ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ АГЕНСТВО ПО ОБРАЗОВАНИЮ
ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ АГЕНСТВО ПО ОБРАЗОВАНИЮ
СИБИРСКИЙ ФЕДЕРАЛЬНЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ
Мошкина Т.Г., Шагалина О.В.
Учебное пособие по английскому языку для курсантов военных
специальностей радиотехнических направлений
Красноярск
СФУ
2010
Рецензенты:
Мошкина Т. Г., Шагалина О. В.
Учебное пособие по английскому языку для курсантов военных
специальностей
радиотехнических
направлений
/
Т.Г.Мошкина,
О.В.Шагалина. -- Красноярск: СФУ, 2010. – 1 с.
Содержит тексты, заимствованные из оригинальной англоязычной
технической литературы, систему грамматических и фонетических
упражнений, краткий грамматический материал и список нестандартных
глаголов.
Соответствует
требованиям
государственного
образовательного
стандарта высшего профессионального образования второго поколения к
изучению иностранного языка в неязыковых вузах.
Предназначен для курсантов военных специальностей радиотехнических
направлений подготовки дипломированных специалистов 444000 –
«Эксплуатация и ремонт радиолокационных комплексов ПВО ВВС », а также
может быть полезен для студентов всех специальностей Института
Инженерной Физики и Радиоэлектроники Сибирского Федерального
Университета.
3
ВВЕДЕНИЕ
Учебное пособие по английскому языку предназначается для курсантов
военных специальностей радиотехнических направлений подготовки
дипломированных специалистов 444000 – «Эксплуатация и ремонт
радиолокационных комплексов ПВО ВВС», а также может быть полезным
для студентов всех специальностей Института Инженерной Физики и
Радиоэлектроники.
Военные специалисты в области электроники и радиоэлектроники
должны уметь вести переговоры, используя специальную терминологию,
читать зарубежную литературу, работать с документацией непосредственно
по профессиональной деятельности, в случаях необходимости обходиться без
помощи посредников и переводчиков. В современном мире очень важно
развитие коммуникативных навыков на уровне, необходимом и достаточном
для участия в конференциях, презентациях, предметных встречах с
коллегами, деловой и военной сфере.
Цель данного издания – научить будущих специалистов читать тексты
по основным темам в области радиоэлектроники с извлечением информации
и рассказывать о том, что прочитал; развивать навыки понимания и
говорения при помощи лексических заданий, направленных на активизацию
мыслительной деятельности и помогающих научиться самостоятельно
составлять свои собственные высказывания по теме. Для достижения этого, в
пособии предусмотрена регулярная, от занятия к занятию, учебная
деятельность по созданию словаря активной лексики, включающего наиболее
употребительные для этого направления термины и слова общетехнического
значения.
В учебном пособии представлены тексты по основным направлениям
развития радиоэлектроники в военной и гражданской сфере для изучающего
чтения и накопления словарного запаса, строго дозированного и
определенного закономерностями памяти человека; для выработки навыков
чтения с общим охватом содержания прочитанного (материалы для текстов
подобраны из оригинальных англоязычных источников и другой
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технической
литературы).
Пособие
также
обеспечено
кратким
грамматическим и фонетическим материалом (с системой упражнений для
повторения и закрепления), рассчитанным на студентов, имеющих среднюю
языковую подготовку.
Данное издание составлено в соответствии с утвержденной ГОС ВПО-2
(государственный стандарт высшего профессионального образования
второго поколения) программой по иностранному языку для неязыковых
вузов.
5
UNIT 1.
Grammar Revision
Личные местоимения
Личные местоимения имеют два падежа: именительный и объектный
Лицо
Именительный падеж
Объектный падеж
Единственное
число
1 лицо
I–я
me – меня, мне
2 лицо
You – ты
you - тебя, тебе
3 лицо
He – он
him – его, её
She – она
her – её, ей
It - он, она, оно
It–его, её, ему, ей
Множественное число
1 лицо
We – мы
us – нас, нам
2 лицо
You – вы
you- вас, вам
3 лицо
They – они
them – их, им
Притяжательные местоимения
Притяжательные местоимения выражают принадлежность и отвечают
вопрос чей? Whose?
Единственное число
Множественное число
на
1 л.
my – мой, моя, моё, мои
our – наш, наша, наше, наши
2 л.
your – твой, твоя, твоё, твои
your - ваш, ваша, ваше, ваши
3 л.
his – его
their – их
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her - её
its – его, её
Глагол to be
Единственное число
Present
am
Past
Множественное число
is
are
was
were
Future
will be
Глагол to be может употребляться:
1. Как смысловой глагол
He is at the Institute now
быть, находиться, являться
Он (находится) в институте
She was in Leningrad during the war
Она была в Ленинграде во время войны
I shall be at home to-night
Я буду дома сегодня вечером
2. Как вспомогательный глагол
(не переводится)
3. Как глагол-связка
Не is reading a book
Он читает книгу
He is an engineer
(не переводится)
Он инженер
4. Как модальный глагол
We are to meet at 5 o’clock
(в значении «должен»)
Exercise 1. Вставьте
существительных
личные
Мы должны встретиться в 5 часов
местоимения
вместо
выделенных
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1. The teacher is helping the students to translate the article.
2. Mother will send Mary to buy the tickets.
3. The man gave the books to the boy.
4. My friend is going to give this book to his wife.
5. This book is not suitable for young children.
6. Helen worked hard at history.
Exercise 2. Объясните употребление глагола to be и переведите предложения
1. They were at home last night.
2. He is a well-known scientist.
3. They are to leave Moscow to-night.
4. The children were walking down the street.
5. She is an experienced teacher.
6. The letter will be posted at once.
7. He is in Kiev now.
8. We were to part that day.
9. The letter was written by the secretary.
10.They were to have arrived at seven o’clock.
My University and Future Profession
Найдите в словаре и запишите транскрипцию следующих слов. Правильно
прочитайте данные слова несколько раз вслух и постарайтесь запомнить их
произношение
Siberian, higher, honorary, initiate, academician, license, speciality, engineering,
necessary, successfully, design, science
Words to be learnt
to be found - быть основанным
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honorary citizen – почетный гражданин
contribution – вклад
consolidation – укрепление
it was…who… - именно
to provide – обеспечивать
processing – обработка
environment protection – защита окружающей среды
obtaining – получение
improving – улучшение
necessary training – необходимое обучение
to get a degree – получить диплом
design office – конструкторское бюро
scientific and research laboratory – научно-исследовательская лаборатория
communication satellite – спутник связи
means of communication – средства связи
cellular (radio/telephone) – сотовое (радио/телефон)
deep and perfect knowledge – глубокие и прочные знания
human activity – человеческая деятельность
to enable – дать возможность, способствовать
Text
Polytechnical Institute of the Siberian Federal University is one of the
leading higher schools in Russia, the largest one in the Krasnoyarsk Territory. It
was founded as the Krasnoyarsk Polytechnical Institute in 1956.The first Rector an honorary citizen of Krasnoyarsk - V.N.Borisov was at the head of it during 27
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years. He did much for the Institute development, its material and technical base,
for the staff forming. AcademicianA.M.Staver, who became the Rector in 1983,
made a great contribution in consolidation of the Institute positions as a scientific,
educational and cultural centre. Professor S.A.Podlesny was the next Rector and
it was he who initiated the introduction Polytechnical Institute to the Siberian
Federal University in 2005. PI SFU has a certificate and a state license to train
specialists according to the higher school educational programs in different
directions of basic higher education, in technical, social-economic and art
specialities; to provide post-university training for the Candidate of Sciences
degree; additional training in different specialities and specializations.
The directions of specialists training of Polytechnical Institute are as
follows: thermal power engineering, electrical energy, electrical power
engineering and electrical technologies, machine-building, technologies of
processing and obtaining new materials, radio electronics, computing technology,
automation and control systems, informatics, transport, environment protection,
ecology and nature utilization, technical physics, economics etc. The specialities
connected with the oil and gas deposits exploitation, metro construction and the
introduction of resources saving technologies at the enterprises, new information
technologies, certification and standardization, service, ecology problem solution
are being developed as well.
Great attention is being paid to the fundamentalisation of technical
education, to the development of the students’ creative potential. There are
different educational trajectories in special higher education obtaining, retraining
and qualification improving at the Institute. There are electrical-mechanical,
mechanical technological, thermal power engineering, informatics and control
processes, informatics and computing technology, auto transport, economic,
technical physics, humanities, radio-engineering, the oil and gas faculties and
others. There are different forms of training such as full-time and part-time
education (evening, correspondence or extra-mural, external studies, special
department) and there is a post-graduating department.
Any person who feels he is interested in radio-physics and electronics can
get the necessary training at the radio-engineering faculty of Engineering Physics
and Radio electronics Institute of the Siberian Federal University. Now I am a
first-course cadet of a Military Educational Institute of the SFU. My future
speciality is connected with army and radar stations. I’ll be trained by the
Candidates and Doctors of Sciences; some of them had practical experience at the
Universities of the USA and Western Europe. I’ll be taught to orientate myself
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successfully in modern market and I’ll be able to occupy with marketing and
management due to my economic knowledge.
After the graduation from Engineering Physics and Radio electronics
Institute of the Siberian Federal University students get a degree in radioengineering. Most probably they’ll work at a plant, design office, scientific and
research laboratory, at a bank etc. But very likely they’ll work long hours in front
of the computer. The fields of their future occupation are closely connected with
microelectronics and communication satellites, television, modern means of
communication such as cellular radio/telephone, internet etc. They must have deep
and perfect knowledge in all these subjects because any radio-engineer must use
his knowledge in many fields of human activity, from domestic microwave oven to
space communication systems.
I’m sure that the main task of any radio-engineer is to enable radioelectronics, microelectronics, nanotechnology and any modern means of
communication to be used more efficiently in terms of the constantly growing need
for more rapid and convenient communication. Great impact of radio-electronics
on modern life is likely to become even more dramatic in the near future.
Задание I. Расставьте данные слова в правильном порядке так, чтобы
составить предложение. Полученные предложения поставьте в соответствии
с cодержанием текста.
1. fields, the, microelectronics, with, my, are connected, of, occupation, future
2. there are, training, different, a lot of, Polytechnical, specialists, of, Institute,
directions, in
3. the graduation from, a degree, will, after, get, the University, I, in, radioelectronics,
4. there are, education, different, and, full-time, training, forms, of, such as, parttime
5. future, great, the, near, in, on modern, impact, even more, of radio-electronics,
dramatic, will become, life
6. the Siberian Federal University, of a full-part department, a, now, of, I, a firstyear, am, student, of, and, Radio-electronics, Physics, Engineering, of, Institute
11
7. knowledge, will be able, I, economic, and, my, due to, to occupy with, to,
management, marketing
8. development, technical, the first Rector, material, much, for, the Institute, and,
base, did, its
9. and, PI SFU, has, to train, a certificate, according to, a state license, in different
directions, specialists, the higher school educational programs, of, education,
higher, basic
10. initiated, Professor S.A.Podlesny, it was…who…,
the introduction,
University, the, Federal, Polytechnical, Siberian, Institute, to, in 2005
11.at the University, are being developed, the specialities, new, as well, connected
with, information technologies
Задание II. К полученным предложениям из задания I составьте различные
типы вопросов. Задайте ваши вопросы в группе.
Задание III. Выполнив все задания, будьте готовы обсудить тему “My
University and future profession” c преподавателем и с группой на английском
языке
12
Unit 2.
Grammar Revision
Оборот there + be
Оборот there + be употребляется в тех случаях, когда говорящий хочет
подчеркнуть факт наличия (отсутствия) какого-либо предмета или явления, а
не место, в котором последний находится.
Оборот переводится словами "есть, имеется, существует".
There are several classifications of these phenomena. - Существует несколько
классификаций этих явлений.
Если предложение, содержащее рассматриваемый оборот, заканчивается
обстоятельством места или времени, то перевод следует начинать с конца
предложения.
There are many students in room 205. - В аудитории 205 много студентов.
Present
Ед.ч.
Мн.ч.
There is…
There are…
Is there…?
Are there…?
There is not (isn’t)…
There are not (aren’t)…
Past
There was…
There were…
Was there…?
Were there…?
There was not (wasn’t)…
There were not (weren’t)…
Future
There will be…
Will there be…?
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There will not (won’t) be…
Exercise. Запишите следующие предложения в отрицательной и
вопросительной форме.
1. There is a mighty army in our country.
2. There are 6 military districts in Russia.
3. We hope there won’t be any military conflicts with our neighbouring countries.
The Russian Army
Найдите в словаре и запишите в тетрадь транскрипцию данных слов.
Прочитайте их вслух несколько раз.
Europe, empire, Germany, Ukraine, Baltic, Caucasus, Siberian, colonel, lieutenant,
sergeant.
Words to be learnt
General Staff – генеральный штаб
field manual – боевой устав
to be responsible for… – быть ответственным за…
compulsory military service – обязательная военная служба,
повинность
to establish – учреждать, образовывать
active-duty officer – офицер действительной военной службы
armed forces – вооружённые силы
to consist of – состоять из
army headquarters – штаб армии
weapon of mass distruction – оружие массового поражения
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to designate – объявлять (чем-л., кем-л.), назначать
warfare - война, приёмы ведения войны
military unit – воинское подразделение
troops – войска
Ground Forces – cухопутные войска
Ministry of Defense – министерство обороны
state border – государственная граница
to achieve independence – получить независимость
military district – военный округ
воинская
reconnaissance – военная разведка
Text
Modern Russian military history begins with Peter the Great, who
established the Imperial Russian Army. For the first time, under Peter the armed
forces were staffed by recruits from the peasantry, whose twenty-five-year
obligation made them professional soldiers and sailors devoted to service because
they had been liberated from serfdom--together with all their offspring--in the
bargain. Officers were nobles called to an equally rigorous lifetime service. Under
Peter Russia had the largest standing army in Europe, and elements of the military
system he introduced lasted until 1917.Under Catherine II the Russian Empire
expanded to the west, the south, and the east, and wars were fought with the
Ottoman Empire (1768-74 and 1787-92) and Poland (1794-95).Under Tsar
Nicholas I Russia became known as the "gendarme of Europe," an
archconservative defender of monarchies against the forces of liberation that had
begun to sweep Europe in the previous century.
The imperial army and navy disintegrated after the Bolshevik Revolution of
1917. Although the Bolsheviks quickly signed a peace treaty with Germany, there
was soon a need for a military force to defend the new state against the
anticommunist Whites. In April 1918 the Red Army was established when the
Soviet government announced compulsory military service for peasants and
15
workers. The army's chief organizer was Leon Trotsky, the new nation's first
commissar of war. Trotsky's initial officer cadre was made up of about 50,000
former tsarist officers. When the Civil War ended in 1921, General Mikhail
Tukhachevskiy led an extensive program of reorganization and equipment
modernization; he also established several military schools. By the mid-1930s,
training schools and academies had turned out a generation of young officers and
noncommissioned officers with strong political indoctrination, thus ensuring the
ideological loyalty of the entire armed forces. Beginning in 1931, Tukhachevskiy
began a large-scale rearmament program based on the industrial development of
the five-year plans and the armed forces and their supplies of equipment were
enlarged greatly as the shadow of war began falling over Europe in the mid1930s.In 1937 the purges instigated by Joseph V. Stalin reached the army.
Tukhachevskiy now first deputy commissar of war was executed for treason
together with seven top generals. As many as 30,000 other officers were
imprisoned or dismissed, leaving the Red Army without experienced commanders
at the end of the 1930s. By the end of World War II, the Soviet armed forces had
swelled to about 11.4 million officers and soldiers. At that point, this force was
recognized as the most powerful military in the world. In 1946 the Red Army was
redesignated as the Soviet army.
In the 1970s, the Soviet Union began to modernize its conventional warfare
and power projection capabilities. At the same time, it became more involved than
ever before in regional conflicts and local wars. It disappeared entirely by 1991,
when the Warsaw Pact alliance dissolved. As a result, by 1994 all Soviet/Russian
troops had been withdrawn from territory west of Ukraine and Belarus, as well as
from the three Baltic States, which achieved independence in 1991. Together with
the end of the Soviet Union as a state, the events of that period set the military on a
bewildering search for a new identity and a new doctrine. As the Soviet Union
dissolved there were some efforts made to keep the Soviet Armed Forces together
as a single military for the new Commonwealth of Independent States. The last
Minister of Defense of Soviet Union, Marshal Yevgeny Shaposhnikov was
appointed supreme commander of the CIS Armed Forces in December 1991.Boris
Yeltsin signed a decree on the formation of a Russian Ministry of Defense on 7
May 1992, bringing the Russian Ground Forces into existence along with the other
parts of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation.
The primary responsibilities of the Ground Forces are the protection of the
state border, combat land, the security of occupied territories, and the defeat of
enemy troops. The Ground Forces must be able to achieve these goals both in
16
nuclear war and non-nuclear war, especially without the use of weapons of mass
destruction. Furthermore, they must be capable of protecting the national interests
of Russia within the framework of its international obligations. The Main
Command of the Ground Forces is officially tasked with the following objectives:
• The training of troops for combat, on the basis of tasks determined by the Armed
Forces' General Staff.
• The improvement of troops' structure and composition, and the optimization of
their numbers, including for special troops.
• The development of military theory and practice.
• The development and introduction of training field manual.
The ground forces organizationally consist of the military districts (Moscow
Military District, Leningrad, North Caucasus, Volga-Ural, Siberian and Far
Eastern), eight army headquarters ,one army corps headquarters (the 68th in the
Far East), tank divisions, motorized rifle divisions, artillery divisions, fortified
districts, individual military units, military establishments, enterprises and
organizations. The current Siberian Military District was formed by the
amalgamation of the Siberian and Transbaikal Military Districts in 1998, and the
Volga and Urals Military Districts were amalgamated in 2001.The branches of
service include motorized rifles, tanks, artillery and rocket forces, troop air
defense, special corps (reconnaissance, signals, radio electronic warfare,
engineering, radiation, chemical and biological protection, technical, support,
automobile and the protection of the rear), military units and logistical
establishments.
The armed forces chain of command prescribed in the military doctrine
clearly establishes central government control of the military. The president of the
Russian Federation is the commander in chief. The Government (called a council
of ministers or cabinet in other countries) is responsible for maintaining the armed
forces at the appropriate level of readiness. Direct leadership of the armed forces is
vested in the Ministry of Defense; the General Staff exercises operational control.
Executive authority over the military lies in the office of the president of the
Russian Federation. The State Duma exercises legislative authority through the
Government. The minister of defense exercises operational authority, and the
General Staff implements instructions and orders. The minister of defense is the
nominal commander of all the armed forces, serving under the president of the
17
Russian Federation. In this capacity, the minister exercises day-to-day authority
over the armed forces. The Ministry of Defense is managed by a collegium of three
first deputy ministers, six deputy ministers, and a chief military inspector, who
together form the principal staff and advisory board of the minister of defense. The
executive body of the Ministry of Defense is the General Staff. It is commanded by
the chief of the General Staff. The most secret of the General Staff directorates is
the Main Intelligence Directorate (Glavnoye Razvedivatelnoye Upravleniye-GRU), which has been an important and closely guarded element of national
security since its establishment in the 1920s. The GRU system delivers detailed
information on the capabilities of Russia's most likely military adversaries to the
General Staff and to political leaders.
The historical tradition of military command is considerably different in
Russia. The tsars were educated as officers, and they regularly wore military
uniforms and carried military rank. Stalin always wore a military uniform, and he
assumed the title generalissimo. Even General Secretary Leonid I. Brezhnev (in
office 1964-82) appointed himself General of the Army, and he encouraged
portraits of himself in full uniform. By tradition dating back to the tsars, the
minister of defense normally is a uniformed officer. The State Duma also seats a
large number of deputies who are active-duty military officers--another tradition
that began in the Russian imperial era. These combinations of military and civilian
authority ensure that military concerns are considered at the highest levels of the
Russian government. They also demonstrate that strict subordination of the
military to civilian authority in the Western sense is neither a tradition nor a
concern in Russia. The independent Russia inherited the ranks of the Soviet Union,
although the insignia and uniform was altered a little.
The Table of Ranks is the following
Supreme (General) Officers
Marshal of the Russian Federation
General of the Army
Colonel General
Lieutenant General
Major General
Senior Officers
Colonel
Lieutenant Colonel
Major
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Junior Officers
Captain
Senior Lieutenant
Lieutenant
Junior Lieutenant
Under Officers
Senior Warrant officer
Warrant officer
Sergeants and Petty Officers
Master Sergeant
Senior Sergeant
Sergeant
Junior Sergeant
Soldiers
Gefreiter
Private.
Задание I. Расположите слова в правильном порядке так, чтобы составить
вопросительное предложение. Ответьте на полученные вопросы.
1. The, Russian, whom, staffed, was, first, by, Army?
2. The, Revolution, happened, after, with, of, 1917, what, the, Army?
3. Military, in, first, Russia, established, who, the, schools?
4. The Soviet Union, Minister of Defense, was the last, of, who?
5. Responsibilities, what, primary, of, Ground Forces, the, are, the?
6. Military Districts, many, in, there, Russia, are, how?
7. Russian, Commander, in, who, the, Chief, is, Army?
8. Lieutenant, is, rank, General, or, which, Major, higher, General?
Задание II. Составьте список ключевых слов к каждому абзацу текста.
Используя эти слова, передайте основную мысль абзаца в 1-2 предложениях.
Задание III. Приготовьтесь побеседовать по изученной теме с группой и с
преподавателем.
19
Unit 3.
Grammar Revision
Глагол to have
Present
I
You
He
have (don’t have) …
She
We
has (doesn’t have)…
It
They
Do you have…?
Does he have…?
Past
I (we, she…) had (didn’t have)…
Did they have…?
Future
I (We) shall have…
You (they, he, she, it) will have…
I shall not (shan’t) have…
You will not (won’t) have…
Shall I have…?
Will you have…?
Функции глагола to have
1. Смысловой глагол со значением «иметь»
We have three lectures today.
2. Вспомогательный глагол для образования формы глагола сказуемого во
временах группы Perfect
He has just finished his work.
20
3. Заменитель модального глагола must со значением «должен, приходится,
вынужден»
We have to go in five minutes.
Exercise 1. Запишите
вопросительной форме.
следующие
предложения
в отрицательной
и
1. The British Army has its troops in many countries.
2. The British Empire had many colonies.
3. The Russian Government will develop relations with Great Britain.
Exercise 2. Определите функцию глагола to have и переведите предложения
на русский язык.
1. My parents don’t have to work full-time.
2. Have you had a holiday this year?
3. They had a lot of time for shopping.
4. I haven’t seen my school- friends since I finished school.
5. She didn’t have a car last year.
6. We had to wait for some time until he finished.
7. Does Mary have two or three children?
8. He has lost his key again.
9. You’ll have to work hard if you want to study at the university.
The British Army
Найдите в словаре и запишите в тетрадь транскрипцию данных слов.
Прочитайте их вслух несколько раз.
Asia, Australasia, ally, France, expeditionary, brigadier, armour, corporal,
squadron, unique, allegiance.
Words to be learnt
to come into being- возникать, формироваться
21
power- держава
to include- включать в себя
to be allied with- вступить в союз с…, стать союзниками
to break out – внезапно начаться, разразиться
invasion - военное вторжение
to declare war (on…) - объявлять войну (кому-л.)
to deploy - развертывать, разворачивать, дислоцировать (войска)
to be comprised of - состоять из…
in terms of - с точки зрения
fighting capacity - боеготовность
regiment - полк
platoon - взвод
surveillance - наблюдение
to result in - заканчиваться чем-то, приводить к чему-то
increase - повышение, увеличение
to affect smb., smth. - оказывать влияние; наносить ущерб
recruitment age - призывной возраст
to serve on operations - принимать участие в боевых действиях
to take an oath of allegiance - принимать присягу
to join the army - поступать на военную службу
Text
The British Army is the land armed forces branch of the British Armed
Forces. It came into being with the unification of the Kingdoms of England and
Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. The new British Army
incorporated Regiments that had already existed in England and Scotland and was
administered by the War Office from London. It has been managed by the Ministry
of Defense since 1963. From about 1763 the United Kingdom has been one of the
leading military and economic powers of the world. The British Empire expanded
in this time to include colonies, protectorates, and Dominions throughout the
Americas, Africa, Asia and Australasia. Although the Royal Navy is widely
regarded as having been vital for the rise of the British Empire and British
dominance of the world, the British Army played an important role in colonisation.
