Tense
The word tense is derived from three different languages.
A: Latin word= Tempus
B: Greek word= tensus
C: Old French word= tens
They all mean “time” or “era”.
Definition: we can use tense to show that an action was happened, is happened or
will be happened.
Forms of the word tense
As noun: as a noun the word tense means time or era.
E.g. simple future perfect tense.
As adjective: as an adjective the word tense means upset, sad.
E.g. it is really tensing that you failed the test. I am tensed.
As a verb: it has two meaning
1: as a verb it means to make someone sad.
2: as a verb it means to make something firm, stable, and strong.
E.g. I tensed my brother yesterday.
Bodybuilding can tense our muscles.
Verbs according to our tenses
Verb has five forms
1: Unconjugated form / base form
2: Conjugated form / second form
3: Super conjugated form / third form]
4: Inflected form / verb es, s, ies
5: Derivational form / verb (ing)
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Kinds of tense
We have three main kinds of tenses in English grammar
A: present tense
B: past tense
C: future tense
Note: Our each main tense can be divided into four subclasses.
Present tenses
A: simple present tense
B: present continuous tense
C: present perfect tense
D: present perfect continuous tense
Past tenses
A: simple past tense
B: past continuous tense
C: past perfect tense
D: past perfect continuous tense
Future tenses
A: simple future tense
B: future continuous tense
C: future perfect tense
D: future perfect continuous tense
Forms of tenses
Tenses are commonly divided into two forms.
Simple form
Continuous form
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Stages of tense
Every tense has commonly three stages.
A: syntax stage ‫ترکیب مرحله‬/ ‫گرامر مرحله‬
This stage is the grammatical arrangement of words in a sentence
(structure/formula).
B: explanatory stage / cases or usages of tenses ‫مرحله تشریحی‬/ ‫مرحله استعمال‬
In this case or stage we defined tenses with its cases or usages.
C: Implementation stage ‫انجام محله‬
1: Simple present tense
Syntax / structure / formula
Structures
Singular subject
Subject + verb + es, s, ies + com
Plural subject
Subject + verb + com
Cases/usages of simple present tense
1: Simple present tense expresses action or state that happens habitually, regularly,
daily.
He smokes cigarettes in the morning. Habitual action
She chews gum during the lesson. Habitual action
They play football on Sundays. Regular action
It rains a lot in winter. Regular action
He wakes up at 5:00 am every morning. Daily action
She is busy at home daily. Daily state
2: Simple present tense expresses future schedulized action or state.
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The plan arrives at 3:00 pm tomorrow. 100%
The president is busy next week.
The plan will arrive at 3:00 pm tomorrow. 70%
3: with adverbs of frequency simple present tense expresses the repetition of action
or state, which is in the favor of subject.
He always takes his children to park. He likes to take
She is always busy at home.
4: with subordinating conjunctions simple present tense future meaning.
When he comes to class, I will talk with him. Future meaning
5: In headline, and narration simple present tense expresses past meaning.
Ashraf ghani meets bush. (They met) headline
The prophet says, “Seek knowledge from cradle to grave”. Narration
How to change simple present tense affirmative sentence to negative and
interrogative sentences?
He drives his car fast.
He does not drive his car fast.
He doesn’t drive his car fast.
Does he drive his car fast?
Does he not drive his car fast?
Doesn’t he drive his car fast?
WXSV: W-h words, auxiliaries, subject, verb
WXSV formula can occur in all tenses.
What does he write?
Why we called it simple?
Because we use simple form of verb.
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2: Present continuous tense
Structures
Subject + is, am, are + verb-ing + com
Cases/usages of present continuous tense
1: Present continuous tense expresses an action that is in progress at the time of
speaking, now or around now.
They are playing football now.
2: Present continuous tense also expresses an action that is in progress with future
meaning.
In this case we use, today, tomorrow, tonight, next week etc.
They are playing tomorrow. 100%
They will be playing tomorrow. 70%
3: With adverbs of frequency present continuous tense expresses repetition of
action, which is not in the favor of subject.
I am always cooking food. It means I don’t like cooking
Therefore we use adverbs of frequency after to be that there is action verb and it
talks about action verb.
4: with non-progressive verbs (see, want, need, love, like, hate etc.) present
continuous tense is used in the form of simple present tense.
He needs a pen now.
I want to write this note. Not I am wanting to write this note. Incorrect
5: Present continuous tense expresses gradual change in a particular situation.
The weather is getting colder day by day.
She is becoming younger day by day.
The pollution is increasing month by month.
How to change present continuous tense affirmative statements to negative and
interrogative sentences?
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WXSV formula: Why is he playing cricket?
What is your name? Where is Ahmad?
3: Present perfect tense
Structures
Singular subject
Subject + has + past participle form of verb + com
Plural
Subject + have + past participle form of verb + com
Cases/usages of present perfect tense
1: Present perfect tense expresses an action or state that happened or did not
happened in some unspecific time in past.
They have watched this movie. Action
He hasn’t taken lunch yet. Action
They have been quite busy. State
2: present perfect tense also expresses repetition of action or state in the past.
In this case we use. Once, twice, a couple of times, once in my life, once in 1999,
several times, many times.
She has taken Chinese food a couple of times.
It has rained seriously once in this week.
He has been abuse many times. State
3: present perfect tense also expresses an action or state that started in the past, it
comes present, and it may or may not go to future.
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In this case we use since and for, only with durative verbs (work, teach, know,
live)
Since: means starting of an action or state
For: duration of an action or state
She has worked in the bank for four years.
He has lived in the Kabul since 1995.
He has been bank manager since 2010.
1955
2019
Past
2020, 2022
present
future
4: Present perfect tense also expresses the result of past action comes to present.
She has cut her finger.
He has lost his mobile.
I have polished my shoes.
Why it is called perfect? Because past particle form is used
5: Present perfect tense also expresses an action or state that happened or did not
happened in recent past.
He has recently gotten the job.
She hasn’t taken lunch in restaurant lately.
I have just completed my education.
He has been recently sick. State
How to change present perfect affirmative statements to negative and interrogative
statements.
WXSV: Why has he played? What have they taken?
4: Present perfect continuous tense
Structures
Singular subject
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Subject + has + been + verb (ing) + rest of sentence
Plural subject
Subject + have + been + verb (ing) + rest of sentence
Cases/usages of present perfect continuous tense
1: present perfect continuous tense expresses the length or duration of an action
that started in the past, it comes to present, and May or may not go to future.
In this case we use since and for.
E.g. he has been living in Kabul since 1999.
She has been working in the office for two years.
Simple tense is soft, but continuous is zig zog.
Soft means:
zig zog means:
2: without since and for present perfect continuous tense expresses continuation of
an action just before now.
I have been peeling onions.
He has been running fast.
3: With the phrase (how long…?) present perfect continuous tense ask about length
or duration of an action started in past, it comes to present, and May or may not go
to future.
How long have you been working in bank?
4: present perfect continuous tense expresses gradual change started in the past, it
comes to present, and May or may not go to future.
The weather has been setting colder since last week.
The pollution has been increasing for the last two years.
5: present perfect continuous tense expresses repeated action that started in the
past, it comes to present, and May or may not go to future.
She has been blinking for the last two minutes.
He has been scratching his head for three times.
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Differences between present perfect tense and present perfect continuous tense.
Present perfect tense
1: shows the occurrence/happening of
action or state.
2: shows long-lasting action or state
with durative verbs.
3: emphasize the action or state.
Present perfect continuous tense
1: shows the continuation of an action.
4: may have some stoppages with
durative verbs.
5: the result is achieved.
2: he has lived in Kabul since for 10 years.
2: shows long-lasting action without
durative verbs.
3: emphasizes the length or duration of
action.
4: may not have stoppages with
durative verbs.
5: the result is not achieved.
She has been living in Kabul for 2 years.
4: he has worked in office since 8:00 am. Emphasize here is break
She has been working in office since 8:00 am. Emphasize, but here he is working
there is no break.
How to change affirmative to negative and interrogative sentences?
WXSV
1: Simple past tense/past indefinite tense
Structures
Subject + second form of verb + rest of sentence
Cases/usages of simple past tense
1: simple past tense expresses action or state that started and ended in a particular
time in the past.
They played cricket yesterday.
He was really busy last week.
2: simple past tense expresses a situation where one action or state happened
before another action.
In this case we use when.
She stood under a tree when it rained.
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He took lunch when he came.
When he came, he took lunch.
When expresses two meaning: 1: before (first) 2: after (second)
When as interrogative adverb means ‫چی کله‬
3: With the words (if and wish) simple past tense expresses present unreal
condition and present desire.
If he were a doctor, he would treat the patients. Present unreal condition
She wishes she were beautiful and rich. Present unreal desire
Positive sentence gives negative meaning, and negative sentence gives positive
meaning.
And we use would not will.
4: simple present tense also expresses past habit or state that no longer exists.
In this case we use (used to) semi modal auxiliary verb
He used to smoke cigarettes. Past action
She used to be alone at home. Past state
He didn’t use to smoke cigarettes.
Positive gives negative and negative gives positive meaning.
5: simple past tense also expresses past states that no longer exists. State ‫مقام‬. ‫رتبه‬
Karzai was the president of Afghanistan six years ago.
Tendulkar was the captain of Indian team 1o years ago.
Which rank of presidential does Ashraf Ghani stand on?
Which rank of offspring do you stand on? Means represent
How to change simple past tense affirmative statements to negative and
interrogative statements>
WXSV: What did they write? What they write?
2: Past continuous tense/ progressive tense
Structures
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Singular subject
Subject + was + verb (ing) + rest of sentence
Plural subject
Subject + were + verb (ing) + rest of sentence
Cases / usages of past continuous tense
• We can use past progressive tense to show an action which was in progress
at a particular time in the past.
Ex: I was helping Ali to do her project yesterday night.
• We can use past progressive tense to show two activities, the first action is in
progress and the second action stopped or interrupt the first action.
Note: In this case we use subordinating conjunction of time (when, while).
Our first action should be in past continuous tense and the second action should be
in simple past tense.
Ex: When she came home, I was cooking in the kitchen.
Ex: I was cooking in the kitchen when she came home. (When is used with simple
past tense)
Ex: While she was cooking in the kitchen, guests arrived. (While is used with past
continuous tense)
Ex: Guests arrived while she was cooking in the kitchen.
• When we use past continuous tense with (while) subordinating conjunction
to show two action were in progress at the same time in the past.
3: Past perfect tense
Structures
Subject + had + 3rdv + rest of the sentence
Cases / usages of past perfect tense
1: past perfect tense expresses an action or state which was not completed before
another action or time in the past.
E.g. He had learned computer before he got the job. Action
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Main clause
Time clause
The sky had been cloudy before it rained. State
Main clause
time clause
She had cooked the food by the time he slept.
Main clause
time clause
Note: Time clause only comes in simple past tense with (before, by the time,
when).
Note: there should be two clauses in this usage the first one is main clause and the
other one is time clause.
2: In general sentences past perfect tense expresses completion of action or state in
the past.
Here, in this usage we don’t use two clauses we need only independent clause.
I had taken lunch. Completion of action
He had been busy. Completion of state.
Note: I took lunch. ‫خوره و دودی ما‬
I have taken lunch. ‫ده خورلی دودی ما‬
I had taken lunch.‫وه خورلی دودی ما‬
3: with the words (if and wish) past perfect tense expresses past unreal condition
and past unreal desire.
E.g. If he had gotten the job, he would have given us a party. Past unreal condition
She wishes she had worked in the bank. Past unreal desire
4: Past perfect tense also expresses an action or state that was planned, intended,
wanted to happen, but it didn’t happen.
They had planned to play the final, but it rained.
She had intended to marry him, but he passed away.
He had wanted to get first position, but he failed.
5: In reported speech past perfect tense expresses simple past meaning.
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The boys said, “We played cricket yesterday”. Quoted speech
The boys said that they had played cricket the previous day. Reported speech
4: Past perfect continuous tense
Structures
Subject + had + been + verb (ing) + rest of sentence
Cases / usages of past perfect continuous tense
1: past perfect continuous tense expresses length or duration of an action which
was or was not in progress before another action or time in the past.
E.g. He had been studying computer for two months before he got the job.
She has been working for one month by the time she collected salary.
Main clause
time clause
They had been working for 30 minutes before afternoon.
Main clause
time clause
The same like in past perfect tense we use time clause and we need use two clauses
main and time clause with (before, by the time, when).
Activity that happens first main clause comes first, and the second comes after
main clause.
Always in past perfect and past perfect continuous tense we use simple past tense
in time clause.
2: without time expression past perfect continuous tense expresses continuation of
an action recent to another action in the past.
He had been playing football before he came to class.
She has been sleeping before she watched the movie.
3: with the words (if and wish) past perfect continuous tense expresses past unreal
condition and past unreal desire.
If he had been studying last night, he would not be watching TV. Past unreal
condition
She wished she had been in bank last year. Past unreal desire
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Future tenses
Difference between will and be going to
1: is a modal auxiliary verb
1: is a semi modal auxiliary verb or
similar expression to modal verb.
