Luke Murphy - 9/19/2022 Anatomy and Physiology Test 1 Study Guide Anatomy – Structure Physiology – Function Anatomy & Physiology – the structure and function of the body Levels of Organization: Atoms Compounds Organelles Cells Tissues Organs Organ Systems Organisms Bilateral Symmetry - right and left are mirror images (indicated by a mid-sagittal plane) Ipsilateral - same side Contralateral - opposite side Major Body Cavities Ventral Body Cavity: Thoracic Cavity • Mediastinum – trachea, right and left bronchi, heart, esophagus, major blood vessels • Pleural Cavities – Lungs Abdominopelvic Cavity • Abdominal Cavity – liver, gallbladder, stomach, spleen, pancreas, kidneys, ureters, small intestine, upper large intestine • Pelvic Cavity – lower large intestine, urinary bladder, reproductive organs Dorsal Body Cavity Cranial Cavity – Brain Spinal Cavity – Spinal Cord Diaphragm – muscle between the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities that helps with breathing (inhaling and exhaling) The Four Quadrants of the abdominopelvic cavity are the Right Upper Quadrant(RUQ), Right Lower Quadrant(RLQ), Left Upper Quadrant(LUQ), and Left Lower Quadrant(LLQ) Planes of the Body: Sagittal Plane – A vertical plane running from front to back that divides the body into right and left sides. An example would be bicep curls. Frontal Plane – A vertical plane running from side to side that divides the body into anterior(front) and posterior(back) portions. An example would be straight arm lateral raises. Transverse Plane – A horizontal that divides the body into superior and inferior parts. An example would be twisting at the waist or doing a rotating motion with the wrist. Directional Terms: • Superior – toward the head; Inferior – toward the feet • Anterior/Ventral – toward front; Posterior/Dorsal – toward back • Medial – toward midline; Lateral – away from midline • Superficial – toward the surface; Deep – away from the surface • Proximal – closer to the origin; Distal – farther from the origin Homeostasis: The relative constant state maintained by the body • Feedback Loops – communication networks for maintaining homeostasis • Set Points – homeostatic ranges that change with changing circumstances • Feed Forward – reactions to variables before they occur • Levels of Control – homeostatic mechanisms by levels of organization Feedback Loops: • Basic Components of Control Systems • Sensor Mechanism • Integrator or Control Center • Effector Mechanism • Feedback Negative Feedback Loops: • oppose or negate a change • create a response opposite of the initial disturbance An example would be Hormones Positive Feedback Loops: • enhances a change • amplifies or reinforces the initial disturbance An example would be the birthing process, immune responses, and blood clotting Intracellular: Cellular level Levels of Homeostatic Control Intrinsic: Tissue and Organ level Extrinsic: Organ System and Organism Level Chemical Basis of Life Elements – Fundamental forms of matter, 92 occur naturally. Most common elements in living organisms: Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen Phosphorus Sulphur Of these Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen are the most common. Atoms: Smallest part of an element Atoms are made of subatomic particles: • Protons (+) • Electrons (-) • Neutrons (no charge) Together these form the nucleus Atomic Number – The number of protons in an element All atoms of an element have the same atomic number Mass Number – The number of protons plus the number of neutrons in an element Electrons: The number and arrangement of electrons determine whether atoms will interact Contained in energy levels of shells Enables atoms to interact and form chemical bonds Energy Levels: Atoms differ in the number of occupied shells Shells closest to nucleus are lower energy and are filled first Atoms with filled outer shells will not react or form chemical bonds Energy Levels (Shells): First shell – Holds up to two electrons Second shell – Holds up to eight electrons Third shell – Holds up to eight electrons Electron Vacancies are unfilled shells that make atoms likely to react to form bonds A bond is union between electron structures of atoms: • Atoms bond to form molecules and compounds • Molecules may contain atoms of only one element - O2 • Compounds contain more than one element - H2O Important Bonds in Biological Molecules: Ionic Bonds – The exchange of electrons: One atom loses electrons, becomes a positively charged ion. Another atom gains these electrons to become a negatively charged ion. The Change difference attracts the two ions to each other. Covalent Bonds – The sharing of electrons: Atoms share a pair or pairs of electrons to fill their outermost shell. The number of electron vacancies determines the number of bonds formed. Can have single, double or triple covalent bonds. Nonpolar is when atoms share electrons equally (Hydrogen gas H-H) Polar is if electrons spend more time near the nucleus with the most protons (Water where electrons are more attracted to the O nucleus than to the H nuclei. This results in a “charged” compound. Most covalent bonds are polar. Hydrogen Bonds – An atom in one polar covalent molecule is attracted to an oppositely charged atom in another such molecule or in the same molecule. Is used in the bonding between compounds. Chemical Reactions: • Synthesis Reactions – build complex organic compounds from smaller subunits – requires energy (forms covalent bonds) • Decomposition Reactions – break down complex organic compounds into smaller subunits – releases energy (breaks covalent bonds down) Organic Compounds: Made up of organic molecules – carbon compounds that have subunits covalently bonded into macromolecules via synthesis and macromolecules broken down into subunits via decomposition reactions. Carbohydrates – Glucose is its simplest form • Monosaccharides – simple sugars - subunits • Polysaccharides – complex sugars – macromolecules (starch) Lipids • Triglycerides – fats macromolecules made by synthesis • Phospholipids – main component of the cell membrane Proteins • Amino Acids – building blocks of proteins - subunits • Polypeptide – linked amino acids – macromolecules Nucleic Acids • Nucleotide – building blocks of nucleic acids - subunits • DNA, RNA, ATP – complex nucleic acids - macromolecules Cell Structure Cells: the smallest living units of structure and function. Plasma Membrane – Made of phospholipids, cholesterol, and protein. Phospholipids form a bilayer Cholesterol