Great Britain's dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other
powers, notably Germany. The UK was allied with France and Russia, and when
the First World War broke out in 1914, the British Army sent the British
Expeditionary Force to France and Belgium to prevent Germany from occupying
22
these countries. The Second World War broke out in 1939 with the German
invasion of Poland. British assurances to the Polish led the British Empire to
declare war on Germany. Again an Expeditionary Force was sent to France. After
the end of World War II the British Army was significantly reduced in size.
Despite the decline of the British Empire, the Army was still deployed around the
world, fighting colonial wars. The ending of the Cold War saw a 40% cut in
manpower. Despite this, in 1991 the United Kingdom was the second largest
contributor to the coalition force that fought Iraq in the Gulf War.
The British Army consists of 112,990 regular soldiers (which includes
3,830 Gurkhas) plus 35,500 Territorial Army soldiers, giving it a total of around
148,000 soldiers in October 2009. The full-time element of the British Army has
also been referred to as the Regular Army since the creation of the reservist
Territorial Force in 1908. The British Army is deployed in many of the world's war
zones as part of both Expeditionary Forces and in United Nations Peacekeeping
forces. The British Army is currently deployed in Kosovo, Cyprus, Germany,
Afghanistan and many other places.
The structure of the British Army is complex, due to the different origins of
its various constituent parts. It is broadly split into the Regular Army (full-time
soldiers and units) and the Territorial Army (part-time soldiers and units). The
professional head of the British Army is the Chief of the General Staff. In terms of
its military structure, it has two parallel organisations, one administrative and one
operational. Administrative organisation includes Divisions administrating all
military units, both Regular and TA, within a geographical area and Brigades in a
non fighting capacity. The major operational command is Headquarters Land
Forces (incorporating Land Command and Headquarters Adjutant General).Two or
more divisions form a Corp. Division is made up of two or three brigades with a
HQ element and support troops and commanded by a Major-general. Brigade is
made up of between three and five battalions, a HQ element and associated support
troops and commanded by a Brigadier.
There is also a battle group, a mixed formation of armour, infantry, artillery,
engineers and support units, and its structure is task specific. It is formed around
the core of either an armoured regiment or infantry battalion, and has other units
added or removed from it as necessary. A battle group typically consists of
between 600 and 700 soldiers under the command of a Lieutenant Colonel.
Company of about 100 soldiers, typically in three platoons, is commanded by a
Major. Platoon of about 30 soldiers is commanded by a Second Lieutenant,
23
Lieutenant or, for specialist platoons such as recce or anti-tank, a Captain. Section
of about 8 to 10 soldiers is commanded by a Corporal. A number of elements of
the British Army use alternative terms for battalion, company and platoon. These
include the Royal Armoured Corps, Corps of Royal Engineers, Royal Logistic
Corps, and the Royal Corps of Signals who use regiment (battalion), squadron
(company) and troop (platoon). The Royal Artillery are unique in using the term
regiment in place of both corps and battalion, they also replace company with
battery and platoon with troop.
In contrast to the Royal Navy, Royal Marines and Royal Air Force, the
British Army does not include Royal in its title. This is because historically, British
Armies were comprised of individually raised regiments and corps. Nevertheless,
many of its constituent Regiments and Corps have been granted the Royal prefix
and have members of the Royal Family occupying senior positions within some
regiments. The British Army contributes two of the three special forces formations
within the United Kingdom Special Forces Command; the Special Air Service
Regiment and the Special Reconnaissance Regiment. The most famous formation
is the Special Air Service Regiment formed in 1941.The SAS comprises one
regular Regiment and two Territorial Army Regiments and is headquartered at
Duke of York Barracks, London. The Special Reconnaissance Regiment (SRR)
which was formed in 2005 undertakes close reconnaissance and special
surveillance tasks. The British Army does not have its own specific ensign, unlike
the Royal Navy, which uses the White Ensign, and the RAF, which uses the Royal
Air Force Ensign. Instead, the Army has different flags and ensigns, for the entire
army and the different regiments and corps. The official flag of the Army as a
whole is the Union Flag. A non-ceremonial flag also exists, which is used at
recruiting events, military events and exhibitions. It also flies from the MOD
building in Whitehall.
The Army mainly recruits within the United Kingdom; it normally has a
recruitment target of around 25,000 soldiers per year. Low unemployment in
Britain has resulted in the Army having difficulty in meeting its target, in the early
years of the 21st century there has been a marked increase in the number of recruits
from other (mostly Commonwealth) countries. In 2008 Commonwealth origin
volunteers comprised approximately 6.7% of the Army's total strength. In total
6,600 foreign soldiers from 42 countries were represented in the Army, not
including Gurkhas. After the Gurkhas (who are from Nepal), the nation with most
citizens in the British Army is Fiji, with 2,185, followed by Jamaica and Ghana
with 600 each; many soldiers also come from more prosperous countries such as
24
New Zealand, South Africa and the Republic of Ireland. The Ministry of Defense
is now considering capping the number of recruits from Commonwealth countries,
although this will not affect the Gurkhas. If the trend continues 10% of the army
will be from Commonwealth countries before 2012. The minimum recruitment age
is 16 years, although soldiers may not serve on operations below 18 years; the
maximum recruitment age was raised in January 2007 from 26 to 33 years. The
normal term of engagement is 22 years, and, once enlisted, soldiers are not
normally permitted to leave until they have served at least 4 years. All soldiers
must take an oath of allegiance upon joining the Army, a process known as
attestation.
Задание I. Закончите предложения, подобрав год к событию, о котором
сообщается в предложении. Подготовьте краткое сообщение об истории
Британской Армии.
1763, 1991, 1707, 1763, 1939, 1914.
__________________________________________________________
1. The British Army came into being when England and Scotland unified into the
Kingdom of Great Britain in…
2. The British Army has been managed by the Ministry of Defence since…
3. The United Kingdom has been one of the leading military powers of the world
from…
4. The British Army sent its Expeditionary Force to France and Belgium in…
5. The British Army declared war on Germany in…
6. The United Kingdom contributed greatly to the coalition force in the Gulf War
in...
Задание II.
Hайдите в тексте абзац, в котором описана структура
Британской Армии. Выпишите из него слова (названия подразделений,
должностей, звания), которые помогут вам изобразить структуру Британской
Армии в виде схемы. Пользуясь составленной вами схемой, подготовьте
краткое сообщение о структуре Британской Армии.
25
Unit 4.
Grammar Revision
Глагол to do
Глагол to do может употребляться:
1. Как смысловой глагол
(делать)
2. Как вспомогательный глагол
He will do his work in the evening
Он сделает свою работу вечером
Do you speak English?
для образования сложных
Говорите ли вы по-английски?
глагольных форм
He doesn’t learn French
Он не изучает французский язык
Don’t go there
Не ходите туда
для усиления значения
But I do know him
действия
Но я же его знаю
Do come to-night
Приходите, пожалуйста,
сегодня вечером
Exercise 1. Объясните употребление глагола to do и переведите данные
предложения
1. Did you speak to him?-- No, I didn’t.
2. Do stay with us a little longer.
3. Where does he live?
4. He will do it himself.
5. Don’t open the window.
6. What did he do there?
7. I am sorry, you don’t know my brother.-- But I do know him.
Exercise 2. Поставьте предложения в вопросительной
форме
и отрицательной
26
1. The teacher always draws on a drawing board.
2. These young men and women studied at school.
3. The students go to the institute by tram.
4. The teacher hung tables and diagrams before a lecture.
The United States Army
Найдите в словаре и запишите в тетрадь транскрипцию данных слов.
Прочитайте их вслух несколько раз.
Success, invasion, expansion, mission, guard, auxiliary, militia, measure, guidance,
Georgia, maneuver.
Words to be learnt
to appoint- назначать
to meet the demands- отвечать требованиям
to disband- расформировывать, распускать
to fail- потерпеть неудачу, « провалиться»
to be unable to…- быть неспособным что-л. сделать
to resist- cопротивляться
to attempt- пытаться
to desegregate- объединять, соединять
to convert (to…) - преобразовывать (в…)
to preserve peace- cохранять мир
to provide- обеспечивать
to occupy- занимать (место, территорию…)
to support- поддерживать
to implement- выполнять, осуществлять
to overcome- преодолевать
to imperil- подвергать опасности
to divide into…- делить на…
under the authority (guidance) of…- под руководством…
auxiliary- добавочный, вспомогательный
27
Text
The United States Army is the branch of the United States Military
responsible for land-based military operations. It is the largest and oldest
established branch of the U.S. military and is one of seven uniformed services. The
modern Army has its roots in the Continental Army which was formed on 14 June
1775 with George Washington appointed as its commander, before the
establishment of the United States, to meet the demands of the American
Revolutionary War. Congress created the United States Army on 14 June 1784
after the end of the war to replace the disbanded Continental Army. The War of
1812 (1812–1815), the second and last American war against the British, was less
successful than the Revolution had been. An invasion of Canada failed, and U.S.
troops were unable to stop the British from burning the new capital of Washington,
D.C... The Civil War (1861–1865) was the most costly war for the U.S. Following
the Civil War, the U.S. Army fought a long battle with Native Americans, who
resisted U.S. expansion into the center of the continent.
But by the 1890s the U.S. saw itself as a potential international player. The
United States joined World War I (1914–1918) in 1917 on the side of Russia,
Britain and France. The U.S. joined World War II after the Japanese attack on
Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941. Two years after World War II, the Army Air
Forces separated from the Army to become the United States Air Force on 18
September 1947 after decades of attempting to separate. Also, in 1948 the Army
was desegregated. However, the end of World War II set the stage for the EastWest confrontation known as the Cold War (late 1940s to early 1990s).During the
Cold War, American troops and their allies fought Communist forces in Korea and
Vietnam. The 1980s was mostly a decade of reorganization. The Army converted
to an all-volunteer force with greater emphasis on training and technology.
Currently, the Army is divided into the Regular Army, the Army Reserve,
and the Army National Guard. The Army is also divided into major branches such
as Air Defense Artillery, Infantry, Aviation, Signal Corps, Corps of Engineers, and
Armor. Since the Militia Act of 1903 all National Guard soldiers have held dual
status: as National Guardsmen under the authority of the governor of their state
and as a reserve of the U.S. Army under the authority of the President. Various
State Defense Forces also exist, sometimes known as State Militias, which are
sponsored by individual state governments and serve as an auxiliary to the
National Guard. Except in times of extreme national emergency, such as a
mainland invasion of the United States, State Militias are operated independently
28
from the U.S. Army and are seen as state government agencies rather than a
component of the military. Although the present-day Army exists as an all
volunteer force, augmented by Reserve and National Guard forces, measures exist
for emergency expansion in the event of a catastrophic occurrence, such as a large
scale attack against the U.S. or the outbreak of a major global war.
Control and operation is administered by the Department of the Army, one
of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The civilian head
is the Secretary of the Army and the highest ranking military officer in the
department is the Chief of Staff, unless the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff or
Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff are Army officers.The U.S. Army is led
by a civilian Secretary of the Army, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, and
serves as civilian oversight for the U.S. Army Chief of Staff. The Army Chief of
Staff is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, a body composed of the service
chiefs from each service who advise the President and Secretary of Defense on
military matters under the guidance of the Chairman and Vice Chairman of the
Joint Chiefs of Staff.
Through 2013, the Army is shifting to six geographical commands that will
line up with the six geographical Unified Combatant Commands (COCOM):
• United States Army Central headquartered at Fort McPherson, Georgia
• United States Army North headquartered at Fort Sam Houston, Texas
• United States Army South headquartered at Fort Sam Houston, Texas
• United States Army Europe headquartered at Heidelberg, Germany
• United States Army Pacific headquartered at Fort Shafter, Hawaii (eventually to
be merged with the Eighth Army).
• Southern European Task Force (Army component of USAFRICOM)
headquartered at Vicenza, Italy
The U.S. Army currently consists of 10 active divisions as well as several
independent units. The force is in the process of growth, with four additional
brigades scheduled to activate by 2013, with a total increase of 74,200 soldiers
from January 2007. Each division will have four ground maneuver brigades, and
29
will also include at least one aviation brigade as well as a fires brigade and a
service support brigade. Additional brigades can be assigned or attached to a
division headquarters based on its mission. Within the Army National Guard and
the Army Reserve there are a further six divisions, over fifteen maneuver brigades,
additional combat support and combat service support brigades, and independent
cavalry, infantry, artillery, aviation, engineer, and support battalion.
Training in the United States Army is generally divided into two categories –
individual and collective. Basic training consists of 9 weeks for most recruits.
Individual training for enlisted soldiers usually consists of 14 weeks for those who
hope to hold the Military Occupational Specialty. Collective training takes place
both at the unit's assigned station, but the most intensive collective training takes
place at the three Combat Training Centers (CTC): the National Training Center
(NTC) , the Joint Readiness Training Center (JRTC) and the Joint Multinational
Training Center (JMRC)..
Задание I. Задайте вопросы к данным предложениям, выбрав к каждому
подходящее вопросительное местоимение.
1. The US Army is responsible for land-based military operations.
2. In 1775 G. Washington was appointed as a commander of the Continental
Army.
3. The modern US Army was created by Congress in 1784.
4. The US Army consists of the Regular Army, the Army Reserve and the
Army National Guard.
5. The reorganization of the US Army took place in the 1980s.
6. Through 2013 the US Army will have six geographical commands.
7. There are two categories of training in the US Army- individual and
collective.
How many…? Who…? What…? What kinds of…? When…?
What…for? What…of?
Задание II. Найдите в тексте ответы на следующие вопросы
1. Why was the Continental Army formed?
2. When did the US Army join World War II?
3. When did the US Air Force become a separate unit?
30
4. What is the primary mission of the US Army?
5. What are the major branches of the US Army?
6. What is the US Army controlled and operated by?
7. What military units are there in the US Army?
Задание III. Приготовьтесь побеседовать по изученной теме в группе и с
преподавателем.
31
Unit 5.
Grammar Revision
Формы английского глагола
Глагол - часть речи, которая обозначает действие или состояние лица или
предмета. Глагол в английском языке обладает гораздо более сложной, чем в
русском, системой видовременных форм. Эта система охватывает личные и
неличные формы.
Личные формы глагола выражают следующие категории: лицо, число, время,
вид, залог, наклонение. Личная форма, как и в русском языке, в предложении
всегда выполняет функцию сказуемого.
We live in Russia.
К неличным формам глагола относятся инфинитив, герундий и причастие
(Participle). Неличные формы глагола не имеют категорий лица, числа,
времени и наклонения.
Существуют 4 формы глагола.
I
Infinitive
Что делать?
II
Past Indefinite
действие в прошлом
Что сделать?
to transform
правильные
глаголы
transformed
III
IV
Participle II
Participle I
1.совершенное 1.Что делая?
действие
2.Что
2.совершаемое делающий?
действие
неправильные
глаголы
transformed
current
transforming
value
to read
read(II)
read(III) book
a reading
student
32
Exercise. Изменив форму каждого глагола из первой колонки и подобрав к
нему существительное из второй колонки, составьте как можно больше
словосочетаний.
to occupy
functions
to overcome
peace
to provide
war
to divide
troops
to achieve
a territory
to preserve
to deploy
an oath
independence
to declare
surveillance
to take
difficulties
Radio
Пользуясь словарем, найдите и запишите транскрипцию следующих слов.
Правильно прочитайте эти слова вслух и постарайтесь запомнить их
произношение
Require, energy, voltage, theory, straight, earth, surface, ceiling, allow, alternate,
circuit, equation, pursue, wireless, equipment
Words to be learnt
by means of – посредством, при помощи
to require – требовать
transmitting antenna – передающая антенна
receiving antenna – приёмная антенна
to amplify – усиливать
33
to contain – содержать, состоять
current – ток
to induce – вызывать, индуцировать, производить
Earth’s surface – поверхность Земли
to allow – позволять
to set up – устанавливать (параметры)
to alternate – чередовать
collapse – разрушение
coil – обмотка, катушка
reasoning- рассуждение, обоснование, причина
disturbance – помехи (атмосферные)
circuit – электрическая цепь, схема, колебательный контур
equation – уравнение
to verify – подтверждать
wireless set – беспроводной прибор
Text
Radio is a form of communication in which intelligence is transmitted
without wires from one point to another by means of electromagnetic waves. Early
forms of communication over great distances were the telephone and the telegraph.
They required wires between the sender and receiver. Radio, on the other hand,
requires no such physical connection. It relies on the radiation of energy from a
transmitting antenna in the form of radio waves. These radio waves, travelling at
the speed of light (300000 km/sec.), carry the information. When the waves arrive
at a receiving antenna, a small electrical voltage is produced. After this voltage has
34
been suitably amplified, the original information contained in the radio waves is
retrieved and presented in an understandable form. This form may be sound from a
loudspeaker, a picture on television, or a printed page from a teletype machine.
The principles of radio have been demonstrated in the early 1800s by such
scientists as Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry. They had individually developed
the theory that a current flowing in one wire could induce (produce) a current in
another wire that was not physically connected to the first.
In fact, the radio waves travel in a straight line, but they are reflected from
the back to the earth’s surface. This is how radio waves travel around the world.
You have heard on the radio of “long-wave transmissions” and “short-wave
transmissions”. In fact, there are two ceiling in the sky, not solid ceiling like the
ceiling in the room, but more like nets which allow some radio waves to pass
through them and reflect others. The lower ceiling is called “Heaviside layer”. This
reflects long waves. Short waves are reflected by the higher ceiling, called
“Appleton layer”. Radio transmitters can also send out ultra-short waves. These
waves pass through both layers in the sky but are useful for communication with
spaceships and can even be used to send sound to very long distances when they
are reflected from satellites in space.
Hans Christian Oersted had shown in 1820 that a current flowing in a wire
sets up magnetic field around the wire. If the current is made to change and, in
particular, made to alternate (flow back and forth), the building up and collapsing
of the associated magnetic field induces a current in another conductor placed in
this changing magnetic field. This principle of electromagnetic induction is well
known in the application of the transformer, where an iron core is used to link the
magnetic field of the first wire or coil with a secondary coil. By this means
voltages can be stepped up or down in value. This process is usually carried out at
low frequencies of 50 or 60 Hz (Hertz, or cycles per second). Radio wave, on the
other hand, consists of frequencies between 30 kHz and 300 GHz (1 GHz=1 billion
Hz).
In 1864, James Clerk Maxwell published his first paper that showed by
theoretical reasoning that an electrical disturbance that results from a change in an
electrical quantity such as voltage or current should propagate (travel) through
space at a speed of light. He postulated that light waves were electromagnetic
waves consisting of electric and magnetic fields. In fact, scientists now know that
visible light is just a small portion of what is called the electromagnetic spectrum,
which includes radio waves, X-rays and gamma rays.
35
Heinrich Hertz, in the late 1880s, actually produced electromagnetic waves.
He used oscillating circuits (combinations of capacitors and inductors) to transmit
and receive radio waves. By measuring the wavelength (designated by the Greek
lower-case letter lambda) of the waves and knowing the frequency of oscillation
(f), he was able to calculate the velocity (v) of the waves using the equation v=f
(lambda). He thus verified Maxwell theoretical prediction that electromagnetic
waves travel at the speed of light.
It apparently did not occur to Hertz, however, to use electromagnetic waves
for long-distance communication. This application was pursued by Marconi in
1885, he produced the first practical wireless. In 1896 he received from the British
government the first wireless patent. In part, it was based on the theory that the
communication range, increases substantially as the height of the aerial (antenna)
is increased. A. S. Popov, a Russian inventor, constructed a coherer detector for the
study of lighting dischargers and his receiver was described in 1895.
The first wireless telegraph message across the English Channel was sent by
Marconi in March 1899. The use of radio for emergencies at sea was demonstrated
soon after by Marconi’s wireless company. (Wireless sets had been installed in
lighthouses along the English coast, permitting communication radios aboard
nearly ships). The first transatlantic communication which involved sending the
Morse-code signal for the letters was sent on Dec. 12, 1901 from Cornwall
England, to Saint John’s, Newfoundland, where Marconi had set up receiving
equipment.
Задание I. Расставьте вопросы по порядку в соответствии с текстом
1. When was the first transatlantic communication sent?
2. What did A. S. Popov construct a coherer detector for?
3. What is “Heaviside layer”?
4. How is a small electrical voltage produced?
5. What is radio?
6. When and where was the first wireless telegraph message sent?
7. What did Heinrich Hertz verify?
8. How do the radio waves travel?
9. What were the early forms of communication over great distances?
10.What did James Clerk Maxwell postulate?
36
11. What did the telephone and the telegraph require between the
and receiver?
12. What waves are useful for communication with spaceships?
13. Who demonstrated the principles of radio?
14. What kinds of waves can carry the information?
sender
Задание II. Задайте данные в первом упражнении вопросы по «цепочке» в
группе. Постарайтесь ответить, не глядя в текст.
Задание III. Тщательно выполнив все упражнения, будьте готовы на
английском языке побеседовать по теме «Radio» с преподавателем и с
группой
37
Unit 6.
Grammar Revision
Времена группы Indefinite ( Simple ) действительного залога(Active
Voice)
Времена группы Indefinite употребляются, в отличие от времен других
групп, только для констатации факта совершения действия в настоящем
(Present Indefinite), прошедшем (Past Indefinite) и будущем (Future Indefinite),
без указания на его длительность, законченность и безотносительно к
какому- либо другому действию или моменту.
Глагол в Present Indefinite no форме совпадает с инфинитивом глагола (без
частицы to) во всех лицах, кроме 3-го лица ед. ч., принимающего окончание s (-es). Вспомогательным глаголом для образования отрицательной и
вопросительной форм служит глагол do(does).
We live in Russia. We do not (don’t) live in the USA. Do you live in
Russia?
She speaks English. She does not (doesn’t) speak German. Does he speak
English?
По способу образования Past Indefinite все глаголы делятся на правильные
и неправильные. Past Indefinite правильных глаголов образуется путем
прибавления к основе глагола (Infinitive без частицы to) окончания –ed. Past
Indefinite неправильных глаголов образуется различными другими способами
(см. таблицу неправильных глаголов). Отрицательная и вопросительная
формы Past Indefinite образуются при помощи вспомогательного глагола did.
Columbos discovered America. He did not (didn’t) discover Africa. What
did Columbos discover?
They came yesterday.They didn’t come on Monday.When did they come?
Future Indefinite образуется при помощи вспомогательных глаголов shall
(для I, we), will (для you, he, she, it, they) и основы смыслового глагола. Эти
38
же вспомогательные глаголы служат для образования отрицательной и
вопросительной форм.
I shall work on Sunday. I shall not (shan’t) work tomorrow. Shall I work on
Monday?
He will phone me. He will not (won’t) come. Will he phone tomorrow?
Exercise. Запишите предложения в отрицательной и вопросительной форме.
1. Our students always play sports.
2. He went to the cinema yesterday.
3. We shall be in London tomorrow.
4. The Earth goes round the Sun.
5. Tom cleaned his car.
6. Diana will pass her exams soon.
History of Radar
Найдите в словаре и запишите в тетрадь транскрипцию данных слов.
Прочитайте их вслух несколько раз.
Range, receive, frequency, version, superiors, failure, accept, hazardous, future,
advantage.