2: shows willingness
2: doesn’t show willingness
3: shows future non-prior planned
3: shows future prior-planned action or
action or state
state
4: shows present certainty
4: doesn’t show present certainty
5: make the statement of promise
5: doesn’t make the statement of
promise
6: makes request
6: doesn’t make request
Note: to talk about prediction, here will and be going to gives same meaning.
Non-prior planned: means something was not planned.
1: Simple future tense
Structure
Subject + will/shall/be going to/won’t + 1st verb + rest of sentence
Definition: simple future tense expresses action or state which will or will not
happen in a particular time in the future.
E.g. he will arrange a party tomorrow.
She is going to start business next year.
They won’t discuss the matter tonight.
The sky will be cloudy tonight. State
2: Future continuous tense
Structure
Subject + will/shall/be going to/ won’t + be + verb (ing) + rest of sentence
Definition: future continuous tense expresses an action which will or will not be in
progress in a particular time in the future.
They will be playing football tomorrow.
3: Future perfect tense
Structure
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Subject + will/shall/be going/won’t + have + 3rd verb + rest of sentence
Definition: future perfect tense expresses an action or state which will or will not
be completed before another action or time in the future.
He will have earned money before he buys a car. Main clause and time clause.
She will have started school by the time she starts university.
The sky will have been cloudy before it rains. State
Here, time clause is use in simple present tense and it gives future meaning.
4: Future perfect continuous tense
Structure
Subject + will/shall/be going to/ won’t + have + been + verb (ing) + rest of
sentence
Definition: future perfect continuous tense expresses length or duration of an
action which will or will not be in progress before another action or time in the
future.
He will have been studying class fifth for one year before he starts class sixth.
They will have been working for two hours before they collect their money. Main
and time cl.
Sentence Components
Sentence component is a grammatical term that indicates parts of sentence.
Sentence has two types of components
1: Primary components/main components
2: Supplementary components/additional components
Definition: Sentence is derived from the Greek word (sententia) which means a
thought or opinion.
Sentence is a complete unit of a language which has a subject and a predicate
which gives complete sense or meaning.
Sentence has to main verbs
1: Subject 2: predicate
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1: Primary components/main components
Primary components are those components which are essential to be used to make
base of sentence.
Principle components are three in numbers
1: subject 2: predicate 3: verb
1: Subject: noun, pronoun, noun phrase, noun clause usually used before the verb
to make the base of sentence is called subject.
E.g. Boys play football. Noun as subject
They play football. Pronoun as subject
What he bought looks expensive. Noun clause as subject
The great people work hard. Noun phrase as subject
Or whatever we talk about is called subject.
The doer of an action or a person, place or thing which we are talking about is
called subject.
Types of subject
There are two kinds of subject
1: simple subject: It is the main subject of the sentence to which the main verb
agrees.
2: Complete subject: complete subject is the simple subject with some other
words that come before or after it.
E.g. some of the teachers are very smart. Compound subject, simple subject
Students from Afghanistan are intelligent.
3: Compound subject: When two simple subjects are joind by coordinating
conjunctions and known as a compound subject.
The combination of simple and complete subject is called compound subject.
Ali and some of the students left the class.
2: Predicate: predicate is a grammatical term that indicates what subject does or
receives, who, what the subject is and where or how the subject is.
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Or predicate is a grammatical term that talks about the subject.
E.g. He drives his car. Predicate
He is punished by his wife. Predicate
Hammed is a doctor. Predicate
Computer is a technology. Predicate
They are at home. They are happy. Predicate
Kinds of predicate:
1: Simple predicate: it is a kind of predicate that there is only one main verb, and
gives complete meaning.
He works. He is talking.
2: Complete predicate: it is the simple predicate along with some other words that
come after main verb to give complete meaning.
She goes to school.
3: Compound predicate: when there are two main verbs joint by the coordinating
conjunctions it is called compound subject.
Ahmad teaches and learns at KELC. Compound predicate, compound complete
predicate
2: Supplementary components
Supplementary components are those components which are optional to be used
when they are needed.
Object, complement, rest of the sentence, adjective, adverb, preposition etc.
1: Object: noun, pronoun, noun phrase, noun clause affected by dynamic verb is
called object.
E.g. she teaches students. Noun as object
He bought them yesterday. Pronoun as object
He punishes the naughty boy. Noun phrase as object
He bought whatever he needs. Noun clause as object
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2: Complement: Any grammatical term that gives ending to a statement is called
complement.
Note: object can be complement, but a complement can’t be an object.
E.g. they teach students. Noun as object and it is also called complement
They are students. Noun complement, but can’t be object
He drives a car well every day in Canada in the morning with his friends.
A word which gives ending to a sentence that is called complement.
3: Rest of sentence: rest of sentence is a grammatical term placed either in the
beginning or end, considered a part from the targeted words.
E.g. they play football with friends. A part from with and with is preposition so the
beginning part is called rest of sentence.
They play football with friends. A part from the word play other words are called
rest of sentence and now it comes at the end.
Kinds of sentence
According to meaning
structure
According to
1: Declarative/Assertive sentence
1: Simple sentence
2: Interrogative sentence
2: Compound sentence
3: Imperative sentence
3: Complex sentence
4: Exclamatory sentence
sentence
4: Compound complex
5: Optative sentence
1: Declarative/assertive sentence
Definition: It is a kind of sentence which is ended with full stop and is used to
make affirmative and negative statements is called declarative sentence.
We study grammar every day.
I do not go to school.
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2: Interrogative sentence
Definition: Interrogative sentence is a type of sentence ended with question mark
to ask or interrogate about confirmation, information is called interrogative
sentence.
E.g. can you dance? Asks for confirmation
Is it expensive? Asks for confirmation
Where does she live? Asks for information
3: Imperative sentence
Definition: Imperative sentence is a type of sentence ended with full stop to
express command, order, request, advice, direction, instructions and warning is
called imperative sentence.
Command is given to group of people.
Order is given to one person.
Attack over the enemies. Command
Close the door. Order
Close the door, please. Request
Respect your parents. Advice
Turn right, walk two blocks. Direction
Slice two onion into the oil. Direction
Stand up. Sit down. Shut your mouth. Warning
4: Exclamatory sentence
Definition: Exclamation sentence is a type of sentence that is ended with
exclamation mark (!) to express sudden or strong, surprise, emotion is called
exclamation sentence.
What a nice car it is!
Such a building it is! How beautiful girl she is!
What a nice car! It is exclamation phrase, a sentence should have a subject and a
verb than it is exclamation sentence.
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5: Optative sentence
Definition: Optative sentence is a type of sentence ended with full stop to express
wishes, prayers, and imprecations is called optative sentence.
E.g. wish you long-lasting joys. Shows wish
May Allah bestow us absolution. Prayer
Down with the enemies of Afghanistan. Imprecation
Sentences according to structure
1: Simple sentence
Definition: Simple sentence is a type of sentence that consist of one independent
clause is called simple sentence.
E.g. Hameed plays football every day. Independent clause
Note A: Simple sentences are expended with phrases.
Hameed, with his brothers plays football every day.
Hammed, the student of university plays football every day.
B: sometimes a simple sentence containing compound subjects.
E.g. Hammed and Tahir play football every day.
D: sometimes a simple sentence contains compound subjects and compound verb.
E.g. Hameed and Tahir play and enjoy football every day.
2: Compound sentence
Definition: Compound sentence is a type of sentence that consist of two or more
independent clause connected by coordinating conjunctions or semi colon.
E.g. He plays cricket well and she plays football well. Two independent clauses
She plays cricket well; she plays football well. Connected by semi colon
3: Complex sentence
Definition: Complex sentence is a type of sentence that consists of one
independent with one dependent clause connected by either relative pronoun or
subordinating conjunctions is called complex sentence.
E.g. He will earn much money if he works hard.
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Types of complex sentence
Complex sentence is divided into three types.
1: Loos complex sentence 2: Periodic complex sentence 3: Inverted complex
sentence
1: Loos complex sentence
Definition: loos complex sentence is a type of complex sentence that begins with
independent clause is called loos complex sentence.
E.g. He will earn much money if he works hard.
2: Periodic complex sentence
Definition: periodic complex sentence is a types of complex sentence that begins
with dependent clause is called periodic complex sentence.
E.g. If he works hard, he will earn much money.
3: Inverted complex sentence
Definition: inverted complex sentence is a type of complex sentence in which the
subject changes its position with either main verb or auxiliary verb is called
inverted complex sentence.
Note: inverted complex sentences takes place in omitting (if). If can be omitted in
the following three cases.
1: With the word (were).
If he were a doctor, he would treat the patients.
Were he a doctor, he would treat the patients. Inverted complex sentences
2: with the word (should).
If you should need further information, contact our main office.
Should you need further information, contact our main office.
3: with the word (had).
E.g. If he had gotten the job, he would have given us a party.
Had he gotten the job, he would have given us a party.
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4: Compound complex sentence
Definition: compound complex sentence is a type of sentence that consist of two
independent clauses and at least one dependent clause is called compound complex
sentence.
E.g. she will purchase a mobile and she will purchase a car if she earns dollars.
He will marry a girl and he will marry a women who has been married thrice.
Clause ‫فقره‬. ‫جمله‬
Clause is derived from the Greek word “Clausa” that means a unit.
Definition: Clause is a unit of words that contains subject, predicate and it usually
gives complete meaning is called clause.
Differences between a clause and a sentence
Sentence
1: Sentence always expresses complete
meaning.
2: sentence is bigger than clause.
3: sentence may have more than one
clause.
Clause
1: Clause usually expresses complete
meaning.
2: clause is smaller than sentence.
3: clause may not have more than one
sentence.
She knows a boy who works in the bank. It’s a complete sentence
She knows a boy who works in the bank. Two clauses
Types of clauses
Clause is divided into two types.
1: Independent clause ‫مستقل فقره‬
2: Dependent clause ‫مستقل غیر فقره‬
1: Independent clause
Definition: Independent clause is a type of clause that gives complete meaning and
it can be stand alone is called independent clause.
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Independent clause is also called main clause, principle clause, lexical clause, and
it is also called coordinating clause.
2: Dependent clause
Definition: Dependent clause is a type of clause which cannot stand alone it needs
another clause is called dependent clause.
Dependent clause is also called identifying clause, relative clause, and it is also
called subordinating clause.
E.g. He respects a woman who works in the bank.
She knows a boy who plays well.
Ahmad is a good teacher who teaches us. Ahmad who teaches us is a good person.
Why independent clause is called main, principle, lexical, and coordinating
clause?
1: Why it is called independent clause?
Because it can stand alone and it gives clear and complete meaning therefore it is
called independent clause.
2: Why it is called main clause.
Because it has main subject and main verb.
3: Why it is called lexical clause?
Because it is self-defined and it doesn’t need explanation.
4: Why it is called principle clause?
5: Why it is called coordinating clause?
Because it is the controller and it control dependent clause.
Why dependent clause is called identifying, relative, and subordinating
clause?
1: Why it is called dependent clause?
It cannot stand alone and it need another clause to complete its meaning.
2: Why it is called identifying clause?
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Because it identifies the antecedent of independent clause. Noun, pronoun
3: Why it is called subordinating clause?
Because it is under the control of coordinating clause.
4: Why it is called relative clause?
Because of two reason
1: it starts with relative pronoun.
Types of dependent clause
Dependent clause is divided into three types
1: Adjective clause
2: Adverb clause
3: Noun clause
1: Adjective clause
Definition: Adjective clause is a type of dependent clause that functions the same
as adjective, it modifies noun, pronoun, clause, and it sometimes gives extra
information about noun is called adjective clause.
Key points
1: Adjective clause is always dependent clause.
2: Noun, pronoun, clause modified by adjective clause is called antecedent.
3: Adjective clause is usually introduced by relative pronoun.
4: The relative pronouns are also called adjective clause markers.
Markers means ‫نشاندهنده‬
E.g. He respects a man who works in the bank. Man is antecedent, and adjective
clause modifies the antecedent.
He purchased something that is made in Japan. Something is antecedent pronoun
and adjective clause modifies the antecedent.
He likes Honda car, which is made in Japan. Honda car is antecedent adjective
clause modifies the antecedent.
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He failed the exam again which made all his family sad. Clause antecedent is
modified by adjective clause.
Cases of relative pronoun
1: Subject case
In this case a relative pronoun is used before verb in adjective clause to function as
the subject of adjective clause.
In this case we use (who, which, that)
E.g. He purchased a car that runs very fast.
She knows a man who sells cheese.
They like a car which is made in Japan.
2: Object case
In this case a relative pronoun is followed by subject noun or pronoun to function
as object of the verb.
In this case we use (who, whom, which, that)
E.g. He purchased a car that he likes the most.
1: Relative pronoun + verb= subject case 2: Relative pronoun + noun/pronoun=
object case
He knows a doctor who he met in Airport. Informal
He knows a doctor whom he met in Airport. Formal
What is the difference between who and whom?
Who can be used in both subject and object case but whom is only used in object
case?
If we use whom instead of who in object case it is more formal to use it.
3: Complement of preposition case
In this case a relative pronoun is preceded by proposition to complete the meaning
of preposition.
In this case we use (whom, which)
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E.g. He loves the girl to whom he gifted a mobile. Complement of preposition case
She likes this city in which she was born. Complement of preposition case
4: Possessive case
In this case a relative pronoun is used in two ways to show possession or
relationship.
