
On the other hand, the inconsistent fulfillment of homework assignments by students,
leading to a decline in academic performance due to employment, can be attributed to poor
management skills. The demands of employment often compel students to reduce their
commitment to schoolwork, causing a reordering of academic priorities, heightened
work-related stress, and a shift in the student's attitudes toward the learning process
(Anderson, Lott, & Wieczorek, 1998). In their research on time utilization and college
outcomes, Stinebrickner, R., and Stinebrickner, T. (2004) proposed that, within the academic
context, individuals are more likely to be influenced by lifetime earnings rather than grades
when determining their study habits. Consequently, the decision-making process concerning
the amount of time allocated to studying is intricately linked to the interplay between study
time and academic grades, as well as the association between grades and prospective earnings
outcomes.
The Role of Support in Managing Work and Academic Responsibilities
One of the most crucial aspects of the higher education experience of many students is
finding the balance between work and academic responsibilities. Many college students
frequently face the difficulty of taking on too many commitments without establishing clear
boundaries. Although socializing and bonding with friends hold significant importance, the
expectation to attend every campus social gathering and engage in multiple sports, clubs, and
volunteer endeavors often results in fatigue and drains their essential energy resources
(Lorreto, 2022). Gayle and Lowe (2007) proposed that students require assistance in
comprehending the balance between work, personal life, and studies, along with the notion of
setting limits. They need guidance to formulate deliberate strategies for handling and
navigating relationships, as well as integrating their identity as students within their roles.
Students pursuing professional careers often encounter challenging conflicts related to
loyalty and prioritization, particularly concerning balancing commitments between their
employment responsibilities and personal growth or development. For Gayle and Lowe
(2007), the ability of students to effectively manage their studies alongside work and family
responsibilities depended on the strategies they employed to cope, as well as the type and
quality of support they received from both their families and employers. Allocating time for
personal hobbies (e.g., reading books or watching movies) can effectively decrease stress and
enhance motivation levels. Building a supportive network of friends and family through
social interactions is equally important, as it aids in coping with life's challenges across all
areas of life. Additionally, establishing well-defined goals and efficiently handling time may
diminish anxiety levels and enhance the standard of one's work (Writers, 2023)
Summary
The literature review provides insights into Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, its
application in healthcare, and challenges to its hierarchical sequence. Hale et al. (2018),
propose Maslow's model for addressing burnout in medical education. Lazarus and Folkman's
Transactional Model of Stress and Coping is explained, detailing cognitive assessment and
stress as a reaction, stimulus, and transaction. Elberich et al. (2019), study applies Lazarus'
model to redefine nightmare distress, introducing the Cognitive Appraisal of Nightmares
questionnaire. Conceptual literature explores student employment, and its impact on
academic performance, and well-being. The dynamic relationship between work and
academics is analyzed, emphasizing the need for tailored strategies. Research literature
examines the dual impact of student employment, acknowledging potential benefits and
challenges. The interplay between academic workload, time management, and employment is
explored, revealing potential negative consequences on academic performance. The role of
support in managing work and academic responsibilities is highlighted, emphasizing the need
for clear boundaries and effective coping strategies. To sum up, the literature collectively
emphasizes the multifaceted nature of stress, coping, and well-being in various contexts,
urging tailored approaches to address the complexities associated with these phenomena.
Reference List
Anderson, T., Lott, R., & Wieczorek, L. (1998, April 30). Improving time management for the
working student. ERIC. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED422127
Benson, S. & Dundis, S. (2003). Understanding and motivating healthcare employees:
integrating Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, training and technology. Journal of Nursing
Management, 11, 315-320.
College student employment - National Center for Education Statistics. The Condition of
Education. (2020). https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/pdf/coe_ssa.pdf
Darolia, R. (2014). Working (and studying) day and night: Heterogeneous effects of working
on the academic performance of full-time and part-time students. Economics of
Education Review, 38, 38–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2013.10.004
Dolapihilla, K. (2020). Work-Life Balance among Part Time Postgraduate Students in Sri
Lanka: With Special Emphasis to MBA Students in a Selected Private Higher
Education Institute. CINEC Repository. http://repository.cinec.edu/handle/cinec20/74
Elberich, N., Mathes, J., Gieselmann, A., & Pietrowsky, R. (2019). Nightmare distress
revisited: Cognitive appraisal of nightmares according to Lazarus’ transactional
model of stress. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry.
https://www.elsevier.com/locate/jbtep
Feist, G., Feist, J., & Roberts, T. (2021). Theories of personality. McGraw-Hill Education,
10, 525-552.
Goh, Y.W., Sawang, S., & Oei, T.P.S. (2010). The Revised Transactional Model (RTM) of
Occupational Stress and Coping: An improved process approach. The Australian and
New Zealand Journal of Organisational Psychology, 3, 13–20. DOI
10.1375/ajop.3.1.13
Hale, A.J., et al. (2019). Adapting Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs as a Framework for Resident
Wellness. Teach Learn, 31(1), 109-118. doi: 10.1080/10401334.2018.1456928.
How to maintain work-life-school balance: Bestcolleges. BestColleges.com. (2021, October
29).https://www.bestcolleges.com/resources/work-life-school-balance/?fbclid=IwAR0
7aQqlwioBDctkkqwBbEnZa0pgpUmdVF8NJzirtNe7hdwbFXE3rz-qp6E
Karma, Y., Kezang, S., Pema, C., Sangey, P., & Sonam, D. (2021). Well-being and academic
workload: Perceptions of Science and Technology Students. Educational Research
and Reviews, 16(11), 418–427. https://doi.org/10.5897/err2021.4197
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer.
Lester, D. (2013). Measuring Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Psychological Reports: Mental
and Physical Needs, 113 (1), 15-17.
Light, A. (2001). In-school work experience and the returns to schooling. Journal of Labor
Economics, 19(1), 65–93.
Loretto, P. (2022, September 19). Balancing between college, work, and personal life. The
Balance. https://www.thebalancemoney.com/creating-work-life-balance-for-collegestudents-1986743
Lowe, J., & Gayle, V. (2007). Exploring the work/life/study balance: The experience of
higher education students in a Scottish Further Education College. Journal of Further
and Higher Education, 31(3), 225–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098770701424942
McGregor, I. P. (2015). How does Term-time Paid Work Affect Higher Education Students’
Studies, and What can be Done to Minimise any Negative Effects? Journal of
Perspectives in Applied Academic Practice, 3(2), 3-14.
https://doi.org/10.14297/jpaap.v3i2.127
Outerbridge, H. J. (2016). The Impact of Part-Time Work on the Student Experience. Summit
Research Repository, 1–89. https://summit.sfu.ca/item/16466
Stinebrickner, R., & Stinebrickner, T. (2004). Time-use and college outcomes. Journal of
Econometrics, 121(1–2), 243–269.
Stinebrickner, R., & Stinebrickner, T. (2008). The causal effect of studying on academic
performance. The B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy, 8(1), 1–55.
https://doi.org/10.2202/1935-1682.1868
Tinto, V. (1993). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition.
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press
Ziems, C. (2017). Balancing Multiple Roles: A re-examination of how work impacts
academic performance for community college students. Electronic Theses and
Dissertations. https://stars.library.ucf.edu/etd/5386/?fbclid=IwAR19JluP0h9vwru
IBBWN_zMoF3c3QIKs6CROcu4aPBcvVWWanbww6bZ1pxU