Words to be learnt
to develop- разрабатывать, развивать
device- прибор, устройство
range- диапазон
to receive- получать, принимать
frequency- частота
power level- уровень мощности
to install, to set- устанавливать
39
the same- тот же самый, такой же
to propagate- распространяться
to investigate- исследовать, расследовать
to track- следить, отслеживать
available- доступный, имеющийся в наличии
missile- ракета, реактивный снаряд
satellite- спутник
target- цель
hostile aircraft- вражеский самолет
to warn- предупреждать
to allow- позволять, разрешать
scientific research- научное исследование
to take advantage of- применять, использовать, извлечь выгоду
Text
Several inventors, scientists, and engineers contributed to the development
of radar. The first to use radio waves to detect "the presence of distant metallic
objects" was Christian Hülsmeyer, who in 1904 demonstrated the feasibility of
detecting the presence of a ship in dense fog, but not its distance. He received
Reichspatent Nr. 165546 for his pre-radar device in April 1904, and later patent
169154 for a related amendment for ranging. He also received a patent in England
for his telemobiloscope on September 22, 1904.
In August 1917 Nikola Tesla first established principles regarding
frequency and power level for the first primitive radar units. Before the Second
World War developments by the British, the Germans, the French, the Soviets and
the Americans led to the modern version of radar. In 1934 the French Émile
Girardeau stated he was building a radar system "conceived according to the
principles stated by Tesla" and obtained a patent for a working dual radar system, a
40
part of which was installed on the Normandie liner in 1935. The same year,
American Dr. Robert M. Page tested the first monopulse radar and the Soviet
military engineer P.K.Oschepkov, in collaboration with Leningrad Electrophysical
Institute, produced an experimental apparatus RAPID capable of detecting an
aircraft within 3 km of a receiver. Hungarian Zoltán Bay produced a working
model by 1936 at the Tungsram laboratory in the same vein.
However, it was the British who were the first to fully exploit it as a
defense against aircraft attack. This was spurred on by fears that the Germans were
developing “death rays”. Following a study of the possibility of propagating
electromagnetic energy and the likely effect, the British scientists asked by the Air
Ministry to investigate concluded that a death ray was impractical but detection of
aircraft appeared feasible. Robert Watson-Watt demonstrated the capabilities of a
working prototype and patented the device in 1935.
The basic concepts of radar were developed in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries. However, it was just before and during World War II that radar emerged
as a practical engineering device. On 12 February 1935 Robert Watson-Watt sent a
memorandum entitled "Detection of aircraft by radio methods", which Hanbury
Brown calls "the birth certificate of radar." During the war, radar played a pivotal
role in the success or failure of many military missions. For example, during the
1940 Battle of Britain, a radar system called Chain Home alerted the British of
impending German air raids. This warning gave the British time to efficiently
mobilize their limited air defense resources. It is widely accepted that the use of
radar helped Britain win a decisive victory.
Since its use in World War II, radar has been used extensively by the military
for a wide variety of missions, such as detection and tracking of aircraft, missiles
and satellites, or other space objects. Because of its ability to detect airborne or
space borne objects at great ranges (hundreds to thousands of miles), radar is an
integral part of most air and missile defense systems. Air defense radars (both
land-based and sea-based) detect and track targets, and guide the interceptor to the
target missile or aircraft. Airborne radars detect and track hostile aircraft. They
provide nations with early warning of hostile attack from ballistic missiles.
The development of radar in the USA from its origins to the end of the war
can be viewed in two stages. It was born in the USA in the Naval Research
Laboratory from observations made in June 1930 by Leo Young and Laurence Pat
Hyland which eventually led in 1934 to Robert Page's building of 60 MHz pulse
41
radar set. A development of this, the CXAM, became available in November 1939.
Twenty sets were installed on battleships, aircraft carriers, and cruisers in
1940.Major William Blair, the director of the Signal Corps Laboratories at Fort
Monmouth, New Jersey, promoted radar experiments from 1933 onwards. Simple
pulse radar was demonstrated in December 1936. By May 1937, a prototype of the
first US Army radar, the SCR-268, was built. Long-range radar, operating at 106
MHz, the mobile SCR 270 and its fixed counterpart the SCR-271, went into
service in 1940. About 800 were produced between 1939 and 1944. By early 1942
the Aircraft Warning Service had a chain of SCR-270 and SCR-271 radars
protecting the east coast from Maine to Key West and the west coast from
Washington to San Diego. At the time of the Tizard mission and the exchange of
information with the UK in 1940, the USA possessed a very solid and developing
radar program though it lacked, perhaps, the urgency engendered by a country
threatened by war. The second stage of development was initiated by the setting up
of the Radiation Laboratory in November 1940, a direct result of the mission.
In addition to their historical and current use in military operations, radars
have many civilian uses as well. They are used extensively for air traffic control,
providing the controllers with an up-to-the-second location of all aircraft within
about 60 miles (about 100 kilometers) of an airport. A variety of different radars
are used to detect and study hazardous weather conditions such as tornadoes,
hurricanes, and severe storms. This information is given to air traffic controllers,
and assists them in providing airline pilots with flight paths that are relatively free
from hazardous weather conditions. Doppler radars are used by law enforcement to
monitor and control automobile speed and traffic. All large commercial maritime
ships use radar as a navigation aid, allowing them to detect and track other nearby
ships, landmarks, islands, navigation buoys, and hazards such as icebergs. Radars
have also been used for scientific research. A major test of Albert Einstein’s
general theory of relativity was performed using radar.
Speculating where radar technology is going in the future can bring up some
interesting possibilities. "We are seeing the convergence of radar, computing, and
communications technologies and we need to take advantage of their latent
synergies," says Lockheed Martin's Reep. "More and more we will move to
systems that will dramatically change the way we interact with them. Much of this
transformation might revolve around tactical networking, the Global Information
Grid, and the advent of so-called Web 2.0 technology, ‘’ Reep says. Placing realtime radar information on tactical networks and viewing the data through Internetlike interfaces may open up new possibilities in disseminating radar to those who
42
need it and also blending information from one radar system with other radar or
other kinds of sensors.
Задание I. Сопоставив имена, события и даты и расположив их в
хронологическом порядке, проследите историю создания радара.
Подготовьте краткое сообщение об этом.
Who?
1. Christian Hülsmeyer
2. Nikola Tesla
What did he do?
made observations which
eventually led to radar set
produced an experimental
apparatus capable of
detecting an aircraft
When?
in 1917.
in 1904.
3. Leo Young and
Laurence Pat Hyland
4. Émile Girardeau
5. P.K.Oschepkov
6. Robert Watson-Watt
within 3 km
was the first to use radio
waves to detect the
presence of distant objects
demonstrated and
patented the device
obtained a patent for a
working dual radar system
established principles for
the first primitive radar
units
in 1934.
in 1930.
in 1935.
in 1935.
Задание II. Внимательно прочитав текст, ответьте на следующие вопросы.
1. Who is considered to be the inventor of the radar? Why?
2. Engineers of which nations contributed to the development of radar?
3. When radar was used as a practical device for the first time?
Задание III. Найдите в тексте абзацы, в которых говорится о применении
радара в военных и гражданских целях. Выпишите из них ключевые слова,
которые помогут вам рассказать о применении радара.
Задание IV. Приготовьтесь побеседовать по изученной теме в группе и с
преподавателем.
43
Unit 7.
Grammar Revision
Времена группы Continuous (Progressive) действительного залога
(Active Voice)
Времена группы Continuous используются для выражения длительного
действия, совершающегося в момент речи. Некоторые глаголы не
употребляются в Continuous. Это глаголы, обозначающие чувственное
восприятие (to see, to hear…), умственную деятельность (to know, to believe,
to remember, to understand…); желания, чувства (to want, to wish, to like, to
love, to dislike, to hate…).
Глагол- сказуемое в Present Continuous передает действие, происходящее в
настоящий момент; действие, представляющее собой непрерывный процесс;
будущее действие, если оно запланировано. Глагол - сказуемое в Present
Continuous образуется при помощи соответствующей формы настоящего
времени глагола to be и -ing формы смыслового глагола(Participle I).
He is reading a book. I am not watching TV. Are you reading?
Past Continuous выражает прошедшее действие в процессе его совершения,
т. е. незаконченное длительное действие. Глагол- сказуемое в Past Continuous
образуется при помощи соответствующей формы глагола to be в
прошедшем времени и -ing формы смыслового глагола(Participle I):
I was working when he came. They were not working. What were you
doing?
Future Continuous выражает будущее действие в процессе его совершения.
Глагол- сказуемое образуется при помощи вспомогательного глагола to be в
форме будущего времени и -ing формы смыслового глагола(Participle I).
We shall be sleeping after 11. He will not be sleeping. Will you be sleeping?
44
Exercise. Запишите предложения в отрицательной и вопросительной форме.
1. Please, be quiet! I am working.
2. We were playing tennis.
3. She will be cooking the dinner.
4. They are spending next winter in Spain.
5. He was standing near the car.
6. Look at Alex! He is crossing the street.
7. I shall be speaking English at the meeting.
Radar as a Weapon
Найдите в словаре и запишите в тетрадь транскрипцию данных слов.
Прочитайте их вслух несколько раз.
Identify, altitude, vehicle, battle, yield, digitize, essential, assault, coverage,
through, weapon.
Words to be learnt
wave- волна
altitude- высота (в т. ч. над уровнем моря)
direction- направление
vehicle- транспортное средство
imaging capability- способность воспроизводить изображение
blip- короткий высокочастотный звуковой сигнал, яркая точка на экране
радара
decisive- решающий (имеющий решающее значение)
to steer- управлять
to yield a signal- подавать сигнал
to require- требовать
to process- обрабатывать
45
to enhance- увеличить, усилить, улучшить
assault- атака, нападение, штурм
coverage- зона действия, охват
to involve- привлечь, вовлечь, задействовать
by no means- никоим образом, ни в коем случае
early- warning system- система раннего оповещения
to equip, to fit- оборудовать, оснащать
to destroy- разрушить, разбить (врага)
submarine- подводная лодка
Text
Radar is an object detection system that uses electromagnetic waves to
identify the range, altitude, direction, or speed of both moving and fixed objects
such as aircraft, ships, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. The term
RADAR was coined in 1941 as an acronym for RAdio Detection and Ranging. The
term has since entered the English language as a standard word, radar, losing the
capitalization. Radar was originally called RDF (Radio Direction Finder, now used
as a totally different device) in the United Kingdom, in order to preserve the
secrecy of its ranging capability.
Radar has been with us for nearly seven decades, when British systems
designers first deployed this technology to give the Royal Air Force early warning
of Nazi bombers crossing the channel to attack cities and towns in England. In
those days a radar contact was just a blip on the screen; it did not offer information
on the size or type of the contact, and only rudimentary information on the
contact's speed and direction.
Today's radar technology is every bit as decisive as it was during the Battle
of Britain, yet it is worlds away from the large, tube-based, mechanically steered,
relatively low-frequency systems that once stood as electronic sentinels along the
English coast. Modern radar systems often have imaging capability, can yield
digitized signals quickly and easily for use with graphical overlays, can be
networked together so the total system is greater than the sum of its parts, and can
46
serve several different functions -- such as wide-area search, target tracking, fire
control, and weather monitoring -- where previous generations of radar technology
required separate systems to do the same jobs. Most important, however, is the
relative ease and speed with which modern analog radar signals can be converted
to digital information? Not only does this open a wide variety of signal processing
options, but it also enables radar information to be made available in real time or
near real time on Internet-type networks for inclusion in the digital battlefield and
Global Information Grid visions of the future.
Radar systems enhanced the capability of air, land, and sea forces in both
defensive and offensive roles. The element of surprise in attack became more
difficult to achieve. In some operations or battles the use of radar or a particular
type of radar was of decisive importance. The use of the Chain Home in the battle
of Britain was an essential factor in the RAF's victory. It was also the first time in
history that early warning and control were used in an air battle. In the assault
phase of the Normandy landings the chain again played an essential part: its radar
coverage was extended by three specially equipped fighter director tenders, which
finally hove to off the coast, and by the GCI (ground control of interception) and
other sets which were landed on the bridgehead. The landings, involving accurate
blind-bombing and naval bombardment of shore targets, and the expeditious
movement of a huge air and sea armada, would have been impossible without a
heavy involvement of radar.
The Allied strategic air offensive against Germany went through many
phases. Overall, it was by no means a one-sided victory for RAF Bomber
Command and the Eighth US Army Air Force. The German radar early-warning
system was very effective so that the defenses were hardly ever surprised. In the
biggest night air battle of the war, on 30 March, 1944, a force of 782 Halifaxes and
Lancasters, carrying out a raid on Nuremberg, suffered 13.6% losses due in large
part to the effectiveness of the German night fighters' Lichtenstein SN2 AI sets.
The Pacific war, which lasted almost four years, was essentially a naval
war. American submarines and radar-equipped aircraft inflicted heavy losses on
Japanese merchant shipping and tankers. The balance of naval battles, in both
defensive and offensive phases of the campaign, was determined largely by the
effectiveness of the American Task Forces' radar directed fighters. The ‘Great
Marianas Turkey Shoot’ of 19 June 1944, during the battle of the Philippine Sea,
when nearly 300 Japanese aircraft were destroyed for a loss of 30 American
aircraft, was an example of the potency of well-organized radar fighter-control.
47
One instance where the usage of radar was critical for the Allies and in
which the outcome of battle was vital to the whole conduct of the war was the
battle of the Atlantic. The submarine war on Allied merchant shipping lasted from
the outbreak of hostilities until the defeat of Germany. Losses such as those of
June 1942 when 141 ships were sunk could not have been sustained for long.
Many factors apart from radar, including code-breaking, ship-building potential,
anti-submarine weapon development, and convoy procedures, denied ultimate
victory to the U-boats. The use of radar, particularly the British naval Type 271
microwave set used in escort vessels, proved very successful. At the end of 1940,
the ASV MkII was fitted to a variety of aircraft including Wellingtons, Whitleys,
Sunderlands, and Catalinas. Later, American long-range aircraft, such as the
Liberator, fitted with radar were used in the western Atlantic. At night, the
combination of ASV radar which could pick up a surfaced submarine and the
Leigh Light (searchlights) which could illuminate it as the aircraft made its final
run in before dropping depth charges, proved a deadly weapon. The 200 MHz
ASV MkII lost much of its potency due to the Germans' introduction of listening
receivers on submarines. However, the advent in March 1943 of the 3GHz ASV
MkIII set, which could not be detected, heralded the defeat of the submarines.
Задание I. Переведите на русский язык данные цепочки слов
Object detection, British systems designers, relatively low- frequency system,
weather monitoring function, signal processing options, specially equipped fighter
director tender, radar early- warning system, radar- equipped aircraft, US Task
Force’s radar directed fighters effectiveness, well- organized radar fighter- control
potency, anti- submarine weapon development.
Задание II. Дайте ответы на следующие вопросы:
1. What does the word “radar” mean?
2. What information did early radar offer?
3. What capabilities do modern radar systems have?
4. In what military conflicts the usage of radar was decisive?
Задание III. Приготовьтесь побеседовать по изученной теме в группе и с
преподавателем.
48
Unit 8.
Grammar Revision
Времена группы Perfect действительного залога(Active Voice)
Совершенные
времена
используются
для
выражения
действия,
совершившегося к настоящему моменту (Present Perfect), к определенному
моменту в прошлом (Past Perfect) или действие, которое совершится к
определенному моменту в будущем (Future Perfect). Используя времена
группы Perfect, говорящий обращает внимание на результат, вытекающий из
совершенного действия, а не на время его совершения.
Present Perfect образуется при помощи вспомогательного глагола to have в
форме настоящего времени и III формы смыслового глагола (Participle
II).
I have written my test. He has not (hasn’t) written the test yet. Have you
written the test?
Past Perfect образуется при помощи вспомогательного глагола to have в
форме прошедшего времени и III формы смыслового глагола (Participle
II).
We had finished our work when he phoned. He had not (hadn’t) phoned
before we finished. Had you come when he phoned?
Future Perfect образуется при помощи вспомогательного глагола to have в
форме будущего времени III формы смыслового глагола (Participle II).
She will have read this book by the end of the week. I shall not have read my
book by this time. Will you have read your book?
Exercise. Запишите предложения в отрицательной и вопросительной форме.
1. Leo will have come by 10.
2. I had cooked supper when mother came from work.
3. He has been to New York this month.
49
4. They have just started the meeting.
5. We shall have tested the equipment by the end of the year.
Radar Components
Найдите в словаре и запишите в тетрадь транскрипцию данных слов.
Прочитайте их вслух несколько раз.
Amplify, adequate, reliable, efficient, design, key, pseudo, cause, equate, false,
cycle.
Words to be learnt
store- накапливать, сохранять
to amplify- усилить
carrier (wave) - несущая
bandwidth- полоса пропускания, полоса частот
reliable- надежный
to maintain- обслуживать, содержать в исправности
direct current (dc)- постоянный ток
either…or…- или…или…, либо…либо…
to cause- вызывать, являться причиной
in order to…- для того, чтобы…
to depend on (upon) - зависеть от…
average value- среднее значение
to consume- потреблять
to determine- определятьto
to exceed- превышать
false alarm- ложный аварийный сигнал
50
to ajust- регулировать, выверять, корректировать
to reduce- снижать, уменьшать
close to…- близко к…, вплотную
duration- длительность, продолжительность
Text
A practical radar system requires seven basic components.
1. Transmitter. The transmitter creates the radio wave to be sent and modulates it
to form the pulse train. The transmitter must also amplify the signal to a high
power level to provide adequate range. The source of the carrier wave could be a
Klystron, Traveling Wave Tube (TWT) or Magnetron. Each has its own
characteristics and limitations. The radar transmitter produces the short duration
high-power RF pulses of energy that are radiated into space by the antenna. The
radar transmitter is required to have the following technical and operating
characteristics:
-the transmitter must have the ability to generate the required
power and the required peak power
mean RF
-the transmitter must have a suitable RF bandwidth.
-the transmitter must have a high RF stability to meet signal processing
requirements
-the transmitter must be easily modulated to meet waveform design
requirements.
-the transmitter must be efficient, reliable and easy to maintain and the life
expectancy and cost of the output device must be acceptable.
One main type of transmitters is the keyed-oscillator type. In this transmitter one
stage or tube, usually a magnetron produces the RF pulse. The oscillator tube is
keyed by a high-power dc pulse of energy generated by a separate unit called
demodulator. This transmitting system is called POT (Power Oscillator
Transmitter). Radar units fitted with a POT are either non-coherent or pseudocoherent. Power-Amplifier-Transmitters (PAT) is used in many recently developed
radar sets. In this system the transmitting pulse is caused with a small performance
51
in a waveform generator. It is taken to the necessary power with an amplifier
following (Amplitron, Klystron or Solid-State-Amplifier). Radar units fitted with
a PAT are fully coherent in the majority of cases.
2. Receiver. The receiver is sensitive to the range of frequencies being transmitted
and provides amplification of the returned signal. In order to provide the greatest
range, the receiver must be very sensitive without introducing excessive noise.
The ability to discern a received signal from background noise depends on the
signal-to-noise ratio (S/N). The background noise is specified by an average value,
called the noise-equivalent-power (NEP). This directly equates the noise to a
detected power level so that it may be compared to the return.
In the receiver, S/N sets a threshold for detection which determines what
will be displayed and what will not. In theory, if S/N = 1, then only returns with
power equal to or greater than the background noise will be displayed. However,
the noise is a statistical process and varies randomly. The NEP is just the average
value of the noise. There will be times when the noise exceeds the threshold that is
set by the receiver. Since this will be displayed and appear to be a legitimate
target, it is called a false alarm. If the SNR is set too high, then there will be few
false alarms, but some actual targets may not be displayed known as a miss). If
SNR is set too low, then there will be many false alarms, or a high false alarm rate
(FAR). Some receivers monitor the background and constantly adjust the SNR to
maintain a constant false alarm rate, and therefore are called CFAR receivers.
Some common receiver features are:
a.) Pulse Integration. The receiver takes an average return strength over many
pulses. Random events like noise will not occur in every pulse and therefore,
when averaged, will have a reduced effect as compared to actual targets that will
be in every pulse.
b.) Sensitivity Time Control (STC). This feature reduces the impact of returns
from sea state. It reduces the minimum SNR of the receiver for a short duration
immediately after each pulse is transmitted. The effect of adjusting the STC is to
reduce the clutter on the display in the region directly around the transmitter. The
greater the value of STC, the greater the range from the transmitter in which clutter
will be removed. However, an excessive STC will blank out potential returns
close to the transmitter.
52
c.) Fast Time Constant (FTC). This feature is designed to reduce the effect of long
duration returns that come from rain. This processing requires that strength of the
return signal must change quickly over it duration. Since rain occurs over and
extended area, it will produce a long, steady return. The FTC processing will filter
these returns out of the display. Only pulses that rise and fall quickly will be
displayed. In technical terms, FTC is a differentiator, meaning it determines the
rate of change in the signal, which it then uses to discriminate pulses which are not
changing rapidly.
3. Power Supply. The power supply provides the electrical power for all the
components. The largest consumer of power is the transmitter which may require
several kW of average power. The actually power transmitted in the pulse may be
much greater than 1 kW. The power supply only needs to be able to provide the
average amount of power consumed, not the high power level during the actual
pulse transmission. Energy can be stored, in a capacitor bank for instance, during
the rest time. The stored energy then can be put into the pulse when transmitted,
increasing the peak power. The peak power and the average power are related by
the quantity called duty cycle, DC. Duty cycle is the fraction of each transmission
cycle that the radar is actually transmitting.
4. Synchronizer. The synchronizer coordinates the timing for range
determination. It regulates that rate at which pulses are sent (i.e. sets PRF) and
resets the timing clock for range determination for each pulse. Signals from the
synchronizer are sent simultaneously to the transmitter, which sends a new pulse,
and to the display, which resets the return sweep.
5.Duplexer. This is a switch which alternately connects the transmitter or
receiver to the antenna. Its purpose is to protect the receiver from the high power
output of the transmitter. During the transmission of an outgoing pulse, the
duplexer will be aligned to the transmitter for the duration of the pulse. After the
pulse has been sent, the duplexer will align the antenna to the receiver. When the
next pulse is sent, the duplexer will shift back to the transmitter. A duplexer is not
required if the transmitted power is low.
6. Antenna. The antenna takes the radar pulse from the transmitter and puts it
into the air. Furthermore, the antenna must focus the energy into a well-defined
beam which increases the power and permits a determination of the direction of the
target. The antenna must keep track of its own orientation which can be
53
accomplished by a synchro-transmitter. There are also antenna systems which do
not physically move but are steered electronically.
7. Display. The display unit may take a variety of forms but in general is
designed to present the received information to an operator. The most basic display
type is called an A-scan (amplitude vs. Time delay). The vertical axis is the
strength of the return and the horizontal axis is the time delay, or range. The Ascan provides no information about the direction of the target.
Задание I. Опишите функцию каждого из компонентов радара, правильно
соединив части предложений
1. Radar
transmitter…
…focuses the energy into a well- defined beam which
determines the direction of the target.
2. Radar receiver…
…regulates the rate of the pulses and resets the timing clock
for each pulse.
3. Power
supply…
…amplifies the returned signal.
4. Syncronizer…
…connects the transmitter or the receiver to the antenna and
protects the receiver from the high- power output of the
transmitter.
5. Duplexer…
6. Antenna…
7. Display…
…provides all radar components with electrical power.
…presents the received information to the operator.
…sends the radio wave in the form of pulse.
Задание II. Приготовьтесь побеседовать по изученной теме в группе и с
преподавателем.
54
Unit 9.
Grammar Revision
Времена группы Perfect Continuous (Active Voice)
(совершенное длительное время в действительном залоге)
Времена
группы Perfect Continuous употребляются для выражения
длительного действия, начавшегося до определенного момента в
настоящем, прошедшем или будущем и длившегося известный период
времени, включая этот момент.