1: The relative pronoun (whose) refers to person, place and thing.
2: The structure (The + noun of which) refers to place, and thing.
E.g. He loves a girl whose father is butcher. Possessive case shoes relationship
She purchased a car whose color is dark black. Possessive case
She purchased a car the color of which is dark black. Possessive case
Note: in complement of preposition case and object case a relative pronoun can be
omitted.
Twitter means sign of deletion
E.g. He respects the man whom he met in hospital.
He respects the man
English.
he met in hospital. Only in written English not in spoken
She likes the city in which she was born in.
She likes the city
she was born in.
She likes the city that she was born in. she likes the city which she was born in.
Note: Adjective clause is used near to its antecedent.
1: The man was very honest who helped me yesterday. Incorrect
The man who helped me yesterday was very honest. Adjective clause, independent
clause
2: She is my best friend who works in the bank. Incorrect
She who works in the bank is my best friend. Adjective clause, independent clause
3: The city is very beautiful that is the capital of Afghanistan. Incorrect
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They city that is the capital of Afghanistan is very beautiful. Adjective and
independent clause
4: The student is from China who sits next to me. Adjective and independent
clause
The student who sits next to me is from China. Adjective and independent clause
Types of adjective clause
Adjective clauses are divided into three types.
1: Restrictive adjective clause 2: Non-restrictive adjective clause 3: Sentential
adjective clause
1: Restrictive adjective clause
Definition: Restrictive adjective clause is a type of adjective clause that modifies
antecedent is called restrictive adjective clause.
Antecedent: Noun, pronoun
2: Non-restrictive adjective clause
Definition: Non-restrictive adjective clause is a type of adjective clause that gives
extra information about antecedent is called non-restrictive adjective clause.
Key points about restrictive and non-restrictive adjective clauses.
1: Restrictive adjective clause modifies antecedent, but non-restrictive adjective
clause gives extra information about antecedent.
2: Restrictive adjective clause is introduced with (who and that), but non-restrictive
adjective clause is introduced with (who and which).
3: The antecedent of restrictive adjective clause is common noun or pronoun, but
the antecedent of non-restrictive adjective clause is proper noun.
4: Comma or commas are not used in restrictive adjective clause, but comma or
commas are used in non-restrictive adjective clause.
E.g. she knows a boy who works in the bank. Boy is common noun and it is
restrictive adj clause
She knows Hameed, who works in the bank. Hameed is Proper noun, and it is nonrestrictive adjective clause.
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Why we use comma or commas in non-restrictive adjective clause?
Comma or commas show that this is clause is not necessary.
They purchased a car that is made in Japan. Car is common noun, restrictive
adjective clause
They purchased Honda car, which was made in Japan. Honda is proper noun, nonrestrictive adjective clause.
The city that she lives in is pretty. Restrictive clause
Kabul, which she lives in, is pretty. Kabul is proper noun, non-restrictive adjective
clause
Note: Restrictive adjective clause is also called identifying clause, and essential
clause.
Non-restrictive adjective clause is also called non-identifying adjective clause and
non-essential adjective clause.
In + which= place
On + which= when
3: Sentential adjective clause
Definition: Sentential adjective clause is a type of adjective clause that modifies
the idea of complete clause is called sentential adjective clause.
Sentential adjective clause is introduced with (which) preceded by comma.
E.g. He failed the exam, which made all his family sad. Sentential adjective clause
modifies the whole independent clause.
She came very late last night, which put the family in a fear. Sentential adjective
clause
Changing adjective clause to adjective phrase
1: When we change adjective clause to adjective phrase the relative pronoun
should be in subject case.
Reduction of adjective clause to adjective phrase
Clause: subject + verb
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Phrase: subject + verb: subject + verb
He talked with the woman who works in the Airport. Adjective clause
He talked with the woman working in the Airport. Adjective phrase
She teaches a student that came from a poor family. Adjective clause
She teaches a student coming from a poor family. Adjective phrase
1: The relative pronoun should be in subject case, and the tense should be simple
present and simple past tense, and we change the verb to verb + ing.
Note: If a word modifies noun or pronoun is called adjective, if a sentence
modifies noun, pronoun is called adjective clause, if a phrase modifies noun,
pronoun is called adjective phrase.
2: If adjective clause is in the present continuous and past continuous tense we
remove the relative pronoun and the auxiliary verb, and the ing form remain.
E.g. they like the car that is standing next to the plaza. Adjective clause
They like the car standing next to the plaza. Adjective phrase
She respects the doctor who was living in USA last year. Adjective clause
She respects the doctor living in USA last year. Adjective phrase
3: If the adjective clause contain to be verb as main verb we remove the relative
pronoun and to be.
E.g. He loves a girl who is the MD of multi-national company. Adjective clause
He loves a girl the MD of multi-national company. Adjective phrase
They know a woman who was the director of CELA. Adjective clause
They know a woman the director of CELA. Adjective phrase
4: If adjective clause contain present perfect and past perfect tense we remove the
relative pronoun and the auxiliary is changed into have + ing= having.
E.g. she knows a boy who has lived in UK since 1999. Adjective clause
She knows a boy having lived in UK since 1999. Adjective phrase better one to use
Has, had, have is changed into Have + ing= having
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Or: she knows a boy living in UK since 1999.
There are two possibilities to change present or past perfect tense to adjective
phrase.
1: The auxiliary verb is changed into verb + ing form.
5: The third form of verb is changed into ing form we remove the auxiliary verb.
3: If adjective clause contains passive sentence we remove the relative pronoun
and to be and the verb remains.
E.g. he purchased the building that was built in 1995. Adjective clause
He purchased the building built in 1995. Adjective phrase
Note: Can is a modal auxiliary verb used to show present ability. Adjective phrase
Can is a modal auxiliary verb that is used to show present ability. Adjective clause
This is called reduction in English grammar.
5: If adjective clause contain negative statements we remove relative pronoun and
auxiliary verb but not remains.
She knows a man who doesn’t work in the bank. Adjective clause
She knows a man not working in the bank. Adjective phrase
2: Adverb clause
Definition: Adverb clause is a type of dependent clause that functions the same as
an adverb, showing time relationship, cause and effect relationship, opposition and
condition is called adverb clause.
Key points
1: Adverb clause is a dependent clause.
2: Adverb clause is introduced with subordinating conjunctions (when, after, by the
time, because, though, and although etc.).
3: The subordinating conjunctions are also called adverb clause markers.
4: Adverb clauses have two positions in sentences.
A: after main clause.
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B: before main clause: here a comma separates the two clauses.
E.g. they were watching TV when their father came. Adverb clause, shows time
relationship
He went to hospital because he was really sick. Adverb clause, shows cause and
effect relationship
They failed the exam although they studied hard. Adverb clause, shows opposition
He will earn money if he works hard. Adverb clause, shows condition ‫شرط‬
If he works hard, he will earn money. Adverb clause
Here comma is not used because of (if) here comma is used to separate two
clauses.
Types of adverb clause
1: Adverb clause of time relationship
Definition: Adverb clause of time relationship is a type of adverb clause that
indicates when the action of main clause happens or happened is called adverb
clause of time relationship.
Adverb clause of time relationship is introduced with the following subordinating
conjunctions.
When, while, as, by the time, before, after, since, as soon as, as long as, so long as,
the first time, the last time, the next time, until, whenever, every time, the next
time, by the time.
E.g. he will have learned computer before he gets a job. Adverb clause of time
relationship
She had earned money by the time she bought a car. Adverb clause of time
relationship
Note: if we used future tenses in main clause so we should we use present tense in
adverb clause, and if we use past perfect tense in main clause so we should use
simple past tense in adverb clause. If simple past tense is used in main clause we
use past perfect tense in adverb clause, if past continuous tense is used in main
clause we use simple past tense in adverb clause, if simple past tense is use in main
clause so we can past perfect or past continuous tense is used in adverb clause.
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Meaning and usages of subordinating conjunctions of time relationship
1: After: means
E.g. After she graduates, she will get a job. Adverb clause of time relationship
She got a job after she had graduated. Adverb clause of time relationship
2: Before: means
E.g. I will leave before he comes. Adverb clause of time relationship
Before he came, I had left the class. Adverb clause of time relationship
3: When: means at that time
E.g. when I arrived, he was talking on the phone. Adverb clause of time
relationship
When I got there, she had already left. Adverb clause of time relationship
I stood under a tree when it began to rain. Adverb clause of time relationship
When I was in Chicago, I visited the museums. Adverb clause of time relationship
I will ask him when I see him tomorrow. Adverb clause of time relationship
4: While, as: mean during that time
E.g. while I was teaching, he knocked the door. Adverb clause of time relationship
As I was teaching, he knocked the door. Adverb clause of time relationship
5: By the time: means one event is completed before another event
E.g. By the time he arrived, we had already left. Adverb clause
We will already have left by the time he comes. Adverb clause
6: Since: means from that time to the present, and present perfect tense is used in
main clause
E.g. I haven’t seen him since he left this morning. Adverb clause
Since he left this morning, I haven’t seen him. Adverb clause
7: Until, till: mean to that time and then no longer exists, till is used in speaking
rather than writing.
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E.g. We stayed there until we finished our work. Adverb clause
Till we finished our work, we stayed there. Adverb clause
8: As soon as, once: mean when one event happens, another event happens soon
afterwards.
E.g. As soon as it stops raining, we will leave. Adverb clause
We will leave once it stops raining. Adverb clause
9: As long as, so long as: mean during all that time, from beginning to end
E.g. I will never speak to him again as long as I live. Adverb clause
So long as I live, I will never speak to him again. Adverb clause
10: Whenever, every time: mean every time
E.g. Whenever I see her, I say hello. Adverb clause
I say hello every time I see her. Adverb clause
11: The first time, the last time, the next time: adverb clause can be introduced by
the following
The + first, second, third, last, next time:
E.g. The first time I went to New York, I went to an opera. Adverb clause
I saw two plays the last time I went to New York. Adverb clause
The next time I go to New York, I am going to see a ballet. Adverb clause
12: After and afterwards
E.g. After I ate dinner, I took a walk. Adverb clause
I ate dinner. Afterwards, I took a walk. Adverb clause
After: can be used to introduce an adverb clause
Afterwards: is an adverb meaning later and after that.
Afterwards can also be spelled without (s) afterward.
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2: Adverb clause of cause and effect relationship
Definition: Adverb clause of cause and effect relationship is a type of adverb
clause that indicates the cause how the action of main clause happens or happened
is called adverb clause of cause and effect relationship.
Adverb clause of cause and effect relationship is introduced with the following
subordinating conjunctions.
Because, since, as, now that, in as much as, in as long as, so long as, in order that.
E.g. He earned much money because he worked extremely hard. Adverb clause of
cause and effect relationship
The above subordinating conjunctions give the same meaning as because the only
difference is this that because is common.
1: Because
E.g. Because he was sleepy, he went to bed. Adverb clause of cause and effect
relationship
2: Since: means because
E.g. Since he is not interested in classical music, he decided not to go the concert.
Adverb clause
3: Now that: means because now. Now that is used for present and future situations
E.g. Now that the semester is finished, I am going to rest a few days and then take
a trip. Adverb clause of cause and effect relationship
4: As: means because
E.g. As she had nothing in particular to do, she called up a friend and asked her if
she wanted to take in a movie. Adverb clause of cause and effect relationship
5: As long as, so long as: mean because
E.g. As long as you are not busy, could you help me with this work? Adverb clause
of cause and effect relationship
So long as I am busy, I want to play with them. Adverb clause of cause and effect
relationship
6: inasmuch as: means because
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E.g. Inasmuch as the two government leaders could not reach an agreement, the
possibilities for peace are still remove. Adverb clause of cause and effect
relationship
Cause and effect relationship
Definition: Cause and effect relationship is a grammatical sequence that contains
particular cause for a specific result.
In English grammar cause and effect relationship is introduced in the following
five ways.
1: With some subordinating conjunctions (because, since, as, now that, in as much
as, in as long as, so long as.)
E.g. because he works hard, he earns much money. Dependent clause shows Cause
and independent clause shows effect.
2: With coordinating conjunctions so and for.
E.g. They were really tired, so they slept early. Both are independent clauses the
first clause shows cause and the second shows effect.
3: With some prepositions (because of, owning to, due to)
E.g. Because of bad weather, they postponed the match. The first sentence is not an
adverb clause because it doesn’t have subject and verb it is a preposition phrase
shows cause and the second clause independent clause shows effect.
4: With some transitions: therefore, consequently, hence, thus
E.g. He need money. Therefore, he works hard. Shows cause and effect
5: With some structures
1: such a/an + adjective + noun + that
2: so + adjective/adverb + that
E.g. Football is such a nice game that everyone wants to play. The first one shows
cause and the other one shows effect.
They are so intelligent that all appreciate them. Shows cause and effect
He danced so beautifully that everyone likes it. Shows cause and effect
Note about the above structures:
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In above structures (such) is determiner followed by noun or pronoun, but (so) is
adverb of degree that is usually not followed by noun or pronoun.
Note: so can followed by noun or pronoun by adjective of quantity.