provides stability. Proteins are transporters, antigens, and receptor sites. The cell membrane is selectively permeable. The cell membrane can carry electrical impulses. Nucleus – Where DNA is stored Cytoplasm – Fluid everything floats in, a watery solution of minerals, gases, and organic molecules providing a matrix. Organelle – Specialized structures that perform various jobs inside of cells. The cell organelles have specific functions: Endoplasmic Reticulum – synthesis of proteins and lipids Ribosomes – site of protein synthesis within the endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus – carbohydrate synthesis, packaging Mitochondria – energy transfers, ATP production Lysosomes – digestive enzymes, autophagy Centrioles – spindle organization, cell division Flagella, Cilia - movement Cell Function Movement of substances through Cell Membranes: Passive Transport Processes – does not require energy Diffusion – the movement of molecules from an area of greater concentration to an area of lesser concentration. (Bacon smell filling your house as you cook it) Simple Diffusion – the diffusion of small molecules across the plasma membrane Osmosis – the diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane. Facilitated diffusion – diffusion that requires protein transporters to cross the cell membrane. Active Transport Processes – requires energy Transport by Pumps – the movement of molecules from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration. Transport by Vesicles – the movement of larger materials in and out of cells Endocytosis – Movement of materials into the cell via vesicle formation Exocytosis – movement out of the cell via membrane cycling Cell Growth and Development Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA): DNA is a double helix made of nucleotides. Bonded together Nucleotides: Phosphate by hydrogen Pentose sugar Nitrogenous base – three of them Sequence of nucleotides is the genetic code DNA collectively is the genome The genetic code is the sequence of bases in the DNA, it is a code for proteins. The DNA code is a triplet code. A gene is the sequence of triplets for one protein. RNA and Protein Synthesis RNA – A single strand of nucleotides mRNA – copies a gene from DNA. Ribosomes – sites for mRNA. tRNA – each is specific for one amino acid. Transcription – mRNA copies a DNA gene. Translation – tRNA molecules assemble amino acids in proper sequence on the mRNA. Cell Reproduction Mitosis – one cell with the diploid(paired) number of chromosomes divide once to form two cells, each with the diploid(paired) number of chromosomes. Necessary for growth and repair. The stages: Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Meiosis – one cell with the diploid(paired) number of chromosomes divide twice to form four cells, each with the haploid(unpaired) number of chromosomes. Meiosis - The cell division process that forms gametes. Oogenesis – The differentiation of the ovum (egg cell) into a cell competent to further develop when fertilized. Spermatogenesis – A cell differentiation process that ensures the production of fertilizing sperm. Fertilization restores the diploid number of chromosomes. D Meiosis cell division – H H D D H H D Mitosis cell division - D D Tissues Primary Tissue Layers: Ectoderm – Epidermis of skin, lining of mouth, anus and nostrils Mesoderm – Muscles, skeleton, blood Endoderm – Lining of digestive, respiratory, and reproductive systems Extracellular Matrix (ECM) Fluid compartment outside of cells and around tissues that is composed of water, proteins and proteoglycans Body Membranes Extensive tissue layers covering organs and lining body cavities Epithelial Membranes: • Skin • Serous Membranes – cover and line closed body cavities • Mucous Membranes – line organ systems open to the environment Connective Tissue Membranes – line and cover synovial joint surfaces Tissue Types – Structure --- Function --- Location Epithelial - a membranous cellular tissue that covers a free surface or lines a tube or cavity of a body and serves especially to enclose and protect the other parts of the body, to produce secretions and excretions, and to function in assimilation. Types of Epithelial Tissue: Simple Squamous Epithelium • one layer of flat cells • movement of substances via diffusion (gas exchange, diapedesis) • located in the alveoli, blood vessels Simple Cuboidal Epithelium • one layer of cube shaped cells • secretion • glands, ducts Simple Columnar Epithelium • one layer of rectangular shaped cells • secretion, absorption, protection • mucosal lining of respiratory, digestive systems Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium • columnar cells of differing heights • protection • mucosal lining of respiratory and male reproductive tracts Stratified Squamous Epithelium • Multiple layers of flat cells • Protection • Keratinized – skin, nonkeratinized – mucosal lining of the esophagus, mouth, and vagina. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium • Multiple layers of cube shaped cells • Protection • Sweat glands, pharynx Stratified Columnar Epithelium • multiple layers of rectangular shaped cells • protection • anus, male urethra Transitional Epithelium • multiple layers of round → flat cells • stretching, protection • mucosal lining of bladder, ureters Glandular Epithelium: Specialized secretion tissues • Exocrine – secretion into ducts • Endocrine – secretion into blood steam or interstitial fluid Types of Connective Tissue: Loose Fibrous (Areolar) • loosely arranged collagen and elastic fibers • supports tissues and organs throughout the body Adipose • fat cells • energy storage, support, protection • subcutaneous throughout the body Reticular • reticular fibers • biological filtration, framework • spleen, lymph nodes, bone marrow Dense Fibrous • densely arranged collagen, elastic fibers • strong, flexible connections • tendons, ligaments, dermis, organ capsules Cartilage – avascular chondrocytes • Hyaline – articulating bone surfaces • Fibrocartilage – intervertebral disks, pubis symphysis • Elastic – external ear, larynx Blood – transport, immunity, regulation • Plasma • Formed Elements • RBC’s • WBC’s • Platelets Bone – protection, support, movement, calcium homeostasis • Compact bone • Cancellous bone Muscle Tissues: Muscle - movement Skeletal – striated, voluntary Smooth – nonstriated, involuntary Cardiac – striated, involuntary Nervous Tissues: Nervous – regulation, integration Neurons – conducting cells Neuroglia – supporting cells