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
Future Perfect
Continuous
Continuous
Continuous
I have been writing
I had been writing
the letter for an hour
the letter for an hour
the letter for an hour
when he came
when he comes
Я пишу письмо (уже)
Я писал письмо (уже)
I shall have been writing
Я буду писать письмо
час
час, когда он пришел
(уже) час, когда он придет
Perfect Continuous употребляются с такими обозначениями времени, как
for (an hour, a month, a long time) – в течение (часа, месяца, долгого времени
lately – последнее время
since (yesterday, five o’clock) – с (вчерашнего дня, пяти часов)
since then
since the time when
for…by the time
55
Present Perfect Continuous переводится на русский язык глаголом в
настоящем времени, часто с наречием «уже»
I have been waiting for a long time for my brother
Я жду своего брата уже давно
Past Perfect Continuous переводится на русский язык прошедшим
временем глагола несовершенного вида, часто с наречием «уже»
I had been working for a long time when my brother came.
Я уже долго работал, когда пришел мой брат.
Future Perfect Continuous переводится на русский язык будущим временем
несовершенного вида (эта форма употребляется очень редко)
I shall begin to work at ten o’clock in the morning. When you return home at five
o’clock, I shall have been working for seven hours.
Я начну работать в 10 часов утра. Когда вы вернетесь домой в 5 часов, я буду
уже работать семь часов.
Exercise . Выберите правильное предложение, используя данные варианты
1. Она рисовала плакат уже 2 часа, когда преподаватель пришел в
кабинет.
a) She was painting the poster when the teacher came in the classroom.
b) She has already painted this poster.
c) She had been painting the poster for two hours already when the teacher
came in the classroom.
2. Студент чертит график уже в течение долгого времени.
a) The student draws diagram for a long time.
b) The student was drawing diagram for a long time.
c) The student has been drawing diagram for a long time.
3. Я буду писать уже три часа, когда он придет.
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a) I will have written for 3 hours when he comes.
b) I will have been writing for 3 hours when he comes.
c) I will write for 3 hours when he comes.
Radar Types
Найдите в словаре и запишите в тетрадь транскрипцию данных слов.
Прочитайте их вслух несколько раз.
Continuous, surveillance, saturation, simultaneous, weight, dimension, guide,
sequence, precision, gauge, echo, acquire.
Words to be learnt
to divide into- делить на…
hardware- оборудование, аппаратное обеспечение
software- программное обеспечение
to develop- развивать, разрабатывать
damage assessment- оценка (анализ) неисправности
mainly- в основном, главным образом
array- многовибраторная антенна
saturation attack- массированная атака
jamming- помехи, глушение
sumiltaneous- одновременный
data rate- скорость передачи данных
resolution- разрешение
to meet- отвечать(напр.требованиям)
to intercept- перехватить (самолёт, информацию…)
precision- точный
57
to observe- наблюдать
speed gauge- прибор для измерения скорости
altimeter- высотометр
scatterometer- измеритель рассеяния
to emit- излучать
transponder- приёмоответчик
Text
Radar systems may be divided into types based on the designed use. Radars
configurations include Monopulse radar, Bistatic radar, Doppler radar,
Continuous-wave radar, etc. depending on the types of hardware and software
used. It is used in aviation (Primary and secondary radar), sea vessels, law
enforcement, weather surveillance, ground mapping, geophysical surveys, and
biological research. Radar originally was developed to meet the needs of the
military services, and it continues to have critical applications for national defense
purposes. For instance, radars are used to detect aircraft, missiles, artillery and
mortar projectiles, ships, land vehicles, and satellites. In addition, radar controls
and guides weapons; allows one class of target to be distinguished from another;
aids in the navigation of aircraft and ships; and assists in reconnaissance and
damage assessment. Military radar systems can be divided into three main classes
based on platform: land-based, shipborne, and airborne. Within these broad
classes, there are several other categories based mainly on the operational use of
the radar system.
Multi Function Radars
Active array MultiFunction Radars (MFRs) enable modern weapon systems to
cope with saturation attacks of very small radar cross-section missiles in a
concentrated jamming environment. Such MFRs have to provide a large number of
fire-control channels, simultaneous tracking of both hostile and defending missiles
and mid-course guidance commands.
Multi Target Tracking Radar
Operational functions of a MultiTarget Tracking Radar (MTTR) include:
58
• long-range search;
• search information with high data rate for low-flying aircraft;
• search information with high resolution of close in air targets;
• automatic position and height information;
• simultaneous tracking of a lot of aircraft targets;
• target designation facilities for other systems.
Air Traffic Control Radar Sets
Air traffic control radars are used both at civilian and military airports. Airborne
radar is designed especially to meet the strict space and weight limitations that are
necessary for all airborne equipment. Even so, airborne radar sets develop the same
peak power as shipboard and shore-based sets. In fighter aircraft, the primary
mission of radar is to aid in the search, interception, and destruction of enemy
aircraft.
Air-Defense Radar
Air-Defense Radars can detect air targets and determine their position, course, and
speed in a relatively large area. The maximum range of Air-Defense Radar can
exceed 300 miles, and the bearing coverage is a complete 360-degree circle. AirDefense Radars are usually divided into two categories, based on the amount of
position information supplied. Radar sets that provide only range and bearing
information are referred to as two-dimensional, or 2D, radars. Radar sets that
supply range, bearing, and height are called three-dimensional, or 3D, radars. AirDefense Radars are used as early-warning devices because they can detect
approaching enemy aircraft or missiles at great distances. Another function of the
Air-Defense Radar is guiding combat air patrol (CAP) aircraft to a position
suitable to intercept an enemy aircraft.
Air Surveillance Radar Sets
This radar equipment is used for the identification of aircrafts, determination of
aircrafts approach sequence and for individual aircraft approach controls by Air
Traffic Security operators. This radar network could be used under all weather
conditions.
Precision Approach Radar Sets
The precision approach radar guide aircraft to safe landing under conditions
approaching zero visibility. By means of radar, aircraft are detected and observed
59
during the final approach and landing sequence. Guidance information is supplied
to the pilot in the form of verbal radio instructions, or to the automatic pilot
(autopilot) in the form of pulsed control signals.
Weather Radar Sets
The weather data it finds could be used both for approach support and for feeding
into the wider weather data concentration systems.Radar in recent years has
become an important tool for the measurement of precipitation and the detection of
hazardous weather conditions.
Missile Guidance Radar
A radar system that provides information used to guide a missile to a hostile target
is called Guidance Radar.
Navigation Radar
Navigation radars are designed for ship navigation and surface surveillance. When
weather conditions render visual piloting impossible on a vessel, radar navigation
provides a method of fixing a vessel’s position with sufficient accuracy to allow
safe passage.
Imaging Radar / Non-Imaging Radar
An Imaging Radar forms a picture of the observed object or area. Imaging radars
have been used to map the Earth, other planets, asteroids, other celestial objects
and to categorize targets for military systems. Typically implementations of a NonImaging Radar system are speed gauges and radar altimeters. These are also called
scatterometers since they measure the scattering properties of the object or region
being observed.
Primary Radar
A Primary Radar transmits high-frequency signals which are reflected at targets.
The arisen echoes are received and evaluated. This means, unlike secondary radar
sets a primary radar unit receive its own emitted signals as an echo again.
Secondary Radar
At these radar sets the airplane must have a transponder (transmitting responder)
on board and this transponder responds to interrogation by transmitting a coded
reply signal. This response can contain much more information, than a primary
60
radar unit is able to acquire (E.g. an altitude, an identification code or also any
technical problems on board such as a radio contact loss ...).
Pulse Radars
Pulse radar sets transmit a high-frequency impulse signal of high power. After this
impulse signal, a longer break follows in which the echoes can be received, before
a new transmitted signal is sent out. Direction, distance and sometimes if necessary
the height or altitude of the target can be determined from the measured antenna
position and propagation time of the pulse-signal.
Continuous- Wave Radar
CW radar sets transmit a high-frequency signal continuously. The echo signal is
received and processed. The receiver needs not to be mounted at the same place as
the transmitter.
Unmodulated CW- Radar
The transmitted signal of these equipments is constant in amplitude and frequency.
This equipment is specialized in speed measurings. Distances cannot be measured.
Modulated CW-Radar
The transmitted signal is constant in amplitude but modulated in frequency. It is an
advantage of this equipment that an evaluation is carried out without reception
break and the measurement result is therefore continuously available. These radar
sets are used when the measuring distance isn’t too large and it’s necessary a
continuous measuring.
Задание. Используя дополнительные источники информации (напр.
Интернет), подготовьте презентацию одного из типов радара, о котором вы
прочитали в тексте.
61
Unit 10.
Grammar Revision
Времена группы Indefinite страдательного залога(Passive Voice)
Если подлежащее обозначает лицо или предмет, который совершает действие
не сам, а подвергается действию со стороны другого лица или предмета, то
глагол - сказуемое используется в форме страдательного залога.
“Poltava” was written by Pushkin in 1828.
Времена страдательного залога образуются при помощи вспомогательного
глагола to be в соответствующем времени и формы причастия прошедшего
времени (Participle II ), т.е III формы смыслового глагола.
Таким образом, при спряжении глагола в страдательном залоге изменяется
только глагол to be, смысловой же глагол имеет во всех временах одну и ту
же форму- Participle II.
Indefinite Passive
Present
I am (am not) asked. Am I asked?
He, She, It is (isn’t) asked. Is he asked?
You, We, They are (aren’t) asked. Are you asked?
Past
I, He, She, It was (wasn’t) asked. Was he asked?
You, We, They were (weren’t) asked. Were you asked?
Future
I, We shall (shan’t) be asked. Shall we be asked?
You, He, She, It will (won’t) be asked. Will you be asked?
Exercise. Измените предложения, заменив форму действительного залога
глагола-сказуемого на форму страдательного залога. Полученные
предложения запишите в отрицательной и вопросительной форме.
62
1. His friend often invites him to international conferences.
2. We shall build a new house next year.
3. Bell invented the telephone in 1876.
Communication Satellite
Пользуясь словарем, найдите и запишите транскрипцию следующих слов.
Правильно прочитайте эти слова вслух и постарайтесь запомнить их
произношение
Artificial, via, serve, tower, launch, fuel, adjust, cause, power, frequency, mutual,
division, assign
Words to be leant
artificial satellite – искусственный спутник
to facilitate – облегчать
via – посредством
relay tower – ретранслятор
low-noise – низкошумный
launch – запуск, запускать
capacity – ёмкость
rotation rate – скорость вращения
solar cell – солнечная батарея
to supply – снабжать, обеспечивать
adjust – настраивать
to offset – возмещать, противостоять
to cause – вызывать, быть причиной, заставлять
reference point – опорная точка
63
to complete – составлять, включать в себя
to reduce – уменьшать
power output – выходная мощность
range – диапазон
mutual interference – взаимные помехи
multiplexed – многоканальный
frequency band – полоса пропускания частоты, диапазон частоты
Text
A communication satellite is an artificial satellite placed into orbit
around Earth to facilitate communication on Earth. Most long-distance radio
communication across land is sent via microwave relay towers. The towers, 30 to
60 m (100 to 200 ft) high, are typically spaced 30 to 50 km (20 to 30 mi) apart, and
100 of them are needed to cross the United States. In effect, a satellite serves as a
tall microwave link or a cable, it can interconnect any number of stations that are
included within the antenna beams of the satellite rather than simply the two ends
of the microwave link. The concept of using a satellite repeater was first proposed
by Arthur C. Clarke in the October 1945 issue of Wireless World. The
development of powerful rockets in the mid-1950s and the simultaneous
development of sensitive low-noise receiving equipment made communication
satellites a realistic consideration.
The period from 1958 to 1963 was one of experimentation with both active
satellites, those electronic instrumentation, and passive satellites, those which
simply reflected signals. On Dec. 18, the U.S. Army places Score in a low altitude
orbit. It had only one voice cannel and could retransmit messages directly or store
them for later playback. On Aug. 1960, NASA launched ECHO, a passive
aluminized plastic balloon, 30 m (100 ft) in diameter, into an orbit 1 600 km (1000
mi) above the Earth. In 1962 experiments were conducted on TELSTAR and
RELAY, medium-altitude active satellites with the capacity of the television
channel or several hundred voice channels. In 1963, SYNCOM 2 became the first
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synchronous satellite with a period matching the Earth’s rotation rate. These
satellites proved the concepts and were the later commercial satellite design.
Communication satellites are platform that house radio receivers and their
antennas receive signals from the Earth stations, and amplify and pass the signals
to a transmitter and antenna, with sufficient power to the amplifiers (about 500
watts in Intelsat IV); fuel to periodically adjust the satellite’s position to offset
forces caused by the Sun and Moon; and altitude control equipment to keep the
satellites antenna pointed properly at the Earth, using either the Sun, the edge of
the Earth, or radio beacon on Earth as a reference point. Telemetry encoders and
transmitters measure voltages, currents, temperatures, and other parameters
describing the condition of the satellite and transmit this information to Earth.
Finally, a structure must house all this equipment. For example, an Intelsat V
weighs more than 1 950 kg (4 300 lb).
The major Earth stations that communicate with these satellites typically
comprise an antenna about 30 m (100 ft) in diameter, a receiver that is cooled to 14
K in order to reduce its noise, and a radio transmitter with a power output in the
range of several hundred to several thousand watts to send signals to the satellite.
Smaller Earth stations are also used, but on a more restrictive basis because of their
greater demands on satellite capacity.
International and domestic satellites use frequency bands that already
heavily used by terrestrial radio relay stations: 5 925 to 6 425 megahertz or MHz (1
hertz = 1 cycle per second) from Earth station to satellite; and 3 700 to 4 200 MHz
from satellite to Earth station. Mutual interference is avoided by appropriate
location of the Earth stations; for example, they are not located within major
telecommunications centers. Some satellite systems operate on the basis of
frequency division – each Earth stations is assigned, a different radio frequency on
which are multiplexed, or packaged, all of the voice channels carried by that
station. Alternatively, speech signals can be converted to digital pulses, and such
pulses from the various stations are interleaved in time and amplified in the
satellite through a common receiver/transmitter. In order to meet the needs of
increased communications traffic, projected at more than 1000 000 circuits in the
1990s, speech will be converted to digital bits, a method already used to a great
extent in communications networks.
Additional capacity is obtained by using the same frequency band several
times over multiple narrow beams from the satellite, and by extending the
65
frequency band to the 11 and 14 GHz region and eventually to other bands.
Private business satellites for a wide variety of services are becoming common,
and the availability of higher-powered satellites permits smaller antennas for Earth
stations, with modest traffic demands. (The range of 12.2 to 12.7 GHz, for
example, is already reserved for direct broadcasting to individual users). Satellites
are coming into routine use for communications to ships and planes. The trend will
be toward higher capacity at lower cost for each circuit. In some areas of the world,
satellites can broadcast directly to individual homes.
Задание I. Задайте вопросы и ответьте на них, закончив предложения в
соответствии с содержанием текста.
A communication satellite is…(where, how, what)
Most long- distance radio communication is sent…(when, why, how)
A satellite serves as…(whose, who, what, how)
Arthur C. Clarke proposed…(why, which, when, what)
The U.S. Army places Score in…(what, when, where)
NASA launched ECHO on…(why, how, when, where)
Communication satellites amplify and pass signals to…(what, where, why,
how)
8. Telemetry encoders and transmitters measure…(who, how, what)
9. Mutual interference is avoided…(why, who, how, where)
10.Additional capacity is obtained…(why, when, where, how)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Задание II. Выделите главную мысль каждого абзаца в виде кратких,
логичных, своих собственных предложений на английском языке
Задание III. Напишите собственное краткое содержание текста на русском,
а затем на английском языке, используя свои предложения по абзацам
66
Unit 11.
Grammar Revision
Времена группы Continuous и Perfect в страдательном залоге (Passive
Voice)
Страдательный залог группы Continuous образуется при помощи
вспомогательного глагола to be в Present или Past Continuous + Participle
II смыслового глагола
Лицо
Present
Past
I
am being asked
was being asked
He, She, it
is being asked
was being asked
We, You, They
are being asked
were being asked
(меня, его, её, нас,
(меня…спрашивали)
тебя/вас, их спрашивают)
Страдательный залог времен группы Continuous переводится глаголом
несовершенного вида
During the experiment the air in the
laboratory was being purified by two
ventilators
Во время эксперимента воздух
в лаборатории очищался двумя
вентиляторами
Страдательный залог времен группы Perfect образуется при помощи
вспомогательного глагола to be в соответствующем времени Perfect +
Participle II смыслового глагола
Лицо
Present
I (we, you, they)
have been asked
had been asked
This work will
He (she, it)
has been asked
had been asked
have been
Past
Future
67
Меня (нас, тебя,
их, его, её) спросили
Меня…спросили
(до того, как…)
done by 7
o’clock
Эта работа
будет сделана
к 7 часам
Страдательный залог времен группы Perfect переводится по общим правилам
перевода глагола в страдательном глаголе
Great deposits of coal have been
Крупные залежи угля (были)
discovered in our region
открыты в нашем районе
The construction of this plant
Строительство этого завода
had been finished by the end
было завершено к концу
of last year
прошлого года
Exercise . Переведите данные предложения
1. An interesting research in the field of electronics is being done at our
Institute.
2. The information about these conditions was being studied by our group for a
week.
3. New methods of obtaining polymers have been applied at our plant.
4. The flexible line that has been recently developed at our laboratory has
greatly improved the production process.
5. One machine tool is being worked at in our laboratory.
6. New solar energy and its usage are being studied by a lot of research groups.
7. A great number of experiments at the designing institute had been made
before the flood defense system was worked out.
8. Our workshop will have been equipped with new multipurpose machine
tools by the time when the reconstruction of the plant is over.
9. Almost all chemical elements which have been found on Earth have been
discovered in the Sun and the planets of solar system.
10.Much attention is being paid to the development of three-dimensional
television.
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Military Satellites
Найдите в словаре и запишите в тетрадь транскрипцию данных слов.
Прочитайте их вслух несколько раз.
Manufacture, Earth, forecast,
acknowledge, identify.
ocean,
scientific,
ensure,
enough,
Words to be learnt
continuous- непрерывный, длительный
to forecast- прогнозировать, предсказывать
to transfer- передавать, перемещать
according to…- в соответствии с чем-то, согласно чему-то
vulnerable- уязвимый
environment- окружающая среда
deny,
similar- подобный, похожий
valuable- ценный, значимый
spy satellite- спутник- разведчик
eavesdropping- подслушивание, «прослушка»
covert communication- секретная связь
to ensure- обеспечивать, гарантировать
to take picture- фотографировать
to keep watch on…- вести наблюдение за…
safe (secure) link- безопасная линия (для связи)
retaliatory strike- ответный удар
to replace with…- заменить на…
to improve- улучшить, усовершенствовать
to reach the orbit- достигать орбиты
to afford- позволить себе
Text
An artificial satellite is a manufactured object that continuously orbits Earth or
some other body in space. Most artificial satellites orbit Earth. People use them to
study the universe, help forecast the weather, transfer telephone calls over the
oceans, assist in the navigation of ships and aircraft, monitor crops and other
69
resources, and support military activities. There are six main types of artificial
satellites:
scientific research, weather, communications, navigation, Earth
observing, and military ones. Artificial satellites are classified according to their
mission. Military communication satellites differ from commercial satellites only
in that they contain specialized components, certain capabilities, and multiple
redundant systems designed to make them less vulnerable and more effective in a
hostile environment.
Military satellites include weather, communications,
navigation, and Earth observing satellites used for military purposes. From orbit, it
is possible to obtain a wide-field-of-view image of the Earth, its cloud formations,
and their movements. This meteorological information is valuable for military
planning and operations. Some military satellites, often called spy satellites,
officially referred to as reconnaissance satellites, can detect the launch of missiles,
the course of ships at sea, and the movement of military equipment on the ground.
Here are some of reconnaissance satellite missions: high resolution photography,
measurement and Signature Intelligence, communications eavesdropping, covert
communications, monitoring of nuclear test ban compliance and detection of
missile launches.
The earliest satellites were made for the armed forces of the United States
and Soviet Union military forces, which are still in use today. The armed forces
use these orbiting satellites to research battlefield information, locate known or
missing troops, ensure communication, and take pictures. There are certain
satellites that keep watch on signs of a possible potential nuclear missile and a
nuclear explosion. One of the most important functions of military satellites is to
provide reliable and secure communication links. The Armed forces need safe
links to communicate with ships, aircraft, and mobile receivers on the land surface.
The majority of the time these links are quiet, but during training exercises and
battles the traffic will be heavy. Military satellites differ from commercial satellites
in one respect: military communication satellites have periods of less activity than
the commercial satellites that need to carry a continuous string of high volume
traffic.
The DSP, which stands for Defense Support Program, satellites have
been in GEO orbits since the 1970's. These satellites monitor the Earth's surface
using sensors for detection of ballistic missiles. Any ballistic missile will be
detected within seconds, which has greatly reduced the chances of a surprise attack
by an enemy. The ability to detect the missiles so quickly provides enough time for
a retaliatory strike.
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Spy satellites are owned by several nations. The French Helios satellite can
see an object as small as a bike on Earth's surface. For the most part, military
satellite functions are not well-known, since they would not be spy satellites if
everyone knew their capabilities. A 10 year program was started by the United
States Government in the latter years of 1990 to replace DSP satellites with the
SBIRS, Space-Based Infrared System. This fleet of satellites has sensors capable
of detecting missile launches and will provide. The first recon information SBIRS
is scheduled to be launched into geostationary and elliptical orbits by the United
States Defense Department. The low-Earth orbit satellites will work with satellites
in the higher orbit to improve missile warnings. The band frequencies used fall
within the infrared and visible radiation areas of the spectrum.
A vast majority of the satellites the Soviet Union had launched between
1960 and 1990 carried military duties. Publicly, however, the USSR would deny
the very existence of the military space program in the country. Not surprisingly,
numerous military space projects have never been officially acknowledged until
the last decade of the 20th century. Most Russian military payloads reaching the
orbit would be identified only as Cosmos satellites with particular numbers. Any
civilian satellites, whose purpose the government would not want to explain,
would also receive Cosmos names. It was up to independent observers and
historians around the world to struggle with a puzzle of secret space programs.
They based their analysis on a combination of available official data and satellite
tracking information. The post-Soviet Russia adopted somewhat "westernized"
approach to information policy on military space: the military launches are
identified as such and receive traditional Cosmos names. During the 1990s,
Russian military assets in orbit continuously degraded, as the Ministry of Defense
could not afford to launch new spacecraft to replace aging and failing satellites.
The situation started changing to the better in the first decade of the 21th century.
Russia also maintains global navigation satellite systems. Its Tsikada/Nadezhda
low-Earth-orbit system functions similar to the United States' decommissioned
Transit system. In addition, Russia operates the GLONASS navigation system.
Similar to GPS, the system is less complex, but its satellites have proven less
reliable than the United States' version. Receivers are available that will accept
navigational data from either GPS or GLONASS.
Задание I. Скажите, верны или нет данные утверждения. Неверные
утверждения исправьте, а верные дополните 1-2 предложениями. Для того,
чтобы начать свое высказывание, используйте следующие фразы
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It’s true (false), I agree (disagree) with…, That’s right (wrong).
1. An artificial satellite continuously orbits the Earth to provide people with
valuable information.
2. There are only two types of artificial satellites.
3. Military communication satellites differ from commercial satellites in the way
they are launched into orbit.
4. Spy satellites have very important missions.
5. Military satellites don’t include weather satellites.
6. To provide reliable and secure communication links is one of the most important
functions of military satellites.
7. A ballistic missile can be detected within an hour by means of a military
satellite.
8. Some earliest US and Soviet Union military satellites are still in use today.
9. Spy satellites are owned only by the USA and Russia.
10. In 1990s the Defense Ministry of Russia could not afford to launch new
satellites.