E.g. she is such a nice girl that all boys propose her.
He is so intelligent that all appreciate him.
She has some money that she wants to buy a car.
He has so many friends that he can enjoy his weekends.
Note: if a noun is singular than we use (a and an) if a noun is plural or uncountable
than we cannot use (a and an).
Such a nice weather that we want to play cricket. Incorrect
Such nice weather that we want to play cricket. Correct
Because weather is uncountable noun it is not followed by a and an.
Note of other books that shows cause and effect relationship
1: Using prepositions to shows cause and effect: because of and due to
1: because, because of, due to: because introduces adverb clause and it is followed
by a subject and a verb.
Because of and due to are prepositions they are followed by noun object.
E.g. Because the weather was cold, we stayed home. Cause and effect
Because of the cold weather, we stayed home. Cause and effect
Due to the cold weather, we stayed home. Cause and effect
Note: due to is sometimes followed by a noun clause introduced by the fact that,
usually in formal writing.
Due to the fact that the weather was cold, we stayed home. Cause and effect
2: Using transitions to show cause and effect relationship: therefore, consequently,
hence, thus
E.g. Ali failed the test because he didn’t study.
Ali didn’t study. Therefore, he failed the test.
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Ali didn’t study. Consequently, he failed the test.
They have the same meaning but the only difference is this that therefore and
consequently are transitions or conjunctive adverbs they connect ideas between
two sentences.
Transitions can be used in the following three ways.
1: Ali didn’t study. Therefore, he failed the test.
2: Ali didn’t study. He, therefore, failed the test.
3: Ali didn’t study. He failed the test, therefore.
Position of transition:
Transition + subject + verb + rest of sentence
Subject + transition + verb + rest of sentence
Subject + verb + rest of sentence + transition
Note: transitions have different positions in a sentence but conjunctions have only
one position.
Note: and transitions comes after the first clause they don’t occur in the first
clause.
3: Adverb clause of opposition ‫مخالف‬. ‫متضاد‬
Definition: Adverb clause of opposition is a type of adverb clause that indicates
unexpected result that how the action of main clause happened or happens is called
adverb clause of opposition.
Adverb clause of opposition is introduced with the following subordinating
conjunctions.
Although, though, even though ‫باوجودیکه‬
Although he is extremely poor, he plan to start a business. Adverb clause of
opposition
Because he is extremely poor, he plan to start a business.
Because: shows expected result
Even though: shows unexpected result
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Opposition
Definition: Opposition is a grammatical sequence that contains two opposite ideas.
Opposition is divided into two parts
1: Direst opposition/Factual opposition
2: Indirect opposition/Un factual opposition
1: Direct opposition/factual opposition
Definition: Direct opposition is a type of opposition that contains two opposite
words.
2: Indirect opposition
Definition: Indirect opposition is a type of opposition that contains two opposite
ideas.
E.g. She is very rich, while he is very poor. Two opposite words rich and poor.
He studies very hard, but she doesn’t study very hard. Two opposite ideas studying
hard and not studying hard.
In English grammar opposition is introduced in the following four ways
1: With some subordinating conjunctions though, although, even though
E.g. She got the job although she did not pass the interview.
2: With some prepositions despite, in spite of
Despite the cold weather, they went swimming.
3: With some coordinating conjunctions but, yet, while, whereas
E.g. He works hard, whereas she does not work hard.
Note: while and whereas are subordinating conjunctions but sometimes they are
also called coordinating conjunctions and they give the same meaning like but.
4: With some transitions however, nevertheless, nonetheless, in contrast
E.g. Men are highly educated. Nevertheless, women are less educated.
Other book notes
All of the following example sentences have the same meaning
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Adverb clauses
Even though, though, although
Even though it was cold, I went
swimming.
Although it was cold, I went
swimming.
Though it was cold, I went swimming.
Conjunctions
But, yet
It was cold, but I went swimming.
It was cold, yet I went swimming.
Transitions
Nevertheless, nonetheless, however, in It was cold. Nevertheless, I went
contrast
swimming.
It was cold. Nonetheless, I went
swimming.
It was cold. However, I went
swimming.
It was cold. In contrast, I went
swimming.
Prepositions
In spite of, despite
I went swimming despite the weather
was cold.
I went swimming in spite of the
weather was cold.
4: Adverb clause of condition ‫شرط‬
Definition: Adverb clause of condition is a type of adverb clause that indicates
particular condition that how the action of main clause happens or happened is
called adverb clause of condition.
Adverb clause of condition is introduced with the following subordinating
conjunctions
If, providing that, provided that, unless, only if, even if, whether or not, in case
that, in the event that
E.g. If he earns money, he can start a business. Adverb clause of condition
Usages of subordinating conjunctions in adverb clause of condition.
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1: If, providing that, provided that: mean if
E.g. If he keeps on struggling, he will get the success.
2: Unless: means if not
It is subordinating conjunction introducing negative adverb clause of condition.
E.g. He will not get the first position unless he studies hard. Negative Adverb
clause of condition
3: Only if: means just if ‫که فقط‬
It is subordinating conjunction introducing adverb clause of condition to show that
only one condition can change the result.
E.g. They will cancel the picnic only if it rains seriously.
Note: we cannot use future tense in subordinating clause we use simple present
tense in subordinating clause.
4: Even if: means just if
It is subordinating conjunction introducing adverb clause condition to show that
only one condition cannot change the result.
E.g. Even if it rains seriously, they will go swimming.
They will go swimming even if it rains seriously.
5: Whether or not: means if or if not
It is subordinating conjunction introducing adverb clause of condition to show that
none of the condition can change the result.
E.g. Whether or not she invites me, I will go to the party.
Whether or not she passes the interview, she will get the job.
Whether can be used alone in a sentence
Whether she passes the interview, she will get the job.
6: In case that, in the event that: mean if
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They are subordinating conjunctions introducing adverb clause of condition to
show that something will not happen, but it might happen.
E.g. In case that my brother comes, call me as soon as possible.
In the event that it rains seriously, close all the windows.
In case of and in the event of have the same meaning but they are prepositions
followed by a noun object.
E.g. In case of trouble, call the police. Or in case that there is trouble, call the
police.
In the event of rain, the picnic will be cancelled. Or in the event that it rains, the
picnic will be cancelled.
Changing adverb clause to adverb phrase
1: Adverb clauses can be changed to adverb phrases only in time relationship and
cause and effect relationship.
2: When we change adverb clauses to adverb phrases, the subject of the main
clause and adverb clause should be same, if different change cannot take place.
E.g. 1: He will have learned computer before he gets a job. Adverb clause
He will have learned computer before getting a job. Adverb phrase
2: He had earned much money before she bought a car. Adverb clause
She had earned money before buying a car. Adverb phrase
3: He was watching TV while he was sitting in room. Adverb clause
He was watching TV while sitting in room. Adverb phrase
4: They get tired while they are running fast. Adverb clause
They get tired while running fast. Adverb phrase
5: After he had completed his education, he get the job. Adverb clause
After having completed his education, he get the job. Adverb phrase
Or: After completing his education, he get the job. Adverb phrase
6: He works in the hospital because he is professional doctor. Adverb clause
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He works in the hospital being a professional doctor. Adverb phrase
Note: Is, am, are, was, and were are changed into being
After, before, while: should not be deleted in adverb phrase
Because: should be deleted in adverb phrase
Since: means because should be deleted
Since: means from that time too present should not be deleted
When: is changed into upon in adverb phrase
He will get his identity card when he reaches to age of 18. Adverb clause
He will get his identity card upon reaching to age of 18. Adverb phrase
Summary of relationship words that are used in adverb clause
Adverb clause of Time relationship, cause and effect relationship, oppositions
and condition
Time
relationship
Cause and
effect
relationship
Adverb
Transitions
clauses words
After, before,
when, while,
since, as, by
the time,
until, as soon
as, once, as
long as, so
long as,
whenever,
every time,
the first time,
the last time,
the next time,
Conjunctions
Prepositions
Because,
Therefore,
since, as, now consequently,
that, as long
hence, thus
as, so long as,
as soon as, in
So, for
Because of,
due to,
owning to,
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as much as,
so.
Opposition
Though,
although,
even tough
However,
But, yet,
nevertheless, while,
nonetheless,
whereas
in contrast, on
the other hand
Condition
If, providing Otherwise
that, provided
that, only if,
even if,
whether or
not, in case
that , in the
event that,
unless
Or
In spite of,
despite
In case of, in
the event of
3: Noun clause
Definition: Noun clause is a dependent clause that functions the same as noun, it
can be the subject, object, and complement of a sentence is called noun clause.
Key points
1: Noun clause is always dependent clause.
2: Noun clause is moveable.
3: Noun clause is introduced with the following four markers.
1: With W-H words
What, where, when, why, who, whom, whose, which, how
2: Compound relative pronouns
Whoever, whomever whosever, whichever, whenever, whatever, wherever.
3: If/whether
4: That
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Cases of Noun clauses
1: Subject case: In this case a noun clause is used before verb to function as the
subject of the sentence.
E.g. Honda car runs very fast. Noun as subject
What she bought runs very fast. Noun clause as subject
The book is quite interesting. Noun as subject
Whatever she reads is quite interesting. Noun clause as subject
2: Object case: In this case a noun clause is affected by action verb.
E.g. He buys books. Noun as object
He buys whatever he needs. Noun clause as object
She heard the joke. Noun as object
She heard what she said. Noun clause as object
3: Complement of preposition case: In this case a noun clause is preceded by
preposition to complete the meaning of preposition.
E.g. they are from Canada. Noun as a complement of prep case
They are from where they live. Noun clause a complement of prep case completes
the meaning of preposition
4: Complement of be case: In this case a noun clause completes the meaning of be.
E.g. this is idea. Noun of be case
This is whatever I want to tell you. Noun clause as be case
That is what she bought yesterday. Noun clause as be case
Subject and verb agreement
Is also called subject and verb concord.
Definition: Subject and verb agreement is grammatical term that indicates singular
subject agrees singular verb and plural subject agrees plural verb is called subject
and verb agreement.
Common rules of subject and verb agreement
Note: If a noun takes (es, ies, s, ves) that is called plural noun if a verb takes (es,
ies, s) than that is called singular verb.
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1: Singular subject agrees singular verb.
E.g. Child plays football. Singular subject, singular verb
2: Plural subject agrees plural verb.
E.g. Children play football.
3: Series of singular subjects separated by comma takes singular verb.
E.g. Ahmad, Ali, girl, woman, man, child enjoys playing cricket.
If we use after them a coordinating conjunction (and) than it takes plural verb.
Ahmad, Ali, girl, woman, man, and child enjoy playing cricket.
4: Series of plural subject separated by comma takes plural verb and if they are
separated by and again it takes plural verb.
E.g. Boys, girls, women enjoy playing cricket.
Boys and girls enjoy playing cricket.
5: Singular subjects connected by (and) takes plural verb
E.g. Boy and girl enjoy playing cricket.
6: Neither accompaniment nor appositive phrase can affect subject and verb
agreement.
The father, with two sons, goes to school. Accompaniment phrase
Hameed, the bank manager, works extremely hard. Appositive phrase
Accompaniment phrase and appositive phrase they are not linked with subject and
verb agree.
7: Expressions of money, time, distance, measurement always take singular verb.
E.g. hundred dollars is in my pocket. Expression of money
Four hours is a short time. Time expression
Five kilo meters is low distance. Expression of distance
Two kilos weighs lightly. Expression of measurement
8: The quantifiers (one of, either of, each of, neither of, some of) are followed by
plural noun, but they take singular verb.
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E.g. one of my friends works in the bank.
Some of my relatives plays cricket.
9: The expressions (the number of and a number of) are used in two ways.
• The number of + plural noun + singular verb
The number of students is fifty.
• A number of + plural noun + plural verb
A number of students come late.
A number of means group of:
10: Singular verbal noun (gerund and infinitive) takes singular verb.
E.g. Reading five books is difficult.
To run four hours is easy.
Swimming in swimming pool, river, sea, and lake is good for health.
11: Singular verbal noun connected by (and) takes singular verb.
E.g. Reading and playing is easy.
To read and to play is easy.
12: Determiner (some) is used in two ways with different meaning.
Some + plural noun + plural verb
Some books are interesting.
Some + singular noun + singular verb
Some book is interesting.
13: With paired conjunctions verb is used according to nearest subject.
E.g. neither the students nor the teacher comes late. Neither the teacher nor the
students come late.
14: Each and every re always followed by singular verb, even if they are connected
by (and).
E.g. Every man, woman and child needs love.
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Each book and magazine is listed in the card catalog.
15: one of, each of, and every one take singular verb.
E.g. one of my friends is intelligent.
Each of my brothers is educated.
Every one of my friends is educated.
16: using here and there.
E.g. there is a book on the shelf.
There are books on the shelf.
Here is the book on the shelf.
Here are some books on the shelf.
Note: If there and here are followed by singular nouns, are followed by singular
verbs, but if they are followed by plural nouns so than they take plural verb.
17: Some irregularities of subject and verb agreement.
E.g. the news is interesting.
The United States is big.
The United Nations has its headquarters in New York City.
Mathematics is easy for her, and physics is easy as ABC.
