Writing Arguments: a Rhetoric with Readings, 11th edition Chapter 2 Notes The Core of An Argument: A Claim with Reasons The Classical Structure of Argument (In your own words, list and briefly explain each part of the structure of a classical argument) 1. The Introduction: The beginning of the argument, where the writer connects the audience to the issue by explaining how an issue arises due to current events and using something like an illustrative story or startling statistic to grab the audience’s attention. 2. The presentation of the writer’s position: This is typically the longest part of an argument. This is where a writer presents reasons, and uses evidence to support their claims, which often tie into their own values and beliefs. Each reason is typically presented in a new paragraph, and then the writer uses the rest of the paragraph to provide supporting evidence and a line of thinking. 3. The Summary and Critique of Alternative Views: Writers have several options for summarizing and responding to opposing views. They can summarize all of the opposing views together and then create a single response. Or they can summarize and respond to each argument on its own. In responding to the argument they can either refute the opposing points, or admit to the strengths of opposing views and shift the focus to a different set of values. 4. The conclusion: In the conclusion the writer summarizes their argument, usually repeating many of the key points and stakes the argument holds. They usually call for some kind of action and create a sense of closure by leaving a strong final impression. What are the 2 sections of the body in a classical argument? 1. The presentation of the writer’s position 2. The summary and critique of alternative views Classical Appeals and the Rhetorical Triangle (In your own words, name and briefly explain key points about each rhetorical appeal.) 1. Logos: This is what is referred to as a logical appeal. The focus of logos is the quality of the message. This means that attention must be placed on the consistency of an argument, clarity of the argument, as well as having proper reasons and evidence to support the argument. 2. Ethos: This is referred to as appeal from credibility. The focus of ethos is on the writer’s character as it relates to the message, and their credibility. It is often conveyed through the writer’s investment in his or her claim, through the fairness with which the writer considers alternative views, through the tone and style of the message, and even through the message’s professional appearance. Ethos is a function of a writer’s honesty and expertise independent of the message. An example of an appeal to Ethos could be an NFL player talking about some of the most effective exercise for a football player to practice, due to their expertise in the subject. 3. Pathos: Pathos appeals to an audiences deeper appreciation of an arguments significance. The focus of pathos is on the values and beliefs of the intended audience. It often utilizes emotion appeal. It relies on an audience’s ability to feel and see what the writer feels and sees. 4. Kairos: Kairos refers to the timing of an argument, as well as the tone. The idea is that the timing and tone of an argument must be well planned in order to be effective. An example of this that comes to mind is the Black Lives Matter movement, which was able to take advantage of the timing of tragic events to spread their message widely. Issue Questions as the Origins of Argument What is an issue? An issue is a controversial topic area that can lead to differing points of view and conflicting claims. There can be a number of separate smaller questions that raise issues inside of a overarching issue. Difference Between an Issue Question and an Information Question Explication – Is writing that sets out to inform and explain. Argumentation – is writing which sets out to change a reader’s mind. How to Identify an Issue Question (In your own words, explain) You can figure out if a question is an issue question depending on if your purpose is to inform and explain something to your audience (in which case it would be an information question), or if the goal is to change their minds about something (in which case it would be an issue question) Difference between a Genuine Argument and a Pseudo-Argument Define pseudo-argument: A pseudo-argument is an irrational argument, which can be determined by one of the three following traits: 1) A lack of reasonable participants who assume the possibility of growth and change. 2) A lack of shareables agreements that can serve as a foundation for discussion. 3) A lack of confidence that evidence used in an argument is verifiable and trustworthy. (In your own words, identify and explain the causes of pseudo-arguments) 1. Pseudo-Arguments Caused by Unreasonable Behavior: Reasonable behavior in an argument would be displayed by a possibility to grow and change. Unreasonable behavior in an argument would be displayed by an unwillingness to change and grow. Dealing with unreasonable behavior in an argument would mean someone is firmly planted in their own views, and no amount of discussion or evidence will ever be able to shake their current beliefs. 2. Pseudo-Arguments Caused by Lack of Shared Assumptions: A lack of shared assumption could be a cause of unreasonableness in an argument. Lack of shared of assumptions means the participants of an argument are approaching the topic from vastly different ideologies, or perspectives. An example of a lack of shared assumptions, would be a nutrition focused person arguing with someone who doesn’t care about nutrition on whether pizza is better than a sandwich. The person who is more focused on nutrition would probably argue a sandwich is better because it has more protein and vegetables, and less fat, while the other person might simply just say “but pizza tastes better”. 3. Pseudo-Arguments Caused by Lack of Confidence in Evidence: When the participants of an argument do not trust the evidence the other parties are offering, it usually leads to a pseudoargument. Some people may distrust the sources the evidence is coming from due to a variety of reasons, like possible political leanings. If one party refuses to accept evidence, than the argument holds no meaning as they are unwilling to move from the current view point. Frame of an Argument: A Claim Supported by Reasons Define issue question: A question that provokes disagreement about the best answer Define claim: The position you want your audience to accept. What is a Reason? (In your own words, define and explain): A reason is a statement you use to logically support another statement. (Example: I cannot go to class because I have a cold) Expressing Reasons in Because Clauses A because clause is: A statement, followed by a word like because or so, which connects it to another statement providing reason. It is important because: It is one of the most succinct and manageable ways to clarify an argument. Working thesis statement: A structured statement of the points you are arguing, a brief description of the reasons for the argument, and your viewpoint on the issue.