Задание II. Приготовьтесь побеседовать по изученной теме в группе и с
преподавателем.
72
Unit 12.
Grammar Revision
Модальные глаголы
Глаголы can (could), may (might), must, ought, need относятся к группе
модальных глаголов. Модальные глаголы не употребляются самостоятельно,
а только в сочетании с инфинитивом смыслового глагола. Они обозначают
возможность, способность, вероятность, необходимость совершения
действия, выраженного смысловым глаголом
Модальные глаголы употребляются:
1. Без частицы to (кроме ought)
I can do it.-----Я могу сделать это
You may take it.-----Вы можете взять это
I must go there.-----Я должен пойти туда
You needn’t do it.-----Вам не нужно делать этого
НО! You ought to help him.-----Вам следовало бы помочь ему
2. Без окончания –s в 3-ем лице единственного числа
He can do it.
He must go.
3. Без вспомогательного глагола to do в вопросительной и отрицательной
формах
Can you do it?----You cannot do it.
May I take it?------You may not take it.
Must he go there?-----He must not go there.
Ought he to help him?-----He ought not to help him.
Need he do it?-----He need not do it.
Present
Must-должен
Past
-----
Future
-----
Эквиваленты
to have to…
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Can – мочь
could
-----
to be able to...
могу, умею
May – в значении
might
-----
to be allowed to…
«разрешено»,
«возможно»
Exercise 1. Поставьте следующие предложения в вопросительной и
отрицательной форме. Переведите предложения
1. We must use the tools to cut and form this metal part.
2. This equipment can produce parts with very high accuracy.
3. They could easily define the properties of this material.
4. He may complete all necessary measurements himself.
5. With the help of a new device the scientist could see some strange rays.
Exercise 2. Прочитайте и переведите предложения с модальными глаголами
1. We must use new methods in our research work.
2. Due to the energy of the atom man can produce electric energy at atomic
power stations.
3. You may use this instrument for measuring gas pressure.
4. The planet Pluto is so far away that we cannot study it easily.
5. They ought to help their friends to solve this important problem.
6. He couldn’t complete his research in time as he worked very slowly.
7. You should turn off the light before you leave the room.
Laser
Пользуясь словарем, найдите и запишите транскрипцию следующих слов.
Правильно прочитайте эти слова вслух и постарайтесь запомнить их
произношение
74
Divergence, define, wavelength, incandescent, opaque, property, bounce, coupler,
ensure, require, due to, junction, storage, ubiquitous
Words to be learnt
low-divergence beam – луч с низкой дивергенцией (рассеиванием)
well-defined wavelength – точно определенная длина волн
incandescent light bulb – электрическая лампа накаливания
large solid angle – большой пространственный угол
out of step with each other – не соответствующие друг другу
intermittent – прерывающийся, пульсирующий
opaque – светонепроницаемый, непрозрачный
gain medium – среда усиления
optical cavity – оптический резонатор
transparent – прозрачный
to ensure – гарантировать, обеспечивать
pumping – накачка
flash lamp – импульсная лампа
solid state – твердотельный
due to – благодаря, из-за
visible emission – оптическое излучение
junction – переход
storage device – запоминающее устройство
ubiquitous – повсеместный, встречающийся повсюду
Text
75
A laser is an optical device that produces coherent radiation. Because the
microwave equivalent of the laser, the maser, was developed first, devices that
emit microwave and radio frequencies are usually called masers. In early literature,
the laser was often called the optical maser. The term “laser” is an acronym: Light
Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. A typical laser emits light in a
narrow, low-divergence beam and with a well-defined wavelength (corresponding
to a particular color if the laser is operating in the visible spectrum). This is in
contrast to a light source such as the incandescent light bulb, which emits into a
large solid angle and over a wide spectrum of wavelength.
We know that light consists of waves. An ordinary light consists of waves
all out of phase, out of step with each other. All the waves in a laser beam have the
same wavelength. A laser beam has a very definite color. The red color of the ruby
is one of the most widely seen colors in it. But the difference between an ordinary
beam of ruby red light and a laser beam of ruby red light is that in the laser beam
the waves are all in step with each other. This orderly behavior of the laser beam
makes a big difference, and there is one to be mentioned. Most beams of light are
continuous. But the laser beam is intermittent, and it is off much longer than it is
on. Because these switches on and off are very fast an eye doesn’t see them. While
the laser beam is off the energy for the next flash is building up, and when this
flash comes, it comes very intensively. An ordinary beam of light diverges, but
laser beam doesn’t diverge at all. So it carries its energy in a compact form, until it
is absorbed when it strikes something opaque.
A laser consists of a gain medium inside an optical cavity, with a means
to supply energy to the gain medium. The gain medium is a material (gas, liquid,
solid or free electrons) with appropriate optical properties. In its simplest form, a
cavity consists of two mirrors arranged such that light bounces back and forth,
each time passing through the gain medium. Typically, one of the two mirrors, the
output coupler, is partially transparent. The output laser beam is emitted through
this mirror.
Light of a specific wavelength that passes through the gain medium is
amplified (increases in power); the surrounding mirrors ensure that most of the
light makes many passes through the gain medium. Part of the light that is between
the mirrors (i.e., is in the cavity) passes through the partially transparent mirror and
appears as a beam of light. The process of supplying the energy required for the
amplification is called pumping and the energy is typically supplied as an electrical
current or as light at a different wavelength. In the latter case, the liquid source can
76
be a flash lamp or another laser. Most practical lasers contain additional elements
that affect properties such as the wavelength of the emitted light and the shape of
the beam.
The first working laser was demonstrated in May 1960 by Theodore
Maiman. He used a solid-state flash lamp-pumped synthetic ruby crystal to
produce red laser light at 694 nanometers wavelength. Maiman’s laser, however,
was only capable of pulsed operation due to its three energy level pumping
scheme. Later in 1960 the Iranian physicist Ali Javan made the first gas laser using
helium and neon. Javan later received the Albert Einstein Award in 1993.The
concept of the semiconductor laser diode was proposed by Basov and Javan. The
first laser diode was demonstrated by Robert N. Hall in 1962. Hall’s device was
made of gallium arsenide and emitted at 850 nm in the near-infrared region of the
spectrum. The first semiconductor laser with visible emission was demonstrated
later the same year by Nick Holonyak. As with the first gas lasers, these early
semiconductor lasers could be used only in pulsed operation, and indeed only when
cooled to liquid nitrogen temperatures (77 K). In 1970 Zhores Alferov in the
Soviet Union developed laser diodes continuously operating at room temperature,
using the heterojunction structure.
Recently, lasers have become a multi-billion dollar industry. The most
widespread use of lasers is in optical storage devices such as compact disc and
DVD players, in which the laser (a few millimeters in size) scans the surface of the
disc. In industry, lasers are used for cutting steel and other metals and for
inscribing patterns (such as the letters on computer keyboards). Lasers are also
commonly used in various fields in science, especially spectroscopy, typically
because of their well-defined wavelength or short pulse duration in the case of
pulsed lasers. They have become ubiquitous, finding utility in thousands of highly
varied applications in every section of modern society, including consumer
electrons, information technology, science, medicine, industry, law enforcement,
entertainment and the military.
Задание I. Выберите правильный ответ на вопрос по тексту:
1. What kind of device is called maser?
a) device that emits radiation
b) device that produces electrical energy
c) device that emits microwave and radio frequency
77
2. What does a typical laser emit?
a) visible spectrum
b) high-divergence beam
c) light in a narrow, low-divergence beam
3. What do all the waves in a laser beam have?
a) different wavelength
b) the same color
c) the same wavelength
4. What kind of beam is the laser beam?
a) continuous
b) intermittent
c) long
5. What does a laser consist of?
a) semiconductor and isolator
b) high-divergence beams
c) a gain medium inside an optical cavity
6. The material of the gain medium is…, isn’t it?
a) a silicon with chemical properties
b) a glass with physical properties
c) a material with optical properties
7. Where is light of a specific wavelength amplified?
a) in voltage
b) in current
c) in power
8. What is the process of supplying the energy required for the
amplification called?
a) multiplication
b) enhancing
c) pumping
9. When did the first working laser demonstrated?
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a) In 1962
b) In 1961
c) In 1960
10.Who developed the first laser diodes with heterojunction structure?
a) Nick Holonyak
b) Robert Hall
c) Zhores Alferov
Задание II. Найдите все цепочки слов в тексте и разберите их с
преподавателем (последнее слово – определяемое). Выпишите их в свою
тетрадь и составьте с ними свои предложения по теме “ Laser”
Задание III. Выполнив все упражнения, будьте готовы побеседовать на
английском языке по теме «Laser» с группой и с преподавателем
79
Unit 13.
Grammar Revision
Эквиваленты модальных глаголов
Модальные глаголы являются недостаточными, т.к. они не имеют всех форм,
присущих другим глаголам. Для того, чтобы восполнить недостающие
временные формы некоторых модальных глаголов, используются их
эквиваленты. Эквиваленты модальных глаголов часто несут дополнительную
эмоциональную окраску.
to be able to
Сочетание to be able to является эквивалентом модального глагола can, в т. ч.
для выражения возможности или способности совершения действия.
He is able to help you. Он может помочь вам.
He was able to help you. Он смог помочь вам.
He will be able to help you. Он сможет помочь вам.
to be allowed to
to be permitted to
Словосочетания to be allowed to и to be permitted to являются эквивалентами
модального глагола may.
I am allowed to use this device. Мне разрешено (я могу) использовать
этот прибор.
He will be allowed to use this device. Ему разрешат пользоваться этим
прибором.
to have to
Глагол to have to служит эквивалентом модального глагола must, в т.ч. для
выражения необходимости совершить действие в силу определённых
обстоятельств. Часто соответствует русскому "придётся, пришлось".
It was very dark and we had to stay at home. Было очень темно, и нам
пришлось остаться дома.
I don't have to stay here. Мне не нужно здесь оставаться.
80
to be to
Глагол to be to служит эквивалентом глагола must, в т. ч. для выражения
необходимости совершения действия в соответствии с предыдущей
договорённостью или заранее намеченным планом.
I was to meet her at 3 o'clock. Я должен был встретить её в 3 часа.
They are to begin this work at once. Они должны начать работу
немедленно.
should
Глагол should в основном используется для выражения совета, рекомендации
как заменитель глагола must.
You should see a doctor. Вам следует показаться врачу.
ought to
Глaгол ought to в качестве эквивалента глагола must используется для
выражения морального долга или настоятельного совета.
You ought to help your parents. Вы должны помогать своим родителям.
Exercise. Замените данный в скобках модальный глагол подходящим к
ситуации эквивалентом. Поставьте его в правильной грамматической форме.
1. Jack and Mike are playing tennis tomorrow. Mike is a very good player
but I think Jack (can) win.
2. You (must) read this book. It is very interesting.
3. Nobody (may) take photos in this secret laboratory.
4. Yesterday I (must) leave the meeting because I (must) go to the airport to
meet my mother.
5. You (must) send all the documents now. We need them very much.
6. My friends (must) arrive next week.
7. The fire was great but fortunately everybody (can) escape.
8. I’m not working tomorrow so I (must not) get up early.
9. Tomorrow’s conference is very important for your future work. You
(must) come.
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10. You (must not) believe everything you read in newspapers.
Antenna
Найдите в словаре и запишите транскрипцию следующих слов. Правильно
прочитайте данные слова несколько раз вслух и постарайтесь запомнить их
произношение
Oscillation, diligent, viable, subsequent, concisely, either, essential, aperture,
grind, accept, view, rewrite, surface
Words to be learnt
to conduct - проводить
viable source – жизнеспособный источник
resonant antenna – резонансная антенна
fully yet concisely – полно, но в сжатой форме
essential part – значимая часть
to emerge – возникать, появляться
a new breed – новое поколение
the origin – происхождение, начало
plane subreflector – плоский подрефлектор
grinding -шлифование
surface - поверхность
equation - уравнение
to predict - предвидеть
to cause – заставлять, быть причиной
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to accept – принимать, согласовывать
to trace back to – проследить, начиная от
society - общество
to recognize – признавать
to simplify - упрощать
to rewrite – переписать
Text
Antennas have been used for 100 years since Hertz conducted his
experiments in the 1880s. First, he had to develop a source of very rapid electrical
oscillations. After very careful and diligent development, he had a viable source and
detector which formed the basis of the apparatus used in subsequent experiments.
Hertz discovered the principles of a resonant antenna. Hertz was not only a brilliant
experimentalist but also an extremely good writer. He wrote all his work up into
papers which describe fully yet concisely the details of all his experiments. The main
papers were collected together and published as a book in 1893.
An antenna is a wire or metal conductor used either to radiate energy from a
transmitter or to pick up energy at a receiver. It is insulated from the ground and
may be situated vertically or horizontally. Antennas are an essential part of every
radio system and the steady growth of radio communications has increased the
demand for antennas. The 100year period can be broadly divided into two halves.
From the start to the 1930s, the story of antenna development follows in a single
chronological path, from Hertz work to the early microwave period to long wave
communications and then to short wave communications. Most antenna
development in this period was empirical. The 1930s represents a clear break point
in the history of radio communications and hence antennas. The uses of radio
expanded rapidly and separate subject areas emerged. Radar started, microwaves
returned, broadcasting expanded and radio astronomy started. A new breed of
antenna engineers used rigorous theory to analyze and design antennas. Each of the
areas has its own story to tell and the antennas for each area developed to some
extent separately with a common theory linking all types.
83
Hertz was the first person to develop and use antennas in order to verify the
existence of radio waves. But microwave engineers now often design antennas using
optical principles. Thus the origin of the large aperture antenna can be traced back to
the optical telescope of Newton and others. The first reflecting telescope was
proposed by the Scottish mathematician James Gregory in 1663, but it was Isaac
Newton who built the first instrument in 1672. This used a spherical main reflector
and a plane subreflector to produce a focal point on one side of the telescope. In the
same year that Isaac Newton proposed his telescope to the Royal society, George
Gassegram proposed a reflecting mirror and a subreflector to refocus the light to a
point behind the main reflector. However neither the Gassegram nor the Gregorian
telescope was practical until James Short developed a method of grinding
nonspherical surfaces in 1740.
The formulation of Maxwell`s Equations and hence the start of antennas
theory also came before the classical experiments of Hertz. The research of James
Clerk Maxwell was founded on the experimental work of Michael Faraday who
discovered electromagnetic induction. Maxwell was a brilliant theoretician who
predicted that all changes in electrical and magnetic fields cause waves to be
propagated in space and that light was just another form of electromagnetic wave.
This was a revolutionary suggestion at that time because the generally accepted view
was that the ether behaved as a fluid and Newtonian physics of action-at-a-distance
applied. Maxwell first published his ideas in 1862 and subsequently expanded them
into a book in 1873. The book is recognized as a classical but it was and still is
extremely difficult to follow. It was Hertz and Heaviside who simplified and rewrote
the Equations in the form we know today.
Задание I. Поставьте вопросы и ответьте на них, закончив предложения по
тексту:
1. An antenna is … (what, where, when)
2. Essential part of every radio system is … (what, where, why)
3. The 100year period can be divided into … (what, how, where)
4. Hertz conducted his experiments … (what, who, when)
5. Hertz discovered … (what, who, where, when)
6. The story of antenna development started … (when, where, what, why)
7. James Gregory proposed … (what, when, where, who)
8. Isaac Newton built … (what, who, when)
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9. George Gassegram proposed…(what, who, why, where)
10. A method of grinding nonspherical surfaces was developed by…(what,
who)
11. Electromagnetic induction was discovered by…(who, what, why)
12. Maxwell first published his ideas…(when, who, what, where)
13. Hertz and Heaviside simplified and rewrote…(what, who, why, when,
where)
Задание II. Выделите главную мысль каждого абзаца в виде 3-4 кратких,
логичных, своих собственных предложений
Задание III. Тщательно выполнив все упражнения, будьте готовы на
английском языке побеседовать по теме «Антенна» с преподавателем и с
группой
85
Unit 14.
Grammar Revision
Имя числительное
Числительное - часть речи, которая обозначает количество предметов
(количественные) или их порядок при счете (порядковые).
Количественные числительные обозначают количество предметов и
отвечают на вопрос Сколько? -How many?
Количественные числительные от 1 до 12 - простые. Они не имеют
специальных окончаний.
1- one
7- seven
2- two
8- eight
3- three
9- nine
4- four
10- ten
5- five
11- eleven
6- six
12- twelve
Количественные числительные от 13 до 19 образуются от простых
помощи суффикса - teen.
при
13- thirteen
14- fourteen
……………
19- nineteen
Количественные числительные, обозначающие десятки, оканчиваются на
суффикс – ty
86
20- twenty
30- thirty
……………
90- ninety
Количественные числительные используются для обозначения:
1. Дат
She was born on March 4, 1982.
Дата читается: оn March fourth nineteen eighty two или on the fourth of March
nineteen eighty two.
2. Номеров
o домов, квартир:
I live in flat 14. / Читается как flat fourteen /.
o автобусов, троллейбусов:
Take bus 5 to get to the park. / Читается как bus five /.
o глав, страниц книги:
Open the book at page 20. / Читается как page twenty /.
Числительные в этом случае стоят после определяемого слова.
Порядковые числительные обозначают порядок предметов при счете.
Порядковые числительные часто используются в ответе на вопрос Какой? (по
порядку) - Which? Существительные в этом случае используются с
определенным артиклем (the), который ставится перед порядковым
числительным.
Форму некоторых порядковых числительных следует запомнить:
первый - the first
третий – the third
второй - the second
пятый – the fifth
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Порядковые числительные от 4 до 20 образуются от количественных при
помощи суффикса - th.
4ый - the fourth
6ой - the sixth
7ой - the seventh
............
19ый - the nineteenth
20ый - the twentieth
При образовании числительных, обозначающих десятки, буква y меняется на
букву i:
30ый- thirtieth
40ой- fortieth
50ый- fiftieth
………………
90ый- ninetieth
Сложные числительные при образовании
изменяют форму только второго слова.
порядкового
числительного
21ый - the twenty-first
22ой - the twenty-second
23ий - the twenty-third
...............
55ый - the fifty-fifth
Exercise1. Напишите словами по-английски и произнесите вслух.
1. 5.08.1900
2. page 74
88
3. 8 + 25 = 33
4. I live in Kirensky Street 25, flat 69
5. 1 216 square miles
6. 8.07
7. 09.03.1879
8. 649 books
Exercise2.Вставьте порядковое или количественное числительные.
1. There are ________ months in a year.
2. January is ________ month of the year.
3. May is ________ month of the year.
4. There are ________ months in winter.
5. December is ________ month of the year and ________ month of winter.
6. There are ________ days in a week: ________ one is Monday, ________ one is
Tuesday, ________one is Wednesday, ________ one is Thursday, ________
one is Friday, ________ one is Saturday and ________ one is Sunday.
7. Sunday is ________ day of the week in England and ________ one in Russia.
8. Monday is ________ day in Russia and ________ in Great Britain.
9. There are ________ hours in a day, ________ minutes in an hour and ________
seconds in a minute.
10. September, April, June and November have ________ days. All the rest have
________ except February.
11. There are ________ days in February except the leap year. It's the time when
February has ________ days.
Radar Antenna
Найдите в словаре и запишите в тетрадь транскрипцию данных слов.
Прочитайте их вслух несколько раз.
89
Azimuth, accuracy, equate, weigh, ratio, rectangular, desired, aperture, key, major,
vary.
Words to be learnt
to perform- выполнять, исполнять
essential- важнейший, основной, неотъемлемый
distribution- распределение, распространение
to apply- применять, прикладывать
accurate- точный
in the case of…- в случае…
revolution rate- скорость вращения
in terms of…- с точки зрения…, в пересчете на…
to take into account- брать в расчет, принимать во внимание
gain- коэффициент усиления
to compare- сравнивать
field- поле, область
radiation pattern- диаграмма излучения
axis- ось
intersection- перекрещивание, пересечение
beam- луч, пучок света
lobe- лепесток диаграммы направленности антенны
to eliminate- устранять, аннулировать
appropriate- подходящий, соответствующий
(un) desirable- (не) желательный
90
Text
The antenna is one of the most critical parts of a radar system. It performs the
following essential functions:
• It transfers the transmitter energy to signals in space with the required distribution
and efficiency. This process is applied in an identical way on reception.
• It ensures that the signal has the required pattern in space. Generally this has to be
sufficiently narrow in azimuth to provide the required azimuth resolution and
accuracy.
• It has to provide the required frequency of target position updates. In the case of a
mechanically scanned antenna this equates to the revolution rate. A high
revolution rate can be a significant mechanical problem given that a radar
antenna in certain frequency bands can have a reflector with immense
dimensions and can weigh several tons.
• It must measure the pointing direction with a high degree of accuracy.
The antenna structure must maintain the operating characteristics under all
environmental conditions. The basic performance of radar can be shown to be
proportional to the product of the antenna area or aperture and the mean transmitted
power. Investment in the antenna therefore brings direct results in terms of system
performance. Taking into account these functions and the required efficiency of a
radar antenna, two arrangements are generally applied:
• the parabolic dish antenna
• the array antenna.
Independently of the use of a given antenna for transmitting or receiving, an
important characteristic of this antenna is the gain. Some antennas are highly
directional; that is, more energy is propagated in certain directions than in others.
The ratio between the amount of energy propagated in these directions compared to
the energy that would be propagated if the antenna were not directional (Isotropic
Radiation) is known as its gain. When a transmitting antenna with a certain gain is
used as a receiving antenna, it will also have the same gain for receiving.
Most radiators emit (radiate) stronger radiation in one direction than in
another. A radiator such as this is referred to as anisotropic. However, a standard
method allows the positions around a source to be marked so that one radiation
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pattern can easily be compared with another. The energy radiated from an antenna
forms a field having a definite radiation pattern. A radiation pattern is a way of
plotting the radiated energy from an antenna. This energy is measured at various
angles at a constant distance from the antenna. The shape of this pattern depends on
the type of antenna used. To plot this pattern, two different types of graphs,
rectangular-and polar-coordinate graphs are used. The polar-coordinated graph has
proved to be of great use in studying radiation patterns. In the polar-coordinate
graph, points are located by projection along a rotating axis (radius) to an
intersection with one of several concentric, equally-spaced circles.
The main beam (or main lobe) is the region around the direction of maximum
radiation (usually the region that is within 3 dB of the peak of the main beam). The
sidelobes are smaller beams that are away from the main beam. These sidelobes are
usually radiation in undesired directions which can never be completely eliminated.
The sidelobe level (or sidelobe ratio) is an important parameter used to characterize
radiation patterns. It is the maximum value of the sidelobes away from the main
beam and is expressed in Decibels. One sidelobe is called backlobe. This is the
portion of radiation pattern that is directed opposing the main beam direction.
For the analysis of an antenna pattern the following simplifications are used:
Beam Width
The angular range of the antenna pattern in which at least half of the maximum
power is still emitted is described as a „Beam With”. Bordering points of this major
lobe are therefore the points at which the field strength has fallen in the room around
3 dB regarding the maximum field strength. This angle is then described as beam
width or aperture angle or half power (- 3 dB) angle.
Aperture
The effective aperture of an antenna Ae is the area presented to the radiated or
received signal. It is a key parameter, which governs the performance of the
antenna.The aperture efficiency depends on the distribution of the illumination
across the aperture.
Major and Side Lobes (Minor Lobes)
The radiation intensity in one lobe is considerably stronger than in the other. The
strongest lobe is called major lobe; the others are (minor) side lobes. Since the
complex radiation patterns associated with arrays frequently contain several lobes of
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varying intensity, you should learn to use appropriate terminology. In general, major
lobes are those in which the greatest amount of radiation occurs. Side or minor lobes
are those in which the radiation intensity is least.