18: police and people don’t have (s) ending and they are plural and take plural
verb.
E.g. those people are from Canada.
The police have been called.
19: A few adjectives can be preceded by (the) and used as a plural noun without (s)
take plural verb.
E.g. the poor people have many problems.
The poor help the needy people. The poor are miserable.
20: These all indefinite pronouns are always singular and they always take singular
verb.
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Another, anybody, anyone, each, each one, either, every, everybody, everything,
much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody, someone.
Gerund & Infinitive
Gerund is called verbal noun
Definition: Verb + ing that functions as a noun is called gerund.
Infinitive is also called verbal noun
Definition: The non-finite form of verb that doesn’t have any link with tenses is
called infinitive.
Note: Gerund and infinitive are also called verbal noun.
E.g. Running makes him tired.
To swim is exercise.
Note: In English grammar verb + ing has the following function.
1: Verb + ing as present participle form of verb is used in progressive tenses.
They are watching TV. Present participle
2: Verb + ing as gerund functioning as noun.
They enjoy watching TV. Verbal noun or gerund
3: As present participle adjective modifying noun or pronoun.
They watch interesting movies. Present participle adjective
4: As a noun participle forming some compound nouns.
Washing machine, body building. Noun participle
Common usages of gerund and infinitive
1: Some common verbs are followed by gerund if infinitive is used incorrect.
Reference list of verbs followed by gerunds.
Admit, advise, anticipate, appreciate, avoid, complete, consider, delay, deny,
discuss, dislike, enjoy, finish, forget, can’t help, keep, mention, mind, miss,
postpone, practice, quit, recall, recollect, recommend, regret, remember, resent,
resist, risk, stop, suggest, tolerate, understand.
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E.g. They enjoy playing cricket. Correct
They enjoy to play cricket. Incorrect
2: Some common verbs are followed by infinitive if gerund is used incorrect.
Reference list of verbs followed by infinitive
Afford, agree, appear, arrange, ask, beg, care, claim, consent, decide, demand,
deserve, expect, fail, forget, hesitate, hope, learn, manage, mean, need, offer, plan,
prepare, pretend, promise, refuse, regret, remember, seem, struggle, swear,
threaten, volunteer, wait, want, wish.
E.g. He decided to work hard. Correct
He decided working hard. Incorrect
Some verbs which are followed by a noun or pronoun + infinitive.
Verbs + noun/pronoun + infinitive
Advise, allow, ask, beg, cause, challenge, convince, dare, encourage, expect,
forbid, force, hire, instruct, invite, need, order, permit, persuade, remind, require,
teach, tell, urge, want, and warn.
E.g. she advised Ahmad/him to play cricket.
3: Some common verbs are followed by either infinitive or gerund with same
meaning.
Reference list of verbs followed by gerund and infinitive.
Love, hate, like, dislike, prefer, start, begin, continue, can’t stand.
E.g. He hates to work at home.
He hates working at home.
4: Some common verbs are followed either gerund or infinitive with different
meaning.
Stop, forget, remember, regret, and try
E.g. He stopped smoking cigarettes.
He stopped to smoke cigarettes. These both sentences are correct but they express
different meaning.
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1: Forget, remember + infinitive: shows someone’s duty.
E.g. he forgets to bring vegetables from the market.
He remembers to wash the dishes.
Forget, remember + gerund: showing something happened in the past.
E.g. He still remembers going on a school picnic.
She forget staying in a hostel.
2: Regret + infinitive: tells a bad news to someone
E.g. I regret to tell you that you have failed the exams again.
She regrets to inform him that his wife passed away.
Regret + gerund: shows that something happened in the past.
E.g. I really regret giving you the loan.
3: Try + infinitive: shows someone’s afford. ‫کوشش‬
E.g. they try to earn enough money.
Try + gerund: shows experiments with new results.
E.g. the room was dark. I tried opening the door, I tried opening the window, and I
tried turning on the lights.
Gerund verb.
What is gerund verb?
Gerund verb is a verb which is followed by gerund noun.
Infinitive verb
What is infinitive verb?
Infinitive verb is a verb which is followed by infinitive noun.
What is gerund phrase?
Gerund noun + with rest of the sentence.
What is infinitive phrase?
Infinitive noun with rest of the sentence.
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They enjoy playing cricket. Gerund verb + gerund noun, gerund phrase
They enjoy watching movies at home. Gerund verb with gerund noun
They enjoy watching movies at home. Gerund phrase
She agrees to watch movies at home. Infinitive verb + infinitive noun
She agrees to watch movies at home. Infinitive phrase
How to change positive statements to negative and interrogative statements
They enjoys watching movies every day.
They don’t enjoy watching movies every day.
Do they enjoy watching movies every day?
He enjoys not watching movies every day.
Cases of gerund
1: Subject case: In this case gerund noun (verbal + ing) is used before main verb to
function as subject sentence.
E.g. Driving makes him tired.
2: Object case: In this case gerund noun (verb + ing) is used after main verb to
function as object of sentence.
E.g. They avoid smoking at school.
3 Complement of preposition case: In this case gerund noun (verb + ing) is
preceded by preposition to complete the meaning of preposition.
E.g. she is afraid of smoking.
He is interesting in driving.
4: Complement of be case: In this case gerund noun (verb + ing) completes the
meaning of be in a sentence.
E.g. what she needs is earning money.
This is dancing. Gerund noun
They are swimming. Main verb
Cases of infinitive
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1: Subject case: In this case infinitive noun (to + verb) is used in two ways.
E.g. To swim in the river is fun. Infinitive noun as a subject
It is fun to swim in the river. Infinitive noun as a subject
1: To + verb + rest of sentence
2: It + is + adjective + to + verb
2: Object case: In this case infinite noun (to + verb) is used after infinitive verb to
function as object of sentence.
E.g. she plans to buy a new car.
They hope to win the match.
Note: Every infinitive verb can be main verb, but every main verb cannot be
infinitive verb.
3: Complement of preposition: In this case infinitive noun (to + verb) is preceded
by preposition to complete the meaning of preposition.
E.g. she has no way, but to escape.
But + subject + verb= coordinating conjunction
But + to + verb= preposition
He is about to die.
4: Complement of be case: In this case infinitive noun (to + verb) completes the
meaning of be.
E.g. her job is to sew clothes.
5: Complement of object case: In this case infinitive noun (to + verb) completes
the meaning of object in a sentence.
E.g. they expect him to come.
6: Infinitive as adjective: In this case infinitive noun functions as an adjective
modifying noun.
E.g. they have time to play.
She needs money to spend. Infinitive noun as adjective modifying noun
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7: Infinitive as an adverb: In this case infinitive noun (to + verb) function as an
adverb modifying adjective.
E.g. she is happy to marry.
She is rich to help the poor. Infinitive noun as an adverb modifying adjective
Kinds of Infinitive
Infinitive is divided into six kinds.
1: Absolute/full infinitive 2: Bare/pseudo infinitive 3: Split/partial infinitive 4:
Abridge/shorten infinitive 5: Compound/phrasal infinitive 6: Negative infinitive
1: Absolute/Full infinitive
Definitive: Full infinitive is a type of infinitive that is formed of (to + verb) is
called full infinitive.
E.g. He decided to arrange a party.
2: Bare/Pseudo infinitive
Definition: Bare infinitive is a type of infinitive that is formed without (to)
normally use after some auxiliary verbs and some causative verbs is called bare
infinitive.
Bare infinitive is used after some causative verbs (make, let, have), and after to do
verbs.
Why it is called bare infinitive or pseudo infinitive?
Answer: Because of its function it is called pseudo in fact they are not infinitive.
E.g. They make their son work hard.
He does remember her birthday.
They have to work hard.
3: Split/Partial infinitive
Definition: Split infinitive is a type of infinitive in which verb is separated from
(to) by inserting adverb to express more emphasis is called split infinitive.
E.g. she wants to drive her car.
She wants to carefully drive her car.
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They are arrange to play against of them.
They arrange to easily play against of them.
4: Abridge/Shorten infinitive
Definition: Abridge infinitive is a type of infinitive that is formed of only (to) to
express short responses is called abridge infinitive.
E.g. would you like to dance?
Yes, I would like to.
Do you want to play cricket?
Yes, I want to.
5: Compound/Phrasal infinitive
Definition: Compound infinitive is a type of infinitive that contains more than one
infinitive noun is called compound infinitive.
E.g. they want to earn and to spend much money.
They want to earn and spend much money.
Note: The first (to) is compulsory to be used, but the second (to) is not compulsory
to be used it is optional.
6: Negative infinitive
When not is used before to + verb is called negative infinitive.
E.g. run fast not to lose the race.
Read fast not to waste the time.
Go + Gerund: This structure is used to indicate recreational activities.
E.g. swimming, shopping, skating, boating, dancing, hunting, etc.
Note: (to) is not used in this structure.
E.g. I go hunting deer. Correct
I go to hunting deer. Incorrect
She went dancing yesterday.
Some important points about gerund and infinitive.
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Infinitive of purpose: we used in order to
E.g. he came here in order to study English.
He came here to study English.
Note: both sentences are correct but (in order to) express purpose.
He came here for studying English.
He came here for to study English.
He came here for study English.
Note: The above three sentences are incorrect because they express purpose so
with purpose (for) is not used.
Adjectives followed by infinitive
Some adjectives are followed by infinitive.
E.g. we were sorry to hear the bad news.
I was surprised to see Tim at the meeting.
Note: when adjectives are followed by infinitive so these adjectives describe a
person not a thing, and many of these adjectives describe a person’s feelings.
Some common adjectives are followed by infinitive.
Glad to, sorry to, ready to, careful to, surprised to, happy to, sad to, prepared to,
hesitant to, amazed to, pleased to, upset to, anxious to, reluctant to, astonished to,
delighted to, disappointed to, eager to, afraid to, shocked to, stunned to, willing to,
motivated to, determined to, proud to, ashamed to, content to, relieved to, lucky to,
fortunate to.
Using infinitive with (too) and (enough)
E.g. that box is too heavy for Bob to lift.
That box is very heavy, but Bob can lift it.
Note: too + heavy: means that it is impossible for Bob to lift that box.
Very heavy: means it is possible but difficult for bob to lift that box.
E.g. I am strong enough to lift that box. I can lift it.
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I have enough strength to lift that box.
I have strength enough to lift that box.
Note: enough follows an adjective.
Enough may precedes a noun or follow a noun.
Passive past forms of infinitives and gerunds
Passive infinitive: to be + past participle form
E.g. I didn’t expect to be invited to his party.
Note: to be invited is passive. The understood by phrase is by him. I didn’t expect
to be invited by him.
Passive gerund: being + past participle form
E.g. I appreciated being invited to your home.
Note: being invited is passive. The understood by phrase is by you.
Past infinitive: to have + 3rd verb
E.g. the rain seems to have stopped.
Note: the event expressed by a past gerund or infinitive happened before the main
verb. The rain seems now to have stopped a few minutes ago.
Past gerund: having + past participle form
E.g. I appreciate having had the opportunity to meet the king.
Note: I met the king yesterday, but I appreciate now.
Past passive infinitive: to have been + past participle form
E.g. Jane is fortunate to have been given a scholarship.
Note: Jane was given a scholarship last month by her government. She is fortunate.
Jane is fortunate now to have been given a scholarship last month by her
government.
Past passive gerund: having been + past participle
E.g. I appreciate having been told the news.
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Note: I was told the news yesterday by someone. I appreciate that. I appreciate
now having been told the news yesterday by someone.
Note: If the main is past form, the action of the past infinitive or gerund happened
before a time in the past.
The rain seemed to have stopped. The rain seemed at six pm to have stopped
before six pm.
I appreciated having been the opportunity to meet the king. I met the king in 1985.
I appreciated in 1987 having had the opportunity to meet the king in 1985.
Using gerunds or passive infinitives following need.
E.g. I need to borrow some money.
John needs to be told the truth.
Note: usually infinitive follows need.
The house needs painting.
The house needs to be painted.
Note: in certain situations, a gerund may follow need. In this case, the gerund
carries a passive meaning, the above two sentences give same meaning.
Using a possessive to modify a gerund
We came to class late. Mr. Lee complained about that fact.
Formal: Mr. Lee complained about our coming to class late.
Informal: Mr. Lee complained about us coming to class late.
Note: in formal English a possessive pronoun (our) is used to modify a gerund.
In informal English, the object form (us) is frequently used to modify gerund.
Formal: Mr. Lee complained about Mary’s coming to class late.
Informal: Mr. Lee complained about Marry coming to class late.
Note: in formal English, a possessive noun is used to modify gerund.
In informal English, the possessive form is not used.
Using verbs of perception or linking verbs
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E.g. I saw my friend run down the street.
I saw my friend running down the street.
I heard the rain fall on the roof.
I heard the rain falling on the roof.
Note: certain verbs of perception are followed by either simple or the ing form of a
verb. There is usually little difference in meaning between the two forms except
that the ing form usually gives the idea of while. I saw my friend while she was
running down the street.
I heard a famous opera star sing at the concert last night.
When I walked into the apartment, I heard my roommate singing in the shower.
Note: sometimes not always there is a clear difference between using simple and
ing form.