Front-to-Back Ratio
The front-to-back ratio of an antenna is the proportion of energy radiated in the
principal direction of radiation to the energy radiated in the opposite direction. A
high front-to-back ratio is desirable because this means that a minimum amount of
energy is radiated in the undesired direction.
Задание I. Найдите в тексте ответы на вопросы. Отработайте вопросы и
ответы в парах. Старайтесь проговаривать их, не глядя в текст.
1. What are the essential functions of a radar antenna?
2. What are the main types of a radar antenna?
3. Why is the antenna structure very important?
4. What are the main characteristics of an antenna?
5. What is antenna gain?
6. What is an anisotropic radiator?
7. What is the main beam of the antenna?
8. What is beam width?
9. What is aperture?
10. What is front-to-back ratio of the antenna?
Задание II. Приготовьтесь побеседовать по изученной теме в группе и с
преподавателем.
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Unit 15.
Grammar Revision
Повелительное наклонение
Глагол в повелительном наклонении выражает побуждение к действию, т.е.
приказание, просьбу, совет и т. п.
Утвердительная форма повелительного наклонения совпадает с основой
глагола (инфинитив без частицы to):
to read- читать
Read! - Читайте! (Читай!)
Отрицательная форма образуется при помощи вспомогательного глагола do и
отрицательной частицы not. Таким же способом образуется отрицательная
форма повелительного наклонения глаголов to be и to have:
Do not (don’t) wait. - Не ждите.
Don’t be late! - Не опаздывайте!
Don’t have а meal at night. - Не ешьте ночью.
Вспомогательный глагол do ставится перед утвердительной формой
повелительного наклонения для усиления просьбы:
Do help him! - Непременно помоги ему!
Для выражения побуждения к действию, обращенного к первому и третьему
лицу, используется глагол let, соответствующее местоимение в объектном
падеже (или существительное в общем падеже) и основа глагола:
Let me do it myself. - Давайте я сделаю это сам.
Let us (Let’s) ask John. - Давайте cпросим Джона.
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Let him (Jim) work. - Пусть он (Джим) работает.
Let her (Mary) speak! - Пусть она (Мэри) говорит!
Let them (students) use dictionaries. - Пусть они (студенты)
словарями.
пользуются
Don’t let him go there! - Пусть он туда не ходит!
Exercise 1. Вставьте глаголы, данные в скобках, в форме повелительного
наклонения. Устно переведите предложения на русский язык.
1. ………….out late. (not to go)
2. Please, …………ready in 15 minutes. (to be)
3…………. about that. (not to worry)
4. ………..me! (they, to ask)
5. ………….careful not to fall. (to be)
6. …………..everything you hear! (not to believe)
7. Always ………… both ways before crossing the street. (to look)
8. ………..here. (he, to wait)
9. ………..your own business! (to mind)
10……….. a letter if you have no time (not to send)
Radar Receiver (part I)
Найдите в словаре и запишите в тетрадь транскрипцию данных слов.
Прочитайте их вслух несколько раз.
Temperature, automatic, purpose, synthesize, pseudo, nearby, attenuator, bias,
proportional, simultaneous.
95
Words to be learnt
to tune- настраивать
external signal- сигнал от внешних устройств
oscillator- излучатель
to retain - сохранять, удерживать
reference frequency - основная, эталонная частота, частота обращений
wiring - эл. проводка
instead of…- вместо…
pulse repetition period - период повторения импульсов
bias - смещение
to decrease - снижать, понижать, уменьшать
to prevent - предотвратить
leakage - утечка, рассеяние
to saturate - насыщать, переполнять
instantaneous - мгновенный, немедленный
average - средний (напр. о значении)
weak signal - слабый сигнал
strong signal - cильный, устойчивый сигнал
the number of - ряд (некоторое количество)
Text
The radar receiver requires a limited tuning range to compensate for transmitter
and local oscillator frequency changes because of variations in temperature and
96
loading. Microwave radar receivers usually use automatic frequency control (AFC)
for this purpose. AFC circuits are used in situations where you must accurately
control the frequency of an oscillator by some external signal. The AFC circuit
senses the difference between the actual oscillator frequency and the frequency that
is desired and produces a control voltage proportional to the difference. This
variant of AFC circuits is used in radio receivers, fm transmitters, and frequency
synthesizers to maintain frequency stability. It requires relatively constant
amplitude of the (received) input-signal. For pulse-radar sets this form isn't
practicable therefore.
Automatic frequency control circuits in a non-coherent or pseudo-coherent radar
set use two similar systems: the transmitter’s frequency readjusts the receiver; the
receiver’s frequency readjusts the transmitter. Both systems retain a sample of the
transmitted signal using a Directional Coupler fitted between the transmitter and
the Duplexer. This RF-signal will be mixed with the local oscillator frequency to
form an AFC-IF-signal. This signal is applied to a frequency-sensitive
discriminator that produces an output voltage proportional in amplitude and
polarity to any change in AFC-IF frequency. If the IF signal is at the discriminator
center frequency, no discriminator output occurs. The center frequency of the
discriminator is essentially a reference frequency for the IF signal. The output of
the discriminator provides a control voltage to maintain the local oscillator at the
correct frequency.
The Local Oscillator is adapted to the actual line frequency in this wiring. As a
second variant the control circuit can control the transmitters frequency instead of
the LO frequency! In this case the transmitter-frequency would regulate to the
more stable LO-frequency. In radar receivers the wide variation in return signal
amplitudes make adjustment of the gain difficult. The adjustment of receiver gain
for best visibility of nearby target return signals is not the best adjustment for
distant target return signals. Circuits used to adjust amplifier gain with time, during
a single pulse repetition period, are called STC circuits, or „swept gain attenuator”.
Sensitivity time-control circuits apply a bias voltage that varies with time to the IF
amplifiers to control receiver gain. When the transmitter fires, the STC circuit
decreases the receiver gain to zero to prevent the amplification of any leakage
energy from the transmitted pulse. At the end of the transmitted pulse, the STC
voltage begins to rise, gradually increasing the receiver gain to maximum. In the
ideal case the the receiver gain is proportionally to R4. The STC voltage effect on
receiver gain is usually limited to approximately 50 miles. This is because close-in
97
targets are most likely to saturate the receiver; beyond 50 miles, STC has no affect
and the receiver operates normally.
Gain control is necessary to adjust the receiver sensitivity for the best reception of
signals of widely varying amplitudes. A complex form of automatic gain control
(AGC) or instantaneous automatic gain control (IAGC) is used during normal
operation. The simplest type of AGC adjusts the IF amplifier bias (and gain)
according to the average level of the received signal. With AGC, gain is controlled
by the largest received signals. When several radar signals are being received
simultaneously, the weakest signal may be of greatest interest. IAGC is used more
frequently because it adjusts receiver gain for each signal.
The AGC circuit is essentially a wide-band, dc amplifier. It instantaneously
controls the gain of the IF amplifier as the radar return signal changes in amplitude.
The effect of IAGC is to allow full amplification of weak signals and to decrease
the amplification of strong signals. The range of IAGC is limited, however, by the
number of IF stages in which gain is controlled. When only one IF stage is
controlled, the range of IAGC is limited to approximately 20 dB. When more than
one IF stage is controlled, IAGC range can be increased to approximately 40 dB.
The logarithmic amplifier is a nonsaturating amplifier that does not ordinarily use
any special gain-control circuits. The output voltage of the logarithmic amplifier is
a linear function of the input voltage for low-amplitude signals. It is a logarithmic
function for high-amplitude signals. In other words, the range of linear
amplification does not end at a definite saturation point, as is the case in normal IF
amplifiers. Therefore, a large signal does not saturate the logarithmic amplifier;
rather, it merely reduces the amplification of a simultaneously applied small signal.
Задание I. Задайте вопросы к данным предложениям, начиная их словами,
предложенными в скобках.
1. The radar receiver requires a limited tuning range. (Why?)
2. AFC circuits are used in microwave radar receivers. (In what situations?)
3. AFC circuits are used to maintain frequency stability. (Where?)
4. RF signal is mixed with the local oscillator frequency. (What…for?)
5. The output discriminator produces an output voltage. (What…for?)
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6. It is difficult to make the adjustment of the radar receiver gain. (Why?)
7. The STC voltage begins to rise, increasing the receiver gain. (When?)
8. Gain control is necessary. (Why?)
9. The weakest signal may be of the greatest interest. (When?)
10. The range of IAGC is limited. (What…by?)
11. A large signal doesn’t saturate the logarithmic amplifier. (Does…?)
Задание II. Пользуясь текстом, ответьте на составленные вами вопросы.
99
Unit 16.
Grammar Revision
Инфинитив
Инфинитив – неличная форма глагола, называющая действие в процессе его
совершения, не указывая ни лица, ни числа, ни наклонения. Инфинитив
соответствует в русском языке неопределенной форме глагола (инфинитиву),
которая отвечает на вопрос что делать? что сделать? :
To read – читать, прочитать
To write – писать, написать
To buy – покупать, купить
To sell –продавать, продать
Существуют 4 формы инфинитива в действительном залоге (Active) и 2
формы в страдательном залоге (Passive)
Active
Indefinite
to ask
Passive
to be asked
спрашивать
быть спрошенным
to be asking
----------
Perfect
to have asked
to have been asked
Perfect Continuous
to have been asking
Continuous
--------------
Инфинитив переводится на русский язык:
1. Неопределенной формой глагола
100
2. Существительным
To operate the complex device is rather difficult.
Управлять (управление) этим сложным механизмом довольно трудно
3. Придаточным предложением
The metal to be used in our experiment is to be hard.
Металл, который будет использован (нужно, можно использовать) в
нашем опыте, должен быть твердым.
Все формы инфинитива, кроме Indefinite Active и Passive, переводятся только
в контексте.
Indefinite Infinitive Active и Passive являются наиболее распространенными
формами инфинитива.
Отрицательная частица not ставится перед инфинитивом:
not to ask
not to be asked
Exercise. Переведите следующие предложения
1.To train highly qualified scientific workers is extremely important for the
development of science.
2. To study this phenomenon requires much knowledge.
3. Our task is to obtain a new mixture with new properties.
4. The engineer must know the condition under the new material is to be utilized.
5. They hope to be sent to the conference.
6. The engineer was asked to design a transistor device which will regulate the
temperature in the laboratory.
7. To increase the productivity of the machine tool one should know the
characteristics of the material which is being machined.
8. In order to break this glass and great amount of force must be applied.
101
9. This method is accurate enough to give reliable results.
10. This problem is too complex to be solved.
11. The process to be analyzed in this article is known as ionization.
12. The famous Russian scientist Lebedev was the first to solve the problem of
synthetic rubber.
13. The laboratory assistant will be the last to leave the classroom.
14. The problem to find a more economical way of production is to be solved soon.
Radar receiver (part II)
Найдите в словаре и запишите в тетрадь транскрипцию данных слов.
Прочитайте их вслух несколько раз.
Echo, sufficient, accept, dynamically, measure, furthermore, ahead, enough, dial,
easily
Words to be learnt
sufficiently- достаточно, в достаточной мере
pulse envelope- огибающая импульса
to feed- поставлять, снабжать, обеспечивать
to accept- принимать
intermediate frequency- промежуточная частота
clutter level- уровень шума (помех)
magnitude- величина
cell- элемент, секция
abrupt- внезапный, неожиданный
102
to destroy- разрушать
to affect- оказывать влияние на…, воздействовать
to process- обрабатывать
frequency-band- частотный диапазон
unwanted signal- посторонний сигнал
bandwidth- полоса частот, полоса пропускания, пропускная способность
to pick up a signal- поймать, уловить сигнал
image frequency- частота зеркального канала
swept gain- рабочий коэффициент усиления
Text
The function of the receiver is to take the weak echoes from the antenna system,
amplify them sufficiently, detect the pulse envelope, amplify the pulses, and feed
them to the indicator. The receivers used in radars are capable of accepting weak
echoes and increasing their amplitudes by a factor of 20 or 30 million. Since radar
frequencies are not easily amplified, a superheterodyne receiver changes the radio
frequency to an intermediate frequency for amplification.
Local clutter levels dictate the magnitude of swept gain and different requirements
for swept gain are presented as the antenna rotates. Modern systems dynamically
measure clutter levels for a large number of cells within the coverage area of the
radar. These measurements are slowly adjusted to take account of changing clutter
levels and used to set the swept gain attenuator to an appropriate level for the range
azimuth cell currently being processed. In most cases, the values used are a
variation on the normal static law. This approach, while simple in principle, can
risk reduction of MTI performance at the edges of clutter. This is due to abrupt
changes in swept gain law destroying the integrity of the clutter amplitudes.
Furthermore if long or compressed pulses are used, amplitude changes can affect
the performance. Swept gain is generally applied to pin diodes, which are biased to
provide a reasonably linear characteristic.
103
The superheterodyne receiver changes the RF frequency into an easier to process
lower IF- frequency. This IF- frequency will be amplified and demodulated to get a
video signal. The RF-carrier comes in from the antenna and is applied to a filter.
The output of the filter is only the frequencies of the desired frequency-band.
These frequencies are applied to the mixer stage. The mixer also receives an input
from the local oscillator. These two signals are beat together to obtain the IF
through the process of heterodyning. There is a fixed difference in frequency
between the local oscillator and the RF signal at all times by tuning the local
oscillator. This difference in frequency is the IF. This fixed difference ensures a
constant IF over the frequency range of the receiver. The IF-carrier is applied to
the IF-amplifier. The amplified IF is then sent to the detector. The output of the
detector is the video component of the input signal.
A low-noise RF amplifier stage ahead of the converter stage provides enough
selectivity to reduce the image-frequency response by rejecting these unwanted
signals and adds to the sensitivity of the receiver. The borders of the bandwidth of
this amplifier are chosen to eliminate the image frequencies. Many older radar
receivers do not use a low-noise pre-amplifier (RF stage), they simply send the
echo signal directly to a crystal mixer stage. It is possible for these receivers to
receive two different stations at the same point of the dial.
The mixer stage is used to increase the received frequency to an intermediate
frequency. The result is a second reception frequency as a „mirror image” around
the intermediate frequency. Assuming an intermediate frequency of 60 MHz, the
local oscillator will track at a frequency of 60 MHz higher than the incoming
signal. For example, suppose the receiver is tuned to pick up a signal on a
frequency of 1030 MHz. The local oscillator will be operating at a frequency of
1090 MHz. The received and local oscillator signals are mixed, or heterodyned, in
the converter stage and one of the frequencies resulting from this mixing action is
the difference between the two signals, or 60 MHz, the IF frequency. This IF
frequency is then amplified in the IF stages and sent on to the detector and audio
stages. Any signal at a frequency of 60 MHz that appears on the plate of the
converter circuit will be accepted by the IF amplifier and passed on.
Задание I. Внимательно прочитайте текст еще раз. Подобрав части
предложений, друг к другу, составьте из них целые предложения.
1. The receiver… …to eliminate the image frequencies.
104
2. A superheterodyne receiver… …the radio frequency to an intermediate
frequency.
3. Local clutter levels… …the received and local oscillator signals are mixed.
4. Modern radar systems are capable of.. …from the local oscillator.
5. IF is amplified and demodulated… …to get a video signal.
6. The mixer receives the input signal… …the received frequency increases to an
intermediate frequency.
7. The output of the detector is… …takes the weak echoes from the antenna,
amplifies them, detects the pulse envelope, amplifies the pulses and feeds them to
the indicator.
8. The borders of the amplifier bandwidth are chosen… …dictate the magnitude of
swept gain.
9. During the mixer stage… …the video component of the input signal.
10. During the converter stage… …measuring clutter levels for a large number of
cells within the coverage area of the radar.
Задание |II. Задайте вопросы к составленным предложениям.
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Unit 17.
Grammar Revision
Герундий
Герундий – неличная форма глагола, выражающая название действия и
обладающая как свойствами глагола, так и свойствами существительного.
В русском языке нет формы соответствующей герундию. Функции герундия
сходны с функциями инфинитива.
Существуют 2 формы герундия в действительном залоге (Active) и
2 формы в страдательном залоге (Passive)
Indefinite
Perfect
Active
Passive
reading
being read
having read
having been read
Герундий переводится на русский язык различными способами:
1. Существительным
Reading is his favorite occupation.----Чтение –его любимое занятие.
2. Инфинитивом
He finished reading the book.----Он закончил читать книгу.
3. Деепричастием
On coming home he began to read.----Придя домой, он начал читать.
4. Глаголом в личной форме
I remember seeing her there.----Я помню, что видел её там.
Besides being clever he is very industrious.----Помимо того, что он умен,
он очень трудолюбив.
She reproached herself for having said it.----Она упрекала себя за то, что
сказала это.
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Exercise. Переведите данные предложения
1. Maintaining constant temperature and pressure during the test was
absolutely necessary.
2. The student’s taking part in the research was of great help to the whole
laboratory.
3. His offering new temperature conditions for the system will give greater
efficiency.
4. The task of the factory was producing corrosion-resistant polymers in far
larger quantities.
5. Their aim is finding new ways of utilizing this first-class polymer in light
industry.
6. The experimentalist suggested purifying the solution by a new method.
7. The researcher took great interest in our improving the properties of the
rubber.
8. We know of silver and cooper being very good conductors of electricity.
9. The new heating and lighting installations supply the shops of our plant with
heat and light.
10. At present scientists take great interest in the methods of turning the light
and heat of the sun directly into electricity.
11. By subjecting air to very great pressure and cooling it is possible to
transform it to the liquid state.
12. One cannot transform water into steam without heating it.
13. In converting water into ice we do not change its composition.
14. Physical changes are those which influence the condition or state of matter
without changing its composition.
Radar Receiver (part III)
Найдите в словаре и запишите в тетрадь транскрипцию данных слов.
Прочитайте их вслух несколько раз.
Rather, through, circuit, interference, high, excite, value, either, neither, actual.
Words to be learnt
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to get through- проходить, проводить
jack- разъем, гнездо
bandpass- полоса пропускания
to reject- отклонять, отвергать
actual signal- фактический, текущий сигнал
to match- подбирать, выравнивать, согласовывать
variable- переменный, непостоянный
indicating device- сигнальное устройство
frequency response- частотная характеристика
emitter follower- эмиттерный повторитель
low- impedance- низкоомный
to couple- соединять, сцеплять
to excite- возбуждать, вызывать (напр. ток)
both…and…- и…и…
frequency shift- уход, сдвиг частоты
either…or…- или…или…, либо…либо…
ahead of…- перед…
Text
There are receivers with no RF amplifier. In them the input to the converter is
rather broadly tuned and some signals, other than the desired signal, will get
through to the input jack of the converter stage. Normally these other signals will
mix with the local oscillator signal and produce frequencies that are outside the
bandpass of the 60 MHz IF amplifiers and will be rejected. However, if there is a
station operating on a frequency of 1150 MHz, and this signal passes through the
rather broad tuned input circuit and appears on the input jack of the converter
stage, it also will mix with the local oscillator and produce a frequency of 60 MHz.
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This signal will also be accepted by the IF amplifier stage and passed on, thus both
signals will be indicated on the screen. This is known as image-frequency
interference.
IF-Filter must filter the desired intermediate frequency out from the mixture
frequencies arisen in the mixer stage. It is designed as one or more bandpasses.
Normally, the bandpass is as narrow as possible without affecting the actual signal
energy. When a selection of pulse widths is available, such as short and long
pulses, the bandpass must be able to match the bandwidth of the two different
signals.
The IF amplifier has the capability to vary both the bandpass and the gain of a
receiver. After conversion to the intermediate frequency, the signal is amplified in
several IF- amplifier stages. Most of the gain of the receiver is developed in the IF
amplifier stages. The overall bandwidth of the receiver is often determined by the
bandwidth of the IF stages. Gain must be variable to provide a constant voltage
output for input signals of different amplitudes.
The detector in a microwave receiver serves to convert the IF pulses into video
pulses. The simplest form of detector is the diode detector. The video amplifier
receives pulses from the detector and amplifies these pulses for application to the
indicating device. A video amplifier is fundamentally an RC coupled amplifier that
uses high-gain transistors. However, a video amplifier must be capable of a
relatively wide frequency response. The output stage of the receiver is normally an
emitter follower. The low-impedance output of the emitter follower matches the
impedance of the cable. The video pulses are coupled through the cable to the
indicator for video display on the CRT.
The local oscillator excites a frequency for mixing with the incoming signal to get
the intermediate frequency. Most radar receivers use megahertz intermediate
frequency (IF) with a value between 30 and 75 megahertz. The IF is produced by
mixing a local oscillator signal with the incoming signal. The local oscillator is,
therefore, essential to efficient operation and must be both tunable and very stable.
For example, if the local oscillator frequency is 3,000 megahertz, a frequency
change of 0.1 percent will produce a frequency shift of 3 megahertz. This is equal
to the bandwidth of most receivers and would greatly decrease receiver gain. The
power output requirement for most local oscillators is small (20 to 50 milliwatts)
because most receivers use crystal mixers that require very little power. The local
oscillator output frequency must be tunable over a range of several megahertz in
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The 4,000-megahertz region. The local oscillator must compensate for any changes
in the transmitted frequency and maintain a constant 30 or 75 megahertz difference
between the oscillator and the transmitter frequency. A local oscillator that can be
tuned by varying the applied voltage is most desirable. The exiting frequency is
either higher or lower than the incoming frequency. An RF amplifier stage ahead
of the converter stage provides enough selectivity to reduce the image-frequency
response by rejecting these unwanted signals and adds to the sensitivity of the
receiver.
Задание I. Найдите в тексте ответы на данные вопросы. Поработайте в парах:
постарайтесь проговорить вопросы и ответы, не глядя в текст.
1. What occurs with frequencies that are outside the bandpass of the 60 MHz
IF amplifiers?
2. What is known as image- frequency interference?
3. What is the function of the IF-Filter?
4. What capability does the IF amplifier have?
5. What is the overall bandwidth of the receiver determined by?
6. Must the gain be variable? Why?
7. What is the function of the detector in a microwave receiver?
8. What capability must a video amplifier have?
9. What frequency do most radar receivers have?
10. What capability must the local oscillator have?
Задание II. Приготовьтесь побеседовать по изученной теме в группе и с
преподавателем.
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Unit 18.
Grammar Revision
Причастие
Причастие - неличная форма глагола, которая соответствует в русском языке
причастию и деепричастию, обладает свойствами прилагательного.
Существуют 2 формы причастия действительного залога (Active) и
3 формы причастия страдательного залога (Passive)
Active
Present
Past
Perfect
Passive
asking
being asked
----
asked
having asked
having been asked
1. Present Participle Active образуется путем прибавления –ing к глаголу
в форме инфинитива ( без частицы to)
to read – читать
reading – читающий, читая
to build – строить
building – строящий, строя
2. Past Participle Active и Passive от правильных глаголов образуется
путем прибавления окончания – ed к глаголу в инфинитиве
to ask – спросить, спрашивать
asked – спрошенный, спрашиваемый
to order – заказать, заказывать
ordered – заказанный, заказываемый
Past Participle от неправильных глаголов образуется различными
способами – это III форма глагола
To give – дать, давать
given – данный, даваемый
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To send – послать, посылать
sent – посланный, посылаемый
To buy – купить, покупать
bought – купленный, покупаемый
Способы перевода причастий на русский язык
Active Voice
Present Participle
Throwing --- бросающий, бросавший, бросая, бросив
The boy throwing stones into the pond is my brother.
Мальчик, бросающий камни в пруд, мой брат.
The boy throwing stones into the pond laughed loudly.
Мальчик, бросавший камни в пруд, громко смеялся.
The boy stood on the bank throwing stones into the pond.
Мальчик стоял на берегу, бросая камни в пруд.
Throwing the letter into the fire he left the room.
Бросив письмо в огонь, он вышел из комнаты.
Perfect Participle
Having thrown – бросив
Having thrown the ball into the water, the boy could not get it back.
Бросив мяч в воду, мальчик не мог достать его.