In first sentence I heard the singing from beginning to end. In the second sentence
the singing was in progress when I heard it.
Verbs of perception followed by the simple form or the ing form.
See, notice, watch, look at, observe, hear, listen to, feel, and smell.
Using the simple form after let and help
E.g. my father let me drive his car.
I let my brother borrow my bicycle.
Note: let is always followed by simple form it means that bare infinitive.
My brother helped me wash my car.
My brother helped me to wash my car.
Note: help is followed both simple form and infinitive form of verb.
Using causative verbs: Make, Have, Get
E.g. I made my brother carry my suitcase.
I had my brother carry my suitcase.
I got my brother to carry my suitcase.
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Form: x makes y do something. X has y do something. X got y to do something.
Mr. Lee made her son clean his room.
Sad movies make me cry.
I had the plumber repair the leak.
Jane had the waiter bring her some tea.
The students got the teacher to dismiss class early.
Jack got his friends to play soccer with him after school.
Make: means that x forces y do something.
Have: means that x requests y do something.
Get: means that x persuades or motivates y to do something.
I had my watch repaired (by someone).
I got my watch repaired (by someone).
The past participle form is used after have and get to give passive meaning, and
there is no difference in meaning.
Special expressions followed by the ing form of a verb
E.g. we had fun. + playing football.
We had a good time. + playing cricket.
I had trouble. + finding his house.
I had difficulty. + finding his house.
I had a hard time. + finding his house.
I had a difficult time. + finding his house.
E.g. Sam spends most of his time studying.
I waste a lot of time watching movie.
Note: spend + expression of time or money is followed by ing.
Waste + expression of time or money is followed by ing.
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E.g. she sat at her desk writing a letter.
I stood there wondering what to do next.
He is lying in bed reading a novel.
Note: sit + expression of place is followed by ing.
Stand + expression of place is followed by ing.
Lie + expression of place is followed by ing.
E.g. when I walked into my office, I found George using my telephone.
When I walked into my office, I caught a thief looking through my desk drawers.
Note: Find + pronoun/noun is followed by ing.
Catch + pronoun/noun is followed by ing.
Both catch and find mean discover. Catch expresses anger or displeasure.
Quoted speech versus Reported speech
1: Quoted speech/Direct speech
Definition: Quoted speech is a type of speech that conveys someone’s exact words
inside quotation marks is called quoted speech.
Quoted speech is in American English, and direct speech is in British English.
2: Reported speech/Indirect speech
Definition: Reported speech is a type of speech that conveys someone’s idea with
new or changed words is called reported speech.
E.g. Hameed said, “I play cricket every day.”
Hammed said that he played cricket each day.
“ “: American ‘
‘: British: they are used to show originality.
Differences between quoted and reported speech
Quoted speech
Conveys someone’s exact words.
Has comma.
Reported speech
Conveys someone’s idea.
Has no comma.
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Has quotation marks.
The subject begins with capital letter.
No change of subject pronoun.
No change of tense form.
No usage of that.
No change of determiners.
No change of adverbs of time.
E.g. Sana said, “I drive this car every day.
Has no quotation marks.
No capital letter in subject.
Change of subject pronoun.
Change of tense form.
Usage of that is optional.
Change of determiners.
Change of adverbs of time.
Sana said that she drove that car each day. Noun clause
General tenses sequences shifting in quoted and reported speech.
1: simple present tense is changed into simple past tense.
E.g. Hameed said, “I watch this movie today.”
Hameed said that he watched that movie each day.
2: present continuous tense is changed into past continuous tense.
E.g. The boys said, “We are playing football now.”
The boys said that they were playing football than.
3: present perfect tense is changed into past perfect tense.
E.g. the children said, “We have taken lunch.”
The children said that they had taken lunch.
4: present perfect continuous tense is changed into past perfect continuous tense.
E.g. Hameed said, “I have been working since 3:00pm.”
Hameed said that he had been working since 3:00pm.
5: simple past tense is changed into past perfect tense.
E.g. Hameed said, “I wrote a letter yesterday.”
Hameed said that he had written a letter the previous day.
6: past continuous tense is changed into past perfect continuous tense.
E.g. the students said, “We were playing last week.”
The students said that they had been playing the previous week.
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7: past perfect tense is changed into past perfect tense.
E.g. Hameed said, “I had taken lunch before I wrote my homework.”
Hameed said that I had taken lunch after he had written his homework.
8: past perfect continuous tense is changed into past perfect continuous tense.
E.g. Hameed said, “I had been sleeping for one hour before I worked.”’
Hameed said that he had been sleeping for one hour after he had worked.
Will is changed into would.
Won’t is changed into wouldn’t.
Be going to is changed into was/were going to.
Shall is changed into should.
May is changed into might.
Note: reported speech is divided into two types.
1: Late reported speech
Definition: late reported speech is a type of speech that conveys someone’s idea
not immediately with tense shifted process.
2: Soon reported speech
Definition: soon reported speech is a type of speech that conveys someone’s idea
immediately with no tense shifting.
Hameed said, “I play cricket every day.”
Hameed said that he played cricket each day. Late reported speech
Hameed says, “I Play cricket every day.”
Hameed says that he plays cricket each day. Soon reported speech
Some more changes from quoted speech to reported speech
Can= could
Have to, has to, must= had to
Should= should
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Now= than
Today= that day
Tonight= that night
This week= that week
Every day= each day
Yesterday= the previous day
Last week= previous week
Tomorrow= the coming/next day
Two days ago= the day before last
Three days ago= three days later
Here= there
This= that
These= those
Before= after
I= he/she
We= they
You= I
Now= than/right away
Can= could
May= might
Would, could, might, should, ought to= don’t change
How to change interrogative sentences from quoted speech to reported speech
When we change interrogative sentences from quoted speech to reported speech
we use (ask) or (wanted to know) instead of said.
1: W.H questions
Structure
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Subject+ ask/wanted to know + object + W.H words + subject + auxiliary verb +
verb + full stop
Hameed said, “Where will she study tomorrow?
Hameed asked me where she would study the next day.
She said, “When are they playing cricket.”?
She asked me when we were playing cricket.
2: Yes/no questions
Structure
Subject + ask/wanted to know + object + if/whether + subject + auxiliary verb +
verb + full stop
The students said, “Will the class start tomorrow?”
The students asked me if/whether the class would start the next day.
He said, “Are they playing cricket now?”
He asked me if/whether we were playing cricket than.
Some more changes from quoted speech to reported speech
Hameed said, “Let’s go to school.”
Hameed suggested me to go to school.
My mother said, “May Allah save you from evil eyes.”
My mother prayed/wished me might Allah save you from evil eyes.
The teacher said, “Close the door.”
The teacher requested me to close the door.
The teacher said, “Respect your parents.”
The teacher advised me to respect our parents.
The teacher said, “Don’t speak in the class.”
The teacher warned me not to speak in the class.
The teacher said, “Close the door.”
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The teacher ordered me to close the door.
Sana said, “I love you.”
Sana exposed that she loves me.
The boys said, “Hurrah, we won the match.”
The boys shouted with joys that they had won the match.
She says, “I am brave.”
She says that she is brave.
She said, “I am brave.”
She said that she was brave.
He says, “I am joking.”
He says that she is joking.
He said, “He is a good a person.”
He said that he was a good person.
The universal truth does not change even if they reporting speech is in the
past.
Qari said, “God is kind and merciful.”
Qari said that God is merciful and kind.
He said, “The earth moves.”
He said that the earth moves.
My father said, “Allah is one.”
My father said that Allah is one.
Direct and indirect questions
What are direct and indirect questions?
Answer: In direct questions, we ask directly someone, in indirect questions, we
don’t ask direct; we ask directly; we say another person to ask him/her this
question.
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Direct questions
Will you come with us?
Is he working?
Did he go there?
Was he playing?
Where do you live?
Does he live with his parents?
Does she study?
What is her name?
Do you read in Kabul?
What time is it?
What does his father do?
What do they do?
Where do they live?
Indirect questions
Ask him if he will come with us.
Ask him if he is working.
Ask him whether he went there.
Ask him if he was playing.
Ask him where he lives.
Ask him if he lives with his parents.
Ask him if she studies.
Ask her what her name is.
Ask him if he reads in Kabul.
Ask him what time it is.
Ask him what his father does.
Ask them what they do.
Ask them where they live.
Changing conditional sentences from quoted to reported speech
If we change conditional sentences from direct speech into indirect speech, we cat
upon the following rules.
1: If a sentence begins with soon reported speech, the if and result clause won’t
change.
2: The present simple tense of (if clause) changes into simple past tense.
3: The will of result clause changes into would.
4: That comes between the two speeches.
5: If of the conditional sentence remains in its own place.
6: past simple tense of if clause changes into past perfect tense or it can remain.
7: would + 1verb of the result clause can remain or changed into would have +3 rd
verb.
8: note: no change will take place in the if clause and result clause of type 3.
9: Tenses here and now words, pronouns and other changes will take place
according to the tense.
Direct speech
Indirect speech
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He says, “If he works hard, he will
pass the exam.”
He said, “If he works hard, he will
pass the exam.”
He said, “If he worked hard, he would
pass the exam.”
He said, “If he had worked hard, he
would have passed the exam.”
She says, “If they are rich, they will
buy this house.”
She said, “If they are rich, they will
buy this house.
She says, “If they were rich, they
would buy this house.”
She said, “If they were rich, they
would buy this house.”
She says, “If they had been rich, they
would have bought this house.”
She said, “If they had been rich, they
would have bought this house.”
He says to me, “If I have money, I will
help you.”
He said to me, “If I have money, I will
help you.”
He says to me, “If I had money, I
would help you.”
He said to me, “If I had money, I
would help you.”
He says to me, “If I had had money, I
would have helped you.”
He said to me, “If I had had money, I
would have helped you.”
He says that if he works hard, he will
pass the exam.
He said that if he worked hard, he
would pass the exam.
He said that if he had worked hard, he
would have passed the exam.
He said that if he had worked hard, he
would have passed the exam.
She says that if they are rich, they will
buy that house.
She said that if they were rich, they
would buy that house.
She says that if they were rich, they
would buy that house.
She said that if they had been rich,
they would have bought that house.
She says if they had been rich, they
would have bought that house.
She said that if they had been rich,
they would have bought that house.
He says to me that if he has money, he
will help me.
He said to me that if he had money, he
would help me.
He says to me that if he had money, he
would help me.
He said to me that if he had money, he
would have helped me.
He says to me that if he had had
money, he would have helped me.
He said to me that if he had had
money, he would have helped me.
If there is a command/order in the result clause of conditional sentence, the
following changes will take place while changing it from direct speech into
indirect speech.
1: Said is changed into told/asked.
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2: The verb changes into full infinitive.
3: The result clause comes before and the if clause goes after the result clause.
4: The tenses, here and now words, pronouns will change.
5: If comes in the middle and works as a conjunction.
He said to me, “If you go out, bring a
glass of water.”
She said to him, “If you have money,
lend them some money.”
They said to us, “If you go to bazar,
buy us a gun.”
I said to them, “If you have time, clean
my office.”
He asked/told me to bring him a glass
of water if I went out.
She asked/told him to lend them some
money if he had money.
They asked/told us to buy them a gun
if we went to bazar.
I asked/told them to clean my office, if
they had time.
If these is advice in the main clause of conditional sentence, we act upon the
following rules.
1: Said is changed into advised.
2: The verb changes into full infinitive.
3: The tense of the if clause changes according to the rules.
He said to me, “If you want to learn English, why don’t you go to course?”
He advised me to go to course if I wanted to learn English.
They said to her, “If you have got tired, why don’t you go to bed early?”
They advised her to go to bed early if she had got tired.
You said to us, “If you want to meet him, why don’t you come now?”
You advised us to come there if we wanted to meet him.
If there is a request we in the reported speech, we act upon the following rules.
1: Said is changed into requested.
2: The changes into full infinitive.
3: Result clause comes before and if clause goes after the result clause.
4: please is omitted.
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5: would is omitted.
He said to me, “If you have money, please, lend me some money.”
He requested me to lend him some money if I had money.
He said to her, “If you go out, please, bring me a glass of water.”
He requested me to bring him a glass of water if she went out.
He said to them, “Please, forgive him if he has made a mistake.”
He requested them to forgive him if he had made a mistake.
He said to me, “If you have money, would you lend some?”
He requested me to lend him some if I had money. Or
He said to me that if I had money, I was to lend him some.
If there is a message which is to be conveyed to someone by someone else in
conditional sentences, and we act upon the following rules.
1: the verb of main clause changes into was to/ were to/ is to/ am to/ are to
according to the tense.
He says to me, “If you miss this chance, prepare yourself for the next exam.
He says to me that if I miss that chance, I am to prepare myself for the next exam.
He said to me, “If you miss this chance, prepare yourself for the next exam.
He said to me that if I missed that chance, I was to prepare myself for the next
exam.
If someone is asking a question for information, we act upon the following
rules.
1: The verb is changed into asked.
2: Will is changed into would.
3: Interrogative sentences are changed into affirmative sentences
He said, “Where will we go if we don’t see him?”
He asked where they would go if they don’t see him.
She said to me, “What will you do if they didn’t help you?”