Passive Voice
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Present Participle
Being thrown – бросаемый, будучи брошен, так как (когда) был брошен
The stones being thrown by the boys are galling into the water.
Камни, бросаемые мальчиками, падают в воду.
Being thrown with great force, the stone reached the opposite bank.
Так как камень был брошен (будучи брошен) с большой силой, он долетел до
противоположного берега.
Past Participle
Thrown – бросаемый, брошенный
Stones thrown into the water go to the bottom.
Камни, бросаемые в воду, идут ко дну.
The stone thrown by the boy reached the bank/
Камень, брошенный мальчиком, долетел до противоположного берега.
Perfect Participle
Having been thrown – так как (после того как) был брошен
Having once been thrown into the water by the children, the dog always ran away
when it saw them.
Так как собака была однажды брошена детьми в воду, она всегда убегала при
виде их.
Exercise. Переведите данные предложения
a) Participle I
1. A molecule is a compound consisting of two or more atoms.
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2. Combining hydrogen with oxygen in the proportion of two atoms of
hydrogen and one atom of oxygen we produce water.
3. While burning different substances combine with oxygen.
4. The assistant was preparing the solution very carefully.
5. The solution is boiling.
6. The boiling solution has neither color nor odour.
b) Participle II
1. The solution of the problem required concentrated efforts of many scientists.
2. The data required were analyzed in our laboratory.
3. When required, the data will be applied in our practical work.
4. The investigations analyzed resulted in an interesting discovery.
5. Heated glass is plastic.
6. When heated, glass can be easily worked.
7. Some new properties of the polymer found during the experiments were
quite unexpected.
Optical technology
Найдите в словаре и запишите транскрипцию следующих слов. Правильно
прочитайте данные слова несколько раз вслух и постарайтесь запомнить их
произношение
Fiber, improve, reliability, noteworthy, ultra-thin, technique, transparency,
waveguide, storage, indestructible, versatile
Words to be learnt
optical fiber – оптоволокно
to replace – замещать, заменять
to promise – обещать
capacity – емкость, объём
reliability – надежность
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set in motion – приводить в действие
a train of events – череда событий
long-lived source – долговременный источник
low loss – низкие потери
technique – метод
incredible – безграничный
transparency – прозрачность
coherent form – последовательная форма
waveguide – волновод
to accommodate – согласовывать, размещать
storage – накопление, сохранение, запоминание
underway – на пути прогресса, в развитии, в движении
indestructible – неразрушимый
thin film – тонкая плёнка
versatile – разносторонний
noteworthy – заслуживающий внимания, ценный
Text
One of the most interesting developments in telecommunication is the rapid
progress of optical communication where optical fibers are replacing conventional
telephone wires and cables. Just as digital technologies greatly improved the
telephone system, optical communication promises a considerable increase in
capacity, quality, performance and reliability of the global telecommunication
network. New technologies such as optical fibers will increase the speed of
telecommunication and provide new, specialized information service. Voice,
computer data, even video images, will be increasingly integrated into a single
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digital communication network capable to process and transmit virtually any kind
of information.
The advent of the laser in the early 1960 set in motion a train of events that is
steadily changing the outlook for optical communication. The past few years have
been made three important advances. One was the invention of the semiconductor-
diode laser, which satisfied the need for a cheap, efficient and long-lived source of
coherent light waves to serve as the carrier waves for encoded signals. Another
noteworthy advance was the development of ultra-thin, low-loss optical fibers,
which are well suited for the long-range transmission of light waves, and, finally,
an entire new generation of compact optical devices based on the precise guiding
of laser light is being devised. Two technologies were combined: the laser, first
demonstrated in 1960, and the fabrication 10 years later of ultra-thin silicon fibers
which can serve as light wave conductors. With the further development of very
efficient lasers plus continually improved techniques to produce thin silica fibers of
incredible transparency, optical systems can transmit pulses of light as far as 135
kilometers without the need for amplification or regeneration.
At present high-capacity optical transmission systems are being installed
between many major cities at a rapid rate. This system has a number of basic
constituents. First, there must be an oscillator of some kind to generate the “carrier
waves “in a highly coherent form (that is, with the all in step at the same
frequency). Next, the waves must be modulated to carry information by varying
either their frequency or their amplitude. The modulated microwave beam is then
transmitted either by channeling it through a metallic waveguide or by propagating
it through the atmosphere. The system most widely used now operates at 147
megabits (thousand bits) per second and accommodates 6 000 circuits over a single
pair of glass fibers (one for each direction of transmission). This system will soon
be improved to operate at 1.7 gigabits (thousand million bits) per second and
handle 24 000 telephone channels simultaneously.
A revolution in information storage is underway with optical disk
technology. The first optical disks appeared in the early 1970-s. They were and are
used to record video films, but in a continuous spiral rather than digitally. The first
digital optical disks were produced in 1982 as compact disks for music. They were
further developed as a storage medium for computers. The disks are made of
plastics coated with aluminium. The information is recorded by using a powerful
laser to imprint bubbles on the surface of the disk. A less powerful laser reads back
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the pictures, sound or information. An optical disk is almost indestructible and can
store about 1 000 times more information than a plastic disk of the same sizе.
The latest optical disk development is a system which enables computer
users to record their own information on a glass or plastic disk coated with a thin
film of tellurium. Such a disk can store 200 megabytes (200 million
characters).Besides, it is reported that an optical equivalent of a transistor has been
produced and intensive research on optical electronic computers is under way at a
number of US companies as well as in countries around the world. It is found that
optical technology is cost-effective and versatile. It finds new application every
day – from connecting communication equipment or computers within the same
building or room to long distance transcontinental, transoceanic and space
communications.
Задание I. Выберите правильное утверждение в соответствии с содержанием
текста. Объясните его смысл своими собственными словами.
1. a) Optical communication provides a new generation of communication
satellites
b) Optical communication promises a considerable increase in networks
c) Optical communication promises a considerable increase in capacity,
quality, performance and reliability of the global telecommunication
networks
2. a) One advance was the invention of the coherent light waves
b) One advance was the development of a new type of diodes
c) One advance was the invention of the semiconductor-diode laser
3. a) Optical systems can transmit ultra-high frequencies
b) Optical systems can transmit pulses of light without the need for
amplification or regeneration
c) Optical systems can’t transmit pulses of light without the need for
regeneration
4. a) There must be an semiconductor of some kind to generate the “carrier
waves” in a highly coherent form
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b) There must be modulated waves to carry information by varying either
their frequency or their amplitude
c) There must be oscillator to transmit microwave beam
5. a) The modulated microwave beam is transmitted by the optical disks
b) The modulated microwave beam is transmitted by propagating it through
the atmosphere
c) The modulated microwave beam is transmitted either by channeling it
through metallic waveguide or by propagating it through the atmosphere
6. a) The first optical disks appeared in the early 1970-s
b) The first optical waveguide appeared in the early 1970-s
c) The first optical system appeared in the early 1970-s
7. a) The lasers were developed as a storage medium for computers
b) The first digital optical disks were developed as a storage medium for
waveguide
c) The first digital optical disks were developed as a storage medium for
computers
8. a) The optical technology is inefficient
b) The optical technology is one-sided
c) The optical technology is cost-effective and versatile
Задание II. Дайте название каждому абзацу текста. К абзацу составьте
различные типы вопросов. Задайте вопросы в группе.
Задание III. Тщательно выполнив все задания, будьте готовы побеседовать
по теме « Optical technology ».
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Unit 19.
Grammar Revision
Словообразовательные суффиксы существительных
-er
to convert – преобразовывать
converter – преобразователь
-or
to insulate – изолировать
insulator – изолятор
-ing
to bеgin – начинать
beginning – начало
-ment
to develop – развивать
development – развитие
-th
strong – сильный
strength –сила
-ion
to express –выражать
expression –выражение
-ation
to inform –сообщать
information – сообщение
-sion
to decide – решать
decision – решение
-ssion
to permit –разрешать
permission – разрешение
-ance
to assist – помогать
assistance – помощь
-ity
equal –равный
equality – равенство
-ness
happy – счастливый
happiness – счастье
-ancy
constant – постоянный
constancy – постоянство
-ence
to differ – отличаться
difference – отличие
-ency
to depend – зависеть
dependency – зависимость
-age
to break – ломать
breakage – поломка
Exercise 1. Образуйте существительные с помощью данных суффиксов.
Переведите исходные и производные слова
-ist
physic (s), telegraph, special, social
-ity
equal, human, activ(e), relativ(e), productiv(e)
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-er
to read, to lectur(e), to report, to convert
-ness
thick, black, great, rough
-ance
import(ant), dist(ant)
-ment
to measure, to develop
-ency
effici(ent), to depend
Exercise 2. В выделенных словах укажите суффиксы существительных и
переведите данные сочетания
The usage of a word; the simplicity of the equation; the expression of relativity;
the roughness of the surface; temperature readings; atom structure; the
solution of the problem; the productivity of a worker; the efficiency of the
method; the equality of positions
Internet
Найдите в словаре и запишите транскрипцию следующих слов. Правильно
прочитайте данные слова несколько раз вслух и постарайтесь запомнить их
произношение
Defense, agency, initiate, survive, available, request, early, service, via, dial,
accept, huge, expectation
Words to be learnt
The U.S. Defense Advanced Research Project Agency – американское агентство
(управление) перспективных технологий (перспективного планирования
научно-исследовательских работ) при Министерстве Обороны США
to initiate – выдвигать, начинать
objective – цель
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internetting project – проект межсетевого взаимодействия
to embrace – охватывать
to survive – пережить
to device – придумывать, изобретать
request – просьба, запрос
to resemble – напоминать, быть похожим
it wasn’t until… that…- только в …
to share information – делиться информацией
early taker – первый потребитель
huge – гигантский
to hire – брать в аренду
superhighway – магистраль
to be phased out – быть замененным, вытесненным
to accept – принимать
to fall outside – выпасть из … (хода событий, истории, процесса)
to keep up to the minute with – быть в курсе … (событий, новостей и т.д.)
commodity – предмет потребления
Text
In 1973, the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA)
initiated a research program to investigate techniques and technologies for
interlinking packet networks of various kinds. The objective was to develop
communication protocols, which would allow networked computers to
communicate transparently across multiple, linked packet networks. This was
called the Internetting project and the system of networks which emerged from the
research was known as the “Internet”. The system of protocols, which was
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developed over the course of this research effort, became known as the TCP/IP
Protocol Suite: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP).
The Internet, a global computer network which embraces millions of users all
over the world, began in the United States as a military experiment. It was started
by the US Department of Defense for research into networking sometime in 1969.
It was designed to survive a nuclear war. Information sent over the Internet takes
the shortest path available from one computer to another.
Many people wanted to put their ideas into the standards for communication
between the computers that made up this network, so a system was devised for
putting forward ideas. Basically they wrote your ideas in a paper called a “Request
for Comments” (RFC for short), and let everyone use it. People commented on and
improved their ideas in new RFCs. The first RFC was written on April 7th, 1969 –
this is probably the closest thing to a “start date” for the Internet. There are now
over 2000 RFCs, describing every aspect of how the Internet functions.
ARPANET was opened to non-military users later in the 1970s, and early
takers were the big universities – although at this stage it resembled nothing like
the Internet we know today. International connections (i.e. outside America)
started in 1972, but the Internet was still just a way for computers to talk to each
other and for research into networking there was no World-Wide-Web and e-mail
as we know it. It wasn’t until the early to mid 1980s that the services we use most
now started appearing on the Internet. The concept of «domain names», things like
‘www.microsoft.com.’ (Microsoft’s web server), wasn’t even introduced until
1984 – before that all the computers were just addressed by their IP addresses
(numbers). Most protocols for e-mail and other services appeared after this.
The part of the Internet most people are probably most familiar with is the
World-Wide-Web. This is a collection of hyperlinked pages of information
distributed over the Internet via a network protocol called HTTP (hyper-texttransfer-protocol). This was invented by Tim Berners Lee in 1989. He was a
physicist working at CERN, the European Particle Physics Laboratory, and wanted
a way for physicists to share information about their research – the World-WideWeb was his solution. So the web started, although at this time it was text only.
Graphics came later with a browser called NCSA Mosaic. Both Microsoft’s
Internet Explorer and Netscape were originally based on NCSA Mosaic.
The graphical interface opened up the Internet to novice users and in 1993 its
use exploded as people were allowed to dial-in to the Internet using their computer
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at home and a modem to ring up an “Internet Service Provider” (ISP) to get their
connection of this (now huge) network. Before this the only computers connected
were at Universities and other large organizations that could afford to hire cables
between each other to transfer the data over – but now anyone could use the
Internet and evolved into Information Superhighway that we know and (possibly)
love today.
Electronic mail was introduced in 1972 by Ray Tomlinson. NCP was phased
out by a new communications protocol technology—Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) which was created by Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf
in1973. It was accepted by the U.S. government in 1978, and became de facto
networking standard in 1983. More networks began to pop up in the 1980s.
Educational and commercial organizations that fell outside the original charter
wanted to use the same packet-switching technologies. And the system came to be
known as the Internet during this period. It had far exceeded its original purpose,
and was providing the impetus for a vast technological revolution that was just
ahead.
Today people can search thousands of databases and libraries worldwide in
several languages, browser through hundreds of millions of documents, journals,
books, and computer programs, and keep up to the minute with wire-service news,
sports, and weather reports. An increasing number of people shop, bank, and pay
bills on the Internet. Many people invest in stocks and commodities online. It’s a
powerful symbol of society’s expectations about the future—fast-moving
technology that adds convenience and efficiency to their lives.
Задание I. Выберите правильный ответ на вопрос по тексту:
1. What did DARPA initiate?
a)
b)
c)
internetting project
TCP/IP protocol Suite
a research program for internetting packet networks
2. What was a reason of creation the Internet?
a)
b)
c)
to talk with each other
to survive a nuclear war
to send an important information
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3. What could people do in the RFCs?
a)
b)
c)
comment and improve their ideas of communication
get acquaintance
write letters
4. Who were the early takers of Internet?
a)
b)
c)
the Russian Department of Defense
civil users
big universities and large organizations
5. Why did Tim Bernes Lee invent the WWW?
a)
b)
c)
to become famous
to earn his living
to share information about physicists’ research
6. What was introduced by Ray Tomlinson?
a)
b)
c)
graphical interface
electronic mail
browser
Задание II. Используя слова и комбинации слов из текста, выделите главную
мысль каждого абзаца своими собственными 2-3 предложениями на
английском языке. Предложения должны быть краткими, логичными,
связанными друг с другом.
Задание III. Выполнив все упражнения, будьте готовы побеседовать по теме
«Интернет» на английском языке в группе.
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Unit 20.
Grammar Revision
Словообразовательные суффиксы глаголов
Вы можете значительно облегчить процесс чтения, если поймете, как
образуются многие английские слова.
Основа слова - его корень, основной элемент, который сохраняется для всех
производных.
Префикс - элемент слова, который ставится перед корнем.
Суффикс - элемент слова, который ставится после корня слова. Префикс
обычно изменяет значение слова, а суффикс - часть речи.
В таблице приведены наиболее употребительные префиксы и суффиксы
глаголов.
префикс или
суффикс
remisende-,un-,disover-
Значение
пример
снова, заново, вновь
(пере-)
неправильно, неверно
read/читать/- reread/перечитывать/
hear/слышать/mishear/ослышаться/
circle/круг/- circle/окружать/
mobilize/мобилизовать/demobilize/демобилизовать/
estimate/оценивать/-over-
Делать
противоположное
действие
сверх, чрезмерно
undertrans-ate, -ute
-en
-(i)fy
-ize,-ise
estimate/переоценивать/
Недостаточно
pay/платить/underpay/недоплатить/
через, за, пере-, транс- plant/сажать/transplant/пересаживать/
communicate/сообщать/,
contribute/содействовать/
blacken/чернить/
intensify/усиливать/
characterize/характеризовать/
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Exercise. Переведите следующие глаголы на русский язык, обращая
внимание на суффикс или префикс. Проверьте себя по словарю.
Unpack, dislike, reconstruct, misunderstand, enlarge, decontrol, overpay,
undervalue, trans-ship, dictate, widen, simplify, crystallize, distrust, strengthen,
populate, disarm, misinform, enrich, unload.
Cellular Communication
History
Найдите в словаре и запишите в тетрадь транскрипцию данных слов.
Прочитайте их вслух несколько раз.
Duplex, paging, coverage, accessories, wire, enhance, version, vehicle, assign,
sequence.
Words to be learnt
сellphone (сellular phone) - сотовый телефон
cell site - узел сотовой связи
subscriber - aбонент
as opposed to…- в отличие от…, в противоположность чему-то
to handoff (to handover) - передать, переадресовать
coverage area - зона действия, зона покрытия
wireless - беспроводной (радио)
to page - перелистывать, передавать сообщение
rotary dial - дисковый номеронабиратель
to require - требовать
switchboard - панель управления, коммутатор
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to enhance - увеличить, повысить, улучшить
operational reliability - надежность в эксплуатации
rival - конкурент, противник
to introduce - вводить, внедрять
simultaneous - одновременный
spread-spectrum - с широким диапазоном
to assign - назначать, устанавливать
jamming - помехи при приеме, глушение радиопередач
to foil - мешать, расстраивать (планы)
broadband network - широкополосная сеть
Text
A mobile phone or mobile (also called cell phone and hand phone) is an electronic
device used for mobile telecommunications (mobile telephony, text messaging or
data transmission) over a cellular network of specialized base stations known as
cell sites. Mobile phones differ from cordless telephones, which only offer
telephony service within a limited range, e.g. within a home or an office, through a
fixed line and a base station owned by the subscriber and also from satellite phones
and radio telephones. As opposed to a radio telephone, a cell phone offers full
duplex communication, automatised calling to and paging from a public land
mobile network (PLMN), and handoff (handover) during a phone call when the
user moves from one cell (base station coverage area) to another. In addition to the
standard voice function, current mobile phones may support many additional
services, and accessories, such as SMS for text messaging, email, packet switching
for access to the Internet, gaming, Bluetooth, camera with video recorder and
MMS for sending and receiving photos and video, MP3 player, radio and GPS.
In 1908, U.S. Patent 887,357 for a wireless telephone was issued to Nathan B.
Stubblefield of Murray, Kentucky. He applied this patent to "cave" radio
telephones and not directly to cellular telephony as the term is currently
127
understood. Cells for mobile phone base stations were invented in 1947 by Bell
Labs engineers at AT&T and further developed by Bell Labs during the 1960s.
Radiophones have a long and varied history going back to Reginald Fessenden's
invention and shore-to-ship demonstration of radio telephony, through the Second
World War with military use of radio telephony links and civil services in the
1950s, while hand-held mobile radio devices have been available since 1973. A
patent for the first wireless phone as we know today was issued in US Patent
Number 3,449,750 to George Sweigert of Euclid, Ohio on June 10, 1969.
In 1960, the world’s first partly automatic car phone system Mobile System A
(MTA) |MTA was launched in Sweden. With MTA, calls could be made and
received in the car to/from the public telephone network, and the car phone could
be paged. The phone number was dialed using a rotary dial. Calling from the car
was fully automatic, while calling to it required an operator. The system was
developed by Sture Laurén and other engineers at Televerket network operator.
Ericsson provided the switchboard while Svenska Radioaktiebolaget (SRA) owned
by Ericsson and Marconi provided the telephones and base station equipment.
MTA phones consisted of vacuum tubes and relays, and had a weight of 40 kg.
In 1962, a more modern version called Mobile System B (MTB) was launched
which used transistors in order to enhance the telephone’s calling capacity and
improve its operational reliability.
In 1971 the MTD version was launched, opening for several different brands of
equipment and gaining commercial success. Martin Cooper, a Motorola researcher
and executive is considered to be the inventor of the first practical mobile phone
for hand-held use in a non-vehicle setting. Cooper is the first inventor named on
"Radio telephone system" filed on October 17, 1973 with the US Patent Office.
Using a modern, if somewhat heavy portable handset, Cooper made the first call
on a hand-held mobile phone on April 3, 1973 to a rival, Dr. Joel S. Engel of Bell
Labs.
In 1945, the zero generation (0G) of mobile telephones was introduced. Like other
technologies of the time, it involved a single, powerful base station covering a
wide area, and each telephone would effectively monopolize a channel over that
whole area while in use. The first "modern" network technology on digital 2G
(second generation) cellular technology was launched by Radiolinja (now part of
Elisa Group) in 1991 in Finland on the GSM standard. GSM, short for Global
System for Mobile Communications, is one of the leading digital cellular systems.
GSM uses narrowband TDMA, which allows eight simultaneous calls on the same
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radio frequency. GSM was first introduced in 1991. As of the end of 1997, GSM
service was available in more than 100 countries and has become the de facto
standard in Europe and Asia. The first SMS text message was sent from a
computer to a mobile phone in 1992 in the UK, while the first person-to-person
SMS from phone to phone was sent in Finland in 1993.
The first mobile news service, delivered via SMS, was launched in Finland in
2000. In 2001 the first commercial launch of 3G (Third Generation) was again in
Japan by NTT DoCoMo on the WCDMA standard. CDMA, short for CodeDivision Multiple Access, a digital cellular technology that uses spread-spectrum
techniques. Unlike competing systems, such as GSM, that use TDMA, CDMA
does not assign a specific frequency to each user. Instead, every channel uses the
full available spectrum. Individual conversations are encoded with a pseudorandom digital sequence. CDMA consistently provides better capacity for voice
and data communications than other commercial mobile technologies, allowing
more subscribers to connect at any given time, and it is the common platform on
which 3G technologies are built. CDMA is a military technology first used during
World War II by English allies to foil German attempts at jamming transmissions.
The allies decided to transmit over several frequencies, instead of one, making it
difficult for the Germans to pick up the complete signal. Because Qualcomm
created communications chips for CDMA technology, it was privy to the classified
information. Once the information became public, Qualcomm claimed patents on
the technology and became the first to commercialize it.
The next evolution that recently was released is the 4th generation, also known as
Beyond 3G , with the aim to offer broadband wireless access with nominal data
rates of 100 Mbit/s to fast moving devices, and 1 Gbit/s to stationary devices
defined by the ITU-R 4G systems may be based on the 3GPP LTE (Long Term
Evolution) cellular standard, offering peak bit rates of 326.4 Mbit/s. It may perhaps
also be based on WiMax or Flash-OFDM wireless metropolitan area network
technologies that promise broadband wireless access with speeds that reaches 233
Mbit/s for mobile users. By 2011 it is expected that wireless companies will launch
4G Broadband networks.
Задание I. Ответьте на следующие вопросы:
1. What is a cellphone?
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2. What is a cell site?
3. What is the difference between a cellphone and any other types of telephones?
4. What are additional services of a cellphone?
Задание II a) Найдите в тексте информацию о том, каким событием отмечен
тот или иной год в истории развития сотовой связи. Особое внимание
обратите на следующие годы:
1945, 1947, 1960, 1962, 1969, 1971, 1973, 1991, 1992, 1993, 2000, 2001 и 2011.
б) Расскажите историю развития сотовой связи, предварительно составив
план, состоящий из указания года и нескольких ключевых слов.
Например: In 1908- the first patent
was issued
“cave” radio telephone
In 1908 the first patent for a wireless telephone was issued. It was applied to ‘cave’
radio telephone.
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Unit 21.