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She asked me what I would do if they didn’t help me.
He said to her, “Where you like would to go I someone sends you the visa of
England or France?”
He asked here where she would like to go if someone send here the visa of
England or France.
Voice
The term voice expresses two meaning.
1: Literal/dictionary meaning: Voice means sound.
2: Grammatical/structured meaning: Voice is the form of verb indicating whether
the subject is doer or receiver of an action.
E.g. she teaches the students. Voice is the doer of an action
She is taught by her brother. Voice is the receiver of an action
1: Active voice/Sentence
Definition a: Active voice is a type of sentence that indicates that the subject is the
doer of an action.
B: Active voice is a type of sentence that indicates what people or things do.
C: Active voice is a type of sentence that contains subject and object in their own
positions.
2: Passive voice/Sentence
Definition a: Passive voice is a type of sentence that indicates that the subject is the
receiver of an action.
B: Passive voice is a type of sentence that indicates what happen to people or
things.
C: Passive voice is a type of sentence that doesn’t have subject and object in its
own positions.
E.g. they play football.
The computer saves the data.
He was invited by me yesterday.
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The car was broken by him.
Why do we use active voice/sentence?
1: To know what people or things do.
2: To know who/what the doer is.
3: When subject (who) becomes more important than object (what).
Why do we use passive voice/sentence?
1: To know what happen to people or things.
2 To know who/what the receiver is.
3: When object (what) becomes more important than subject (who).
4: When we bring changes in our spoken or written utterance.
How to change active sentences to passive sentences
1: The verb of active sentence should by transitive.
2: Intransitive verbs cannot be changed to passive voice.
3: Take the object of active sentence and use it as the subject of passive sentence.
4: The form of (be + 3rd verb) is usually used.
5: By phrase/passive agent is used when it is needed.
E.g. he drives the car slowly.
The car is drove by him slowly. Or
The car is drove slowly by him.
He runs on the road fast. Cannot be changed to passive voice because the verb is
intransitive.
General tenses structures in passive voice
1: Simple present tense
Structure
Subject + is, am, are + 3rd verb + rest of sentence
They drive a car.
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A car is driven by them.
He writes a letters
Letters are written by him.
He doesn’t play cricket.
Cricket is not played by him.
Do we cook food every day?
Is food cooked by us every day?
2: Present continuous tense
Structure
Subject + is, am, are + being + 3rd verb + rest of sentence
They are eating the meal.
The meal is being eaten by them.
He is not playing football.
Football is not being played by him.
Are they watching the movies?
Are the movies being watched by them?
He is watching TV now.
TV is being watched by him now.
3: Present perfect tense
Structure
Subject + have/has + been + 3rd verb rest of sentence
They have invited Ali.
Ali has been invited by them.
He has taken lunch.
Lunch has been taken by him.
They haven’t played cricket.
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Cricket has not been played by them.
Has she cleaned the room?
Has the room been cleaned by her?
4: Present perfect continuous tense
Structure
Subject + have/ has + been + being + 3dr verb + rest of sentence
He has been watching movies since 3:00pm.
Movies have been being watched by him since 3:00pm.
They have not been sweeping the room.
The room has not been being swept by them.
Has she been cooking food for one hour?
Has food been being cooked by her for one hour?
1: Simple past tense
Structure
Subject + was/were + 3rd verb + rest of sentence
They wrote a letter yesterday.
A letter was written by them yesterday.
They did not play cricket last week.
Cricket was not played by them last week.
Did we cook food last month?
Was food cooked by us last month?
2: Past continuous tense
Structure
Subject + was/were + being + 3rd verb + rest of sentence
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They were cooking meal in the kitchen.
Meal was being cooked by them in the kitchen.
She was not writing a letter.
A letter was not being written by her.
Was he eating the meal?
Was the meal being eaten by him?
3: Present perfect tense
Structure
Subject + had + been + 3rd verb + rest of sentence
He had taken lunch before he wrote his homework.
He had been taken lunch before homework was written by him.
She had not cooked food before she wrote a letter.
She had not been cooked food before a letter was written by her.
Had they played cricket before they ate the rice?
Had they been played cricket before the rice was eaten by them?
4: Past perfect continuous tense
Structure
Subject + had + been + being + 3rd verb + rest of sentence
He had been learning computer for two months before he went to UK.
Computer had been being learned by him for two months before he went to UK.
They had been teaching grammar for one year before he came to Kabul.
Grammar has been being taught by them before he came to Kabul.
1: Simple future tense
Structure
Subject + will/won’t/ be going to + be + 3rd verb + rest of sentence
They will drive new car
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New car will be driven by them. Or
New car is going to be driven by them.
He will not cook the rice.
The rice will not be cooked by her. Or
The rice is not going to be cooked by him.
Will they eat the rice?
Will the rice be cooked by them? Or
Is the rice going to be cooked by them?
2: Future continuous tense
Structure
Subject + will / won’t + be going to + be + being + 3rd verb+ rest of sentence
He will be cooking food tonight.
Food will be being cooked by him tonight. Or
Food is going to be being cooked by him tonight.
She will not be driving the car.
The car will not be being driven by her. Or
The car is not going to be being driven by her.
Will they be playing cricket?
Will the cricket be being played by them? Or
Is cricket going to be being played by them?
3: Future perfect tense
Structure
Subject + will/wont/be going to + have + been + 3rd verb + rest of sentence
He will have taken lunch before he sleeps in room.
Lunch will have been taken by him before he sleeps in room.
They will not have played cricket before they come here.
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Cricket will not have been played by them before they come here.
Will we have driven a car before we go to school?
Will a car have been driven by us before we go to school?
4: Future perfect continuous tense
Structure
Subject + will/won’t/be going to + have + been + being + 3rd verb + rest of
sentence
He will have been watching TV for one house before they play cricket.
TV will have been being watched for one hour before cricket is played by them. Or
TV is going to have been being watched for one hour before cricket is played by
them.
Before they play cricket, he will have been watching TV for one hour.
Before cricket is played by them, TV will have been being watched for one hour.
Note: The following four tenses are less commonly used in passive forms.
1: present perfect continuous tense 2: past perfect continuous tense 3: future
continuous tense
4: Future perfect continuous tense
How to change interrogative and negative statements from active forms to passive
forms.
When will they start business? A voice
When will business be started by them? P voice
Where are they playing cricket? A voice
Where is the cricket being played by them? P voice
What does he do? A voice
What is done by him? P voice
What have they done? A voice
What has been done by them? P voice
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What are they doing? A voice
What is being done by them?
Some more changes from active forms to passive forms
The passive form of imperative sentence is made with (let + object + be + 3rd verb).
Answer these questions.
Let these questions be answered.
Call me.
Let me be called.
Beat them.
Let them be beaten.
Bring a glass of water.
Let a glass of water be brought.
Call the police.
Let the police be called.
Abuse them.
Let them be abused.
Kill her. Let her be killed. Sit down. Let yourself sit down.
Sometimes an active sentence has two objects
Direct object and indirect object:
Direct object is a thing.
Indirect object is person.
She bought a book for Ali. Direct object and indirect object
A book was bought by her for Ali. Or
Ali was bought a book by her.
Note: If indirect object comes first that is subject of passive sentence.
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If direct object comes first that is the subject of passive sentence.
She bought Ali a book.
Ali was bought a book by her.
She bought a book for Ali.
A book was bought by her for Ali.
Sometimes the object of active sentence is noun clause
She bought whatever she needs.
Whatever she needs was bought by her.
She drinks whatever she needs.
Whatever she needs is drunk by her.
Sometimes the object of active sentence is gerund or infinitive
He enjoys swimming.
Swimming is enjoyed by him. Or
It is enjoyed by him to swim.
He plans to swim.
To swim is planned by him.
It is planned by him to swim.
They decided to play cricket.
To play cricket was decided by them. It was decided by them to play cricket.
I am Ajmal. I am named/called Ajmal.
The flower smells good. The flower is good to be smelled.
The food tastes good. The food is good to be tasted.
I am a teacher. I am called/named a teacher.
He was a doctor. He was called/named a doctor.
Types of passive voice
There are seven types of passive voice
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1: Main passive voice 2: Stative passive voice 3: Modal passive voice 4: Present
passive infinitive
5: past passive infinitive 6: present passive gerund 7: past passive gerund
1: Main passive
Definition: Main passive is a type of passive that is used almost in all passive
tenses is called main passive.
E.g. lunch has been taken by him.
Letter is written by her.
TV is being watched by me.
Note: if modal auxiliary or semi modal auxiliaries are used than that is not called
main passive.
2: Stative passive
Definition: Stative passive is a type of passive expresses state, but not an action.
Stative passive is type of passive that doesn’t have active form.
E.g. he was born in 1999.
The chair was broken yesterday. He is surprised.
The market is closed. Afghanistan is located in the heart of Asia.
Note: all the above sentences show state not an action.
All stative passive doesn’t have active form and we don’t use by phrase in stative
passive.
3: Modal passive
Definition: Modal passive is a type of passive that contains modal or semi modal
auxiliary verbs is called modal passive.
Structure: subject + modal auxiliary/semi modal + be + 3rd verb + rest of sentence.
He can drive a car.
A car can be driven by him.
She has to write a letter.
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A letter has to be written by her.
4: Present passive infinitive
Structure
Subject + infinitive verb + to be + 3rd verb + rest of sentence
He expects to be taught by her brother.
She wishes to be invited to the party.
He decides to be worked in the bank.
The book is to be completed by 2022. Shows intention for future
The book was to be completed by 2016. Shows intention for past time
5: Past passive infinitive
Structure
Subject + infinitive verb + to have + been + 3rd verb + rest of sentence
She wishes to have been taught by her brother yesterday.
He decides to have been worked in the bank last year.
6: Present passive gerund
Structure
Subject + gerund verb + being + 3rd verb + rest of sentence
I really appreciate being invited to the party yesterday.
She enjoys being taught by her brother.
I deny being invited to the party.
7: Past passive gerund
Structure
Subject + gerund verb + having + been + 3rd verb + rest of sentence
I really appreciate having been invited to the party yesterday.
They avoid having been smoked in the hospital.
I deny having been invited to the party.
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Inversion
Inversion is the noun form of invert.
Definition: Inversion is a grammatical term that indicates that subject changes its
position with either main verb or auxiliary verb is called inversion.
Here comes Cristina. Inversion takes place with subject
No longer will I talk with you.
Why do we use inversion?
1: To make our statement more formal
2: To apply grammar rules
3: To express extra emphasis over a sentence
4: To make advanced sentences
The bus goes there.
There goes the bus. Formal
A lion lives in cave.
In cave live a lion. Emphatic or more emphasis
Types of inversion
Inversion is divided into three types
1: compulsory inversion 2: optional inversion 3: Emphatic inversion
1: Compulsory inversion
Definition: Compulsory inversion is a type of inversion that indicates grammar
rules are applied, so it is compulsory to use them.
E.g. she plays cricket daily.
Does she play cricket daily? Inverted sentence
2: Optional inversion
Definition: Optional inversion is a type of inversion which is used optionally to
make the sentence more formal is called optional inversion.
E.g. A lion lives in cave.
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In cave lives a lion. More formal
3: Emphatic inversion
Definition Emphatic inversion is a type of inversion that expresses extra emphasis
over an idea is called emphatic inversion.
E.g. a lion lives in cave.
In cave lives a lion.
In cave does live a lion.
Common rules of inversion
1: Inversion takes place in all types of interrogative sentences.
You drive fast.
Do you work hard?
Have you taken lunch?
2: Inversion takes place if a sentence begins with noun of place/adverb of
place/place expression.
A bomb blast on the road.
On the road a bomb blast.
3: Inversion takes place in three cases of omitting if.
With the word should, have and were.
4: Inversion takes place if a sentence begins with unreal subjects or expletive
pronouns.
(Here, there).
There goes the bus.
Here comes my friend.
5: Inversion takes place if a sentence begins with negation.
(No longer, never, no way, scarcely, seldom, hardly, rarely)
No longer will I speak with her.
Never can he pass the final exam.
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6: Inversion takes place with the word (neither) functioning as adverb of negation.
Hameed cannot play well. Ali cannot play well.
Hameed cannot play well. Neither can Ali.
7: Inversion takes place with the word (and so).
I am intelligent. She is intelligent.
I am intelligent and so is she.
He can work hard. They can work hard.
He can work hard and so can they.
8: Inversion takes place if a sentence begins with (only if).
Only if it rains seriously, will the picnic be cancelled.
9: Inversion takes place if a sentence begins with comparative form of adjective.
Sweeter is the name of our prophet.
Nicer is the color than its shape.
Younger is the father than the son.
10: Inversion takes place if a sentence begins with present participle or past
participle verb.
Given to the girl was a mobile.
Flying in the air are the birds.
Running on the road is smart dog.
Conditional sentences
Definition: Conditional sentences are those sentences that contains particular
condition for a specific result is called conditional sentences.
E.g. If he works hard, he will earn money. Condition for a specific result
Types of conditional sentences
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There are six types of conditional sentences
1: Zero conditional sentence 2: Type 1 conditional sentence 3: Type 2 conditional
sentence
4: Type 3 conditional sentence 5: Mixed time conditional sentence 6: Implied
conditional sentence
1: Zero conditional sentence
Definition: Zero conditional sentence is a type of conditional sentence that
indicates situation in the form of fact, habit and routine.
Structure: If + simple present tense, + simple present tense (True in present)
E.g. If he has free time, he goes to school.
If he reads the books, she gets bored.
Note: In above sentences (if) means whenever
If he smokes cigarettes, she becomes dizzy.
It means that whenever he smokes she becomes dizzy.
2: Type 1 conditional sentence/real conditional sentence
Definition: It is a type of conditional sentence that contains partial condition with
specific real result.
Structure: If + simple present tense + simple future tense (true in present and
future)
E.g. If he works hard, he will earn much money. Condition and real result
3: Type 2 conditional sentence/unreal conditional sentence
Definition: It is a type of conditional sentence that contains present unreal
condition with present imaginary result.
Structure: If + simple past tense + subject + would/could + base form of verb + R.S
If he were a doctor, he would/could treat the patient. Present unreal condition with
present imaginary result
If with simple past tense gives present meaning.
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4: Type 3 conditional sentence/past unreal condition
Definition: It is a type of conditional sentence that indicates past unreal condition
with past unreal result.
Structure: If + past perfect tense + subject + would/could + have + 3 rd verb + R.S
If he had gotten the job, he would/could have given us a party. Past unreal
condition with past unreal result.
If with past perfect tense gives simple past tense meaning.
If they had given exam, they would/could have started class 6th.
5: Mixed time conditional sentence
Definition: It is a type of conditional sentence that contains present condition with
past result or past condition with present result.
E.g. If you were intelligent student, you would have gotten passing marks last
month.
Present unreal condition with pats unreal result
If he had gotten the first position, he would be happy now.
Past unreal condition with present unreal result
6: Implied conditional sentence/indirect conditional sentence
Definition: It is a type of conditional sentence in which particular condition is
introduced without any conditional clause marker.
With luck, they will win the match.
By chance, he will meet the president.
Note: it means that we don’t use subordinating conjunctions.
Meaning of the if
clause
Verb form in the
if clause
Verb form in the
result clause
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Sentences
True in the
present or future
Simple present
Simple present or
simple future
Untrue in the
present or future
Simple past
Would + base
form of verb
Untrue in the past
Past perfect
Would have + 3rd
verb
If I have enough
time, I write to my
parents every
week.
If I have enough
time, I will write
to my parents.
If I had enough
time now, I would
write to my
parents.
In truth I don’t
have enough time,
so I will not write
to them.
If I had had
enough time, I
would have
written to my
parents yesterday.
In truth I didn’t
have enough time,
so I didn’t write to
them.
Note: it is actually the notes of other books.
Verbs forms following wish
Verb forms in true sentences, verb form following wish
A wish about the future:
She will not tell me.
He isn’t going to be late.
She cannot come tomorrow.
A wish about the present:
I don’t know French.
It is raining right now.
I cannot speak Japanese.
A wish about the past:
I wish (that) she would tell me.
I wish (that) here were going to be late.
I wish (that) she could come
tomorrow.
I wish (that) I knew French.
I wish (that) it weren’t raining right
now.
I wish (that) I could speak Japanese.
I wish (that) John had come.
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John didn’t come.
I wish (that) Mary could have come.
Mary couldn’t come.
Note: wish is used when the speaker wants reality to be different, to be exactly the
opposite. Verb forms similar to those conditional sentences are used. Notice the
examples, wish is followed by a noun clause, the use of (that) is optional. Usually
it is omitted in the speaking.
Using as if/as tough
E.g. it looks like rain.
It looks as if it is going to rain.
It looks as though it is going to rain.
It looks like it is going to rain.
Note: In first example like is followed by noun object, and the other two examples
are followed by a clause, and the last example is followed by a clause but it is
informal.
The above examples give the same meaning.
True statement, and verb forms with untrue statement after as if /as though
He is not a child. She did not take a shower with her clothes on.
She talked to him as if he were a child.
When she came in from the rainstorm, she looked as if she had taken a shower with
her clothes on.
Note: usually the idea following as if/as though is untrue.
Extra notes about grammar of modern grammar from different books, the
information or the topics are based on different types of grammar.
Types of interrogative sentences
There are 15 types of interrogative sentences
1: Yes, no question
2: Tag question
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3: Reinforcement tag
4: W-H word questions
5: Negative yes, no questions
6: Included questions/noun clause
7: Declarative questions
8: Short questions
9: Echo questions
10: Questions for attention
11: Indirect questions/noun clause
12: Rhetorical questions
13: Alternative questions
14: Emphatic questions
15: Polite questions
1: Yes, no questions
Definition: Yes, no questions are asked with the help of helping or modal auxiliary
verbs of the sentence and the answers of yes, no questions are usually given short
of the same helping or modal auxiliary verb.
Questions
Answers
Does she go to school?
Yes, she does/ no, she doesn’t.
Are they dancing?
Yes, they/ no, they aren’t.
Note: Yes, no questions are used in all the tenses and modal auxiliary verbs.
2: Tag questions
Definition: Tag questions are small questions; they are asked with the help of
helping or modal auxiliary verbs of the sentence and are used after a simple or
negative statement to confirm the statement.
Note: after a simple statement, we used negative and interrogative statement, but a
negative statement we used interrogative tag question.
Note: for a negative & interrogative tag question, a positive answer is usually
given and for an interrogative tag question, a negative answer is usually given.
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She is coming with us. Isn’t she? Yes, she is.
She is not coming with us. Is she? No, she isn’t.
Note: tag questions are used in all tenses and modal auxiliary verbs.
3: Reinforcement tag
Definition: In reinforcement tag, we repeat the subject and the helping verb/be of
the said statement for stress.
Note: reinforcement tags are not questions, these are positive sentences we use it
for stress.
Statement
He is a teacher.
I have taught you.
He can play cricket.
Reinforcement tag
He is.
You have.
He can.
4: Negative yes/no questions
Definition: In negative yes/no questions, we want to confirm a positive statement
which both of us the “speaker” and “the listener” are already aware about.
Note: In negative yes/no questions, we usually expect a positive short answer.
Positive statements
She is coming to school.
Yes/no questions
Isn’t she coming to
school?
I have finished my work. Haven’t I finished my
work?
Types of negative yes/no questions
Short answers
Yes, she is.
Yes you have.
There are two types of negative yes/ no questions
1: Formal negative yes/no questions
2: Informal negative yes/no questions
1: Formal negative yes/no questions
Definition: In formal yes/no negative questions, first, at the beginning of the
sentence helping verb comes, then, subject, after subject not, and at the end of the
sentence question mark comes.
Formula: H.V + sub + not + v + com+?
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Have they not come?
Is she not coming?
2: Informal negative yes/ no question
Definition: In informal negative yes/no questions, contracted form of
helping/modal auxiliary verb with not comes at the beginning and at the end of the
sentence question mark comes.
Formula: H.V. not + sub + v + com+?
Haven’t they come? Isn’t she coming? Doesn’t he play football?
Note: Formal and informal yes/no negative questions have the same meaning.
5: Included questions/noun clauses
Definition: In included questions, we combine two questions together, when we
combine two questions together, the second question loses its word order and it
becomes an affirmative sentence instead of interrogative sentence.
Note: Included questions are also called noun clauses.
Questions
Included questions
Does he know?
Does he know where she lives?
Where does she know?
Can you tell me?
Can you tell me where he goes?
Where does he go?
Note: after the following clauses an affirmative statement comes, not an
interrogative sentence.
E.g. I don’t know where he lives.
He doesn’t know what his planning is.
I cannot say what he does.
6: Indirect questions/noun clause
Definition: Indirect questions are asked indirectly. They are like affirmative
sentences; helping and modal auxiliary verbs come after the subject and end with a
full stop instead of a question mark.
Indirect questions are used in the following places
1: One person says to second person to ask third person.
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2: The first person tells the question of the second or third person in his own
words.
3: If the question is from a helping verb or modal auxiliary verb, if/whether comes
between the two clauses.
4: If the question is from a W-H word, the same W-H word comes between the two
clauses.
E.g. A says to be B to ask C.
Direct questions
indirect questions
What is your name?
bWhat time is it?
Where do you live?
How do you make tea?
Ask him what his name is.
Ask him what time it is.
Ask him/her where he/she lives.
Ask him how he make tea.
Questions from helping or modal auxiliary verbs
Indirect questions
Ask him if/whether he
works.
Ask her if/whether she
can teach English.
Direct questions
Do you work?
Answers
Yes. I do.
Can you teach English?
Yes, I can.
The first person tells the question of the second or third person in his own
words
Direct questions
What does he say?
What does she say?
Indirect questions
He asks me what my name is.
She asks me what I do.
Questions from helping or modal auxiliary verbs
What does he say?
He asks me if/whether I can speak
English.
They ask me if/whether I read English.
You ask me if/whether I can help you.
What do they say?
What do I say?
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7: Short questions
Definition: Short questions are often used after a statement with the help of W-H
words or W-H phrases to get more information about the statement.
Statements
I am going to Kabul.
She wants to meet him.
They will come here.
She was transferred to
Kabul.
He is getting married.
Short questions
When?
What for?
What time?
How?
Answers
In the evening.
I don’t know.
At 6 o’clock
I don’t know.
Who with?
With her cousin
8: Questions for attention
Definition: In questions for attention often short questions are used with the help of
be forms, helping or modal auxiliary verb of the sentence and common attention
signals (oh, yes, really etc.) are called questions for attention.
Speaker
Listener
Speaker
Statement from the
Questions for attention
Answer
speaker
That was a peaceful
Oh, was it?
Yes, it was.
place.
She can help you.
Oh, can she?
Yes, she can.
Note: sometimes only common attention signals are used.
Speaker
I like you.
She wants to marry him.
Listener
Oh, really.
Oh, really.
Speaker
Of course
Of course
9: Declarative questions
Definition: Declarative questions are like affirmative sentences but end with a
question mark instead of a full stop. They are used to confirm the statement or to
express surprise over the statement which the speaker already knows about or has
understood now.
Note: Commonly “loud” and “stressed” voice is used.
Declarative questions
This is your house?
He is her friend?
Answers
Yes, it is.
Yes, he is.
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10: Echo questions
Definition: In echo questions, we repeat the same statement of the speaker to
confirm or to express surprise on the statement.
Statement
Echo question
She will come tomorrow. She will come
tomorrow?
I am going with them.
I am going with them?
He was teaching them.
He was teaching them?
Answer
Yes, she will.
Yes, I am.
Yes, he was.
Note: W-H words can be used in echo questions when we ask about the
object/comp/adverb or number of persons or things of the sentence, we repeat the
sentence without stress and we stress w-h words in the place of the
object/comp/adverb or number or quantity of the things which we are asking about.
Statement
They have finished their
work.
I have lost my pen.
Echo question
They have finished
what?
You have lost what?
Answer
Their work.
My pen.
Note: If the action is in the present, in the past or in the future indefinite tenses, we
stress the verb and the w-h words like did what, do what, and will do what.
She helped me.
He works hard.
They will cheat him.
She did what?
He does what?
They will do what?
11: Rhetorical questions
Definition: Rhetorical questions are not used for getting information; they are used
to draw the attention of listener to something.
Statements
Rhetorical question
I cannot find my pen.
What is it, then?
She is not playing with them.
Who is she, then?
What is the difference between questions for attention and rhetorical questions?
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Answer: In rhetorical questions the speaker tries to draw the attention of the
listener to something and in questions for attention, the listener shows the speaker
that he is taking interest or paying attention to whatever he is listening from the
speaker.
12: Alternative questions
Definition: Alternative questions expect their answer from the alternatives given in
the question.
A: Did you go by bus or by train?
B: by train.
A: What would you like tea or coffee?
B: Coffee.
13: Emphatic questions
Definition: The questions which have got the emphasis/stress are called emphatic
questions.
Note: In emphatic questions “ever” is a word which is written as a separate word
after all w-h words.
Who ever told you this? What ever made you late?
14: Polite questions
Definition: Polite questions are used to ask someone in a very polite and formal
way.
Note: These questions are used to express respect for someone.
E.g. would you like to have a cup of tea with me?
Could you help me?
15 Aphoristic sentences
Definition: Aphoristic sentences are also one of the kinds of sentence; it is found in
many proverbs.
E.g. easy come, easy go.
Handsome is, as handsome does.
The faster, the better.
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16: W-H questions
Definition: w-h questions are introduced by w-h words and w-h questions are used
to ask about the reason, time, place, manner of happening etc is called w-h
questions.
There are nine w-h words.
Why, when, how, where, whose, who, whom, what, which.
1: Why
Why is he playing? Why does she play cricket?
2: What
What did she say? What is your name?
3: Where
Where does he go? Where are they living?
4: When
When are they coming to Kabul? When did you come?
5: How
How did you go there? How did she kill him?
6: Whom: whom is used only for person in objective case.
Whom did he kill? He killed Ahmad. Whom do he abuse? He abuses her.
7: Who: it is used both in subject and object case.
Who killed him? Ali killed him. Who did he abuse? He abused Ahmad.
8: Whose
Whose car is this? Whose mobile is that?
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