Grammar Revision
Словообразовательные суффиксы прилагательных и наречий
Наиболее употребительные префиксы и суффиксы прилагательных и
наречий:
суффикс или
Значение
префикс
un-, in-, dis-, non-, Отрицательное
il-, im-,ir-
prepostantiintersubsuperultra-a(i)ble
-al
-ant, -ent
-ary, -ory
пред, ранее
После
анти -, противомежду, взаимно
подсверхультра -, сверхвозможность
подвергнуться
действию
пример
unequal/неравный/
indirect/косвенный/
dishonest/нечестный/
non-ferrous/не содержащий
железо/
pre-war/довоенный/
post-war/послевоенный/
anti-aircraft/противовоздушный/
international/международный/
submarine/подводный/
supersonic/сверхзвуковой/
ultra-short/ультракороткий/
changeable/изменчивый/
accessible/доступный/
central/центральный/
different/различный/
resistant/сопротивляющийся/
monetary/денежный/
explanatory/объяснительный/
название вещества
наличие качества
отсутствие качества
-en
-ful
-less
-ic
-ish
национальная
принадлежность;
слабая степень качества
woolen/шерстяной/
useful/полезный/
homeless/бездомный/
basic/основной/
polish/польский/
reddish/красноватый/
talkative/разговорчивый/
-ive
131
-ous
famous/знаменитый/
-y
rainy/дождливый/
-ly
badly/плохо/
partly/частично/
firstly/во-первых/
-ward(s)
Направление
backward(s)/обратно/
inward(s)/внутрь/
Exercise 1. Образуйте наречия от следующих прилагательных.
Easy (просто), usual (обычно), special (особо), north (к северу), regular
(регулярно), functional (функционально), home (к дому), main (главным
образом), sea (к морю).
Exercise 2. При помощи таблицы подберите подходящий суффикс или
префикс к данным словам и образуйте прилагательные. Проверьте себя по
словарю.
Form, to insist, value, element, to compare, wax, violet, fruit, Atlantic, important,
Scott, hope, to act, complete, fame, brown, possible, economy, essential, human,
historic, town, revolutionary, imperialist, sun.
Cellular Communication
Найдите в словаре и запишите в тетрадь транскрипцию данных слов.
Прочитайте их вслух несколько раз.
Occupy, entire, height, audio, cause, portion, feature, routing, certain.
132
Words to be learnt
single- один, одиночный
to hold (held, held) - поддерживать, удерживать
entire- полный, целый, весь
pitch- модуль, высота (звука)
to cause- вызывать, быть причиной
sample- образец, пример
recovered signal- восстановленный сигнал
to distort- искажать
to deliver- доставлять, снабжать
landline- линия проводной связи
to store- накапливать, запасать
feature- особенность, характеристика
call forwarding- динамическая переадресация вызова
debit card- платежная карта
routing element- трассировочный элемент
predominant- преобладающий, доминирующий
interim- промежуточный, временный
Text
Many different types of systems have provided city-wide two-way
communications, such as radio systems for taxis or the police. In these systems, a
single antenna is located near the center of the city. Each two-way conversation
occupied one channel so if there were 100 channels in the city, only 100
133
simultaneous conversations could be held. To cover the entire city, the antenna is
placed on a tall building and emits a very strong signal. In the cellular phone
system, the city is divided into smaller sections, or cells. Each cell contains its own
antenna and uses only a subset of all the channels. Each antenna is lower in height
and emits a much weaker signal so that the same subset of channels can be used in
a cell somewhere else within the city.
Cellular telephone systems can be "analog" or "digital". Older systems (AMPS,
TACS, NMT) are "analog" and newer systems (GSM, PCS) are "digital". The
major difference is in how the audio signal, e.g. your voice, is transmitted between
the phone and base station. "Analog" and "digital" refer to this transmission
mechanism. In either system, the audio at the microphone always starts out as a
voltage level that varies continuously over time. High frequencies (high pitch)
cause rapid changes and low freqs cause slow changes. With analog systems, the
audio is modulated directly onto a carrier. This is very much like (if not identical)
to FM radio where the audio signal (in that case music) is translated to the RF
signal. With digital systems, the audio is converted to digitized samples at about
8000 samples per second or so. The digital samples are numbers that represent the
time-varying voltage level at specific points in time. With analog transmissions,
interference (RF noise or some other anomaly that affects the transmitted signal)
gets translated directly into the recovered signal. The neat thing about digital is that
the 1s and 0s can not be easily confused or distorted during transmission, plus
extra data is typically included in the transmission to help detect and correct any
errors.
The cellular network operates on a combination of network hardware and software
to operate. They are:
Mobile Base Stations - otherwise known as the cell site. The radio signal of
each cell site covers a portion of a service area. A service area can have hundreds
of cell sites.
Mobile Switching Centers (MSC) - The MSC connects the voice path for a call.
The MSC and cell site work together to determine which radios the mobile phone
will use when delivering calls. It interprets the digits entered by the mobile phone
user and delivers the call accordingly. As the mobile subscriber moves to new cell
site areas, the MSC reconnects the call to a new radio in that cell. It provides the
path to the public switched telephony network (PSTN), for delivering calls to land-
134
line phones or to long-distance numbers. There can be many MSCs in a single
service area.
Home Location Register (HLR) - The HLR is a database where the subscriber's
feature profile is stored. It will keep information on the subscribers phone number,
the electronic serial number of the mobile phone, and the features the customer has
(call forwarding, call waiting, 3-way calling, voice mail, etc.). The HLR is a
software element. It can be an integral part of the MSC, or stored on a separate
platform.
Service Control Point (SCP) - The SCP holds databases that control customer
features and services. The HLR is a primary example of a database on the SCP.
Some other examples include 800-number lookup services, calling card services,
calling number identification, short message service, message waiting indicator,
and debit card services.
Signal Transfer Point (STP) - The STP is a network routing element. It takes a
message in, checks the routing information, and sends the message toward its
destination. STPs use the signaling system seven (SS7) protocol to transport
messages.
Protocols - Data messages are formatted in a way that allows switches and
network elements to understand them. The formatting follows certain rules and
these rules are called a protocol. The predominant protocols used in roaming
networks are signaling system seven (SS7), and interim standard-41 (IS-41). We
also use X.25 packet switched data, global system for mobile communications
(GSM), Ethernet, and the transmission control protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP)
for messaging.
Задание. Выпишите из соответствующих абзацев текста ключевые слова,
которые помогут вам:
- объяснить принцип действия системы сотовой связи;
- рассказать о различиях между аналоговыми и цифровыми системами связи;
-перечислить и дать краткую характеристику элементов, составляющих сеть
сотовой связи.
135
Unit 22.
Grammar Revision
Степени сравнения прилагательных и наречий
Исходная форма
Сравнительная
степень
Превосходная
степень
односложные
short
shorter
the shortest
и некоторые
короткий
короче
самый короткий
двусложные
прилагательные
и наречия
easy
easier
the easiest
лёгкий
легче
самый лёгкий
late
later
latest
поздно
позднее
позднее всего
двусложные и
important
more important
многосложные
важный
более важный,
прилагательные
важнее
the most important
самый важный
и наречия
easily
more easily
легко
легче
most easily
легче всего
Прилагательные и наречия, образующие степени сравнения не по
правилу
Исходная форма
Сравнительная степень
Превосходная степень
136
Good-хороший
better-лучше
the best-наилучший
Well-хорошо
better-лучше
best-лучше всего
Bad-плохой
worse-хуже
the worst-наихудший
Badly-плохо
worse-хуже
worst-хуже всего
Many-много
more-больше, более
Much-много
more-больше
the most-наибольший
most-больше всего
Little-маленький
less-меньше, менее
the least-наименьший
Little-мало
less-меньше
least-меньше всего
Far- далекий
Far-далеко
farther-более отдаленный
further-дальше
the farthest-самый отдаленный
further-дальше всего
Exercise 1. Переведите предложения
1. This classroom is larger and lighter than other classroom. It is the largest and
the lightest room here.
2. The red line of this drawing is shorter than other lines. It is the shortest line.
3. Mathematics is more important for technical students than many other
subjects. It is one of the most important subjects at any technical institute.
4. The results of his last experiment were worse than before. He got the worst
results this time.
Exercise 2. Поставьте данное в скобках слово в нужной степени сравнения
1. The (good) time to see Venus is spring.
2. Mercury is the (little) planet in our solar system.
137
3. We gave the (many) possible pressure.
4. The pressure in the boiler is (little) than it is necessary.
5. Silver is the (good) conductor of electricity. Gold conducts the electricity
(bad) than silver.
GPS
Найдите в словаре и запишите транскрипцию следующих слов.
Правильно прочитайте данные слова несколько раз вслух и постарайтесь
запомнить их произношение
Precisely, identify, circling, maintenance, weapon, engage, surveyor, missile,
munitions, guidance, reconnaissance
Words to be learnt
precisely identify – точно определить
by measuring – путем измерения
ongoing maintenance – постоянно ведущиеся эксплуатационные работы
military application – военное применение
troop deployment – расположение войск
recreational – прогулочный, развлекательный, для отдыха
surveyor – наблюдатель
weapon – оружие
commonplace – привычная вещь
emergency roadside assistant – помощь при аварии на дорогах
to span – охватывать, включать
saving – сбережения, спасение
138
to flag – сигнализировать
hostile – вражеский, неприятельский
howitzer – гаубица
reconnaissance – разведка, рекогносцировка
detonation – взрыв, детонация
to keep track – проследить
turning – хронирование
unmanned monitoring station – автоматическая станция
master control station – ведущая станция контроля
uplinks – спутниковый канал связи
Text
Global Positioning System is a network of satellites that continuously
transmit coded information, which makes it possible to precisely identify locations
on earth by measuring distance from the satellites. GPS stands for Global
Positioning System, and refers to a group of U.S. Department of Defense satellites
constantly circling the earth. The satellites transmit very low power radio signals
allowing anyone with a GPS receiver to determine their location on Earth.
This remarkable system was not cheap to build, costing the U.S. billions of
dollars. Ongoing maintenance, including the launch of replacement satellites, adds
to the cost of the system. GPS actually predates the introduction of the personal
computer. The designers originally had a military application in mind. The first
satellite navigation system, Transit, used by the United States Navy, was first
successfully tested in 1960. It used a constellation of five satellites and could
provide a navigational fix approximately once per hour. In 1967, the U.S. Navy
developed the Timation satellite which proved the ability to place accurate clocks
in space, a technology that GPS relies upon. In the 1970s, the ground-based Omega
Navigation System, based on phase comparison of signal transmission from pairs
of stations, became the first worldwide radio navigation system. The design of
139
GPS is based partly on similar ground-based radio navigation systems, such as
LORAN and the Decca Navigator developed in the early 1940s, and used during
World War II. The military applications of GPS span many purposes:
• Navigation: GPS allows soldiers to find objectives in the dark or in unfamiliar
territory, and to coordinate the movement of troops and supplies. The GPSreceivers that commanders and soldiers use are respectively called the
Commanders Digital Assistant and the Soldier Digital Assistant.
• Target tracking: Various military weapons systems use GPS to track potential
ground and air targets before they are flagged as hostile. These weapon systems
pass GPS co-ordinates of targets to precision-guided munitions to allow them to
engage the targets accurately. Military aircraft, particularly those used in air-toground roles use GPS to find targets.
• Missile and projectile guidance: GPS allows accurate targeting of various
military weapons including ICBMs, cruise missiles and precision-guided
munitions. Artillery projectiles with embedded GPS receivers able to withstand
accelerations of 12,000g's or about
117,600 meters/second2 have been developed for use in 155 mm howitzers.
• Search and Rescue: Downed pilots can be located faster if they have a GPS
receiver.
• Reconnaissance and Map Creation: The military use GPS extensively to aid
mapping and reconnaissance.
• The GPS satellites also carry a set of nuclear detonation detectors consisting of an
optical sensor (Y-sensor), an X-ray sensor, a dosimeter, and an electromagnetic
pulse (EMP) sensor (W-sensor) which form a major portion of the United States
Nuclear Detonation Detection System.
Fortunately, an executive decree in the 1980s made GPS available for civilian use
also. Land-based applications are more diverse. The scientific community uses
GPS for its precision timing capability and a myriad of other applications.
Surveyors use GPS for an increasing portion of their work. GPS offers an
incredible cost savings by drastically reducing setup time at the survey site. It also
provides amazing accuracy. Basic survey units can offer accuracies down to one
meter. More expensive systems can provide accuracies to within a centimeter!
Recreational uses of GPS are almost as varied as the number of recreational sports
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available. GPS is becoming increasingly popular among hikers, hunters,
snowmobilers, mountain bikers, and crosscountry skiers, just to name a few. GPS
is rapidly becoming commonplace in automobiles as well. Some basic systems are
already in place, providing emergency roadside assistance at the push of a button
(by transmitting your current position to a dispatch center).
The NAVSTAR system (the acronym for Navigation Satellite Timing and
Ranging, the official U.S. Department of Defense name for GPS) consists of a
space segment (the satellites), a control segment (the ground stations), and a user
segment (you and your GPS receiver).The space segment, which consists of at
least 24 satellites (21 active plus 3 operating spares) is the heart of the system. The
satellites are in what's called a "high orbit" about 12,000 miles above the Earth's
surface. Operating at such a high altitude allows the signals to cover a greater area.
The satellites are arranged in their orbits so a GPS receiver on earth can always
receive from at least four of them at any given time. The "control" segment does
what its name implies — it "controls" the GPS satellites by tracking them and then
providing them with corrected orbital and clock (time) information. There are five
control stations located around the world — four unmanned monitoring stations
and one "master control station". The four unmanned receiving stations constantly
receive data from the satellites and then send that information to the master control
station. The master control station "corrects" the satellite data and, together with
two other antenna sites, sends ("uplinks") the information to the GPS satellites.
The user segment simply consists of you and your GPS receiver. As mentioned
previously, the user segment consists of boaters, pilots, hikers, hunters, the military
and anyone else who wants to know where they are, where they have been or
where they are going.
Задание I. Выберите правильное утверждение и выучите его наизусть:
1.
a) GPS is a network of satellites transmitting coded information to
identify locations on Earth
b) GPS is a system of stations for measuring distance from the satellites
c) GPS is a network for monitoring satellite data
2.
a) GPS actually predates the introduction of Internet
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b) GPS actually predates the introduction of radar technology
c) GPS actually predates the introduction of the personal computer
3. a) The designers of GPS originally had commercial purposes in mind
b) The designers of GPS originally had educational application in mind
c) The designers of GPS originally had a military application in mind
4. a) Military aircraft can’t use GPS to find targets
b) GPS allows soldiers to find commanders
c) Various military weapons systems use GPS to track potential ground and air
targets before they are flagged as hostile
5. a) GPS is popular among hikers, hunters, snowmobilers, mountain bikers
and cross-country skiers.
b) GPS is not used for recreational uses
c) GPS is commonplace in automobiles in Russia
6. a) The NAVSTAR consists of the satellites
b) The NAVSTAR consists of the ground stations
c) The NAVSTAR consists of a space segment (the satellites), a control segment
(the ground stations), and a user segment (you and your receiver)
Задание II. Задайте в группе все возможные виды вопросов, используя
предложения, данные в задании I .
Задание III. Выполнив все задания, будьте готовы побеседовать по теме
«GPS» на английском языке с группой и с преподавателем
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Unit 23.
Grammar Revision
Сравнительные конструкции
При сравнении двух действий, которым присущ один и тот же признак, и с
прилагательными и с наречиями, употребляется парный союз as … as
This plane moves as quickly
Этот самолет движется так же быстро,
as the sound does
как и звук (т.е. со скоростью звука)
Сочетание as well as может, наряду со сравнительной конструкцией, быть
составным союзом так же, как (и). Сравните:
He knows mathematics as well as
his friend does
Он знает математику так же хорошо,
как и его друг
Английская система весов
The English system of weights
was used in England as well as
применялась в Англии так же,
in a number of other countries
как и в ряде других стран
В сравнительной конструкции the (more) … the (better) артикли, стоящие
перед прилагательными или наречиями в сравнительной степени,
переводятся чем … тем:
Чем выше температура ,
The higher the temperature,
тем быстрее движение
the more rapid is the motion
молекул
of the molecules
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Exercise. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на сравнительные
конструкции
1. No planet is as hot as the Sun.
2. The speed at which the Earth revolves round the Sun is nearly as high as that
of Venus.
3. The nearer the Earth, the denser the atmosphere.
4. The more experiments scientists make, the greater is their knowledge of the
structure of matter.
5. Gold is not so light as aluminium.
6. A solid has length as well as width.
7. The bigger the mass, the bigger the weight of the body.
8. The stronger the magnet, the greater the distance through which it acts
9. Metals as well as minerals are of great importance in industry.
10. The nearer the centre of the Sun, the higher the temperature.
Galileo – European Satellite Navigation System
Найдите в словаре и запишите транскрипцию следующих слов. Правильно
прочитайте данные слова несколько раз вслух и постарайтесь запомнить их
произношение
Compliant, redundancy, negotiations, efficient, revenue, capturing, coverage,
reliability, unfettered, envisage, genuine
Words to be learnt
to improve – улучшать
compliant – согласованный
requirement – требование
redundancy – достаточность, избыточность
integrity – целостность
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high precision navigation – высокоточная навигация
public obligations – обязательства перед обществом
intense negotiations – активные переговоры
validation – соглашение, утверждение
to justify – оправдывать
capturing – овладение, захват
impediment – препятствие, задержка
reliability – надежность
implementation – осуществление, выполнение
to comply with – уступать, подчиняться, соглашаться
unfettered – неограниченный, нестесненный
to concern with – заниматься чем-либо, иметь дело с чем-либо
to gather pace – ускорять темп
constellation – набор (созвездие)
to envisage – предназначать, предусматривать
launcher – пусковая установка
Text
Europe is moving closer to the launch of its satellite navigation system
Galileo. This will lead to a fully civilian controlled global satellite navigation
system, with much improved navigation services and a certified positioning
service. It is fully compliant with ICAO's requirements for satellite navigation
systems. The overall benefits include redundancy and integrity to meet the safety
requirements of civil aviation and help the foil introduction of satellite navigation
for all phases of flight. Whilst the battle with GPS is likely to be bitter, in the end
145
these two systems will benefit each other and massively extend the role of satellite
navigation.
Galileo is an initiative of the European Union, in collaboration with the
European Space Agency and European Industry, to launch a European financed
global satellite navigation system under civilian control. Current work aims to
develop the architecture and design required to provide high precision navigation,
position, timing and integrity information to meet both user needs and public
obligations, such as safety for all transport modes.
Galileo is proposed as a Public Private Partnership formed between the
European Union, ESA and a consortium of private companies. The PPP partners
include Astrium, Alcatel Space, Alenia Spazio and Thales. Galileo is, naturally
enough, still a subject of intense negotiation and debate between the EU and its
commercial partners, with the EU Council of Ministers pressing for a single and
efficient management structure. Galileo is also a part of the EU's wider strategic
plan for space exploitation, which includes its program for Global Monitoring,
Environment and Security (GMES). Although largely a European program, Galileo
will also involve much international cooperation e.g. with the Russian Federation
(on frequency sharing and validation).The calculated benefits and the direct and
indirect revenues from Galileo are expected to be substantial, fully justifying
Europe's commitment. Galileo is very much a commercial initiative aimed at
capturing a significant share of the satellite navigation market.
Galileo is a system that will benefit all modes of transport including road,
rail, sea and air travel. Galileo will, in particular, result in real and direct benefits to
civil aviation. The clearest of these is the fact that satellite navigation will become
a fully redundant service for civil aviation users in the event of a satellite failure.
The number of satellites in view will grow dramatically and become fully
independent in the case of failure to either GPS or Galileo. Galileo will work with
GPS to provide greatly improved satellite coverage and availability, ensuring that
sufficient satellites are always in view to obtain an optimal navigation solution.
This has been one of the major impediments of a GPS only system and one
stumbling block to the potential wider benefits that satellite navigation could offer
civil aviation, but which it has not so far been able to deliver.
Certified services will also be offered, with guaranteed service levels (in terms
of accuracy, redundancy, integrity, reliability and availability) and a more robust
signal in space. This will enable the global implementation of ICAO’s CNS/ATM
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concept. These benefits will bring satellite navigation forward as a realistic
replacement for conventional navigation aids in civil aviation. Despite the fact that
satellite navigation has been with us for some time and that airlines have made
significant investments, there has been, so far, relatively little return in terms of
improved navigation services to airlines. Galileo looks set to change this and
accelerate the introduction and benefits of satellite navigation for civil aviation
Users. Galileo also complies with the need for civil aviation services to be free and
unfettered, a fundamental requirement enshrined in the ICAO convention.
The definition phase of Galileo is already complete. The current phase is
concerned with the detailed design and development of the full Galileo system.
The schedule for Galileo will gather pace with a Galileo Test-Bed to be launched
as piggyback payload on a next generation GLONASS satellite. Following this, the
'In-Orbit Validation' phase will begin, deploying a small constellation of satellites.
An initial operational capability consists of twelve satellites. There is a definite
"window of opportunity" for Galileo and it is believed that any delay in fully
operational launching Galileo will lead to significant damage to Europe's entry into
the mass navigation market. Hence there are strong incentives for the launch of
Galileo to be brought forward.
Galileo consists of a constellation of 30 satellites in Medium Earth Orbit
(MEO) only. The 30 Galileo satellites are 3 orbital planes inclined at 54° and at an
altitude of around 23,000 km. This is the simplest system to launch, operate and
maintain and one that provides the greatest reliability for an operational service.
Galileo satellites weigh around 650 kg when in orbit and generate approximately
1,500 watts of electrical power. The satellite geometry has been designed for the
launch of multiple satellites with an Ariane launcher. Smaller launchers are
envisaged for the replacement of individual satellites. A lot of sophisticated
technology will go into Galileo, including highly advanced atomic clocks -giving
greater accuracy and stability and being light weight with low power requirements.
Sophisticated (next generation) electronics and the latest high performance
antennas will be incorporated into the satellite, to generate the signal-in-space.
The implementation of Galileo is a welcome improvement to navigation
services. Galileo vastly improves the accuracy, redundancy, integrity, reliability
and availability of satellite navigation. It provides certified services and a level of
integrity not achievable with GPS. More than anything else, it enables the full
exploitation of satellite navigation for the benefit of civil aviation and hastens the
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implementation of ICAO's CNS/ATM concept. This leads to genuine
improvements for all phases of flight and a significant safety benefits.
Задание I. Выберите правильный ответ в соответствии с содержанием
текста.
1. What is Europe moving to?
a) redundancy and integrity of European Union
b) a fully civilian control of ICAO
c) the launch of its satellite navigation system Galileo
2. What does current work aim to provide?
a) safety for all phases of flights
b) comfort and design
c) high precision navigation, position, timing and integrity information
3. What does Galileo plan include?
a) intense negotiation and debate
b) ESA and a consortium of private companies
c) program for Global Monitoring, Environment and Security
1. What is Galileo?
a) a military strategy
b) a commercial initiative
c) a state plan
2. Where is Galileo used in?
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a) in all modes of transport
b) in all types of satellite stations
c) in all kinds of ground stations
3. In what cases will satellite navigation become a fully redundant service for
civil aviation users?
a) in the case of a spacecraft absence
b) in the event of global war
c) in the event of a satellite failure
4. Why will Galileo work with GPS?
a) to get some benefits
b) to ensure integrity
c) to provide improved satellite coverage and availability
5. What certified services are offered by Galileo?
a) the help in the case of failure
b) a significant share of the satellite navigation market
c) accuracy, redundancy, integrity, reliability and availability
6. What does Galileo consists of?
a) 30 ground stations
b) 54 electrical power stations
c) satellites
7. What are envisaged (offered) for the replacement of individual satellites?
a) spacecrafts
b) rockets
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c) small launchers
Задание II. Сформулируйте основную мысль каждого абзаца в виде кратких,
логичных (от 1 до 3) своих собственных высказываний на английском языке
Задание Ш. Выполнив все задания, будьте готовы побеседовать по теме на
английском языке в группе и с преподавателем
150
Unit 24.
Grammar Revision
Конструкции в страдательном залоге
Форма глагола - сказуемого в страдательном залоге (см. Units 10, 11)
образуется следующим образом:
to be + Participle II
В английском языке существуют так же конструкции в страдательном залоге:
Present Infinitive: eg. My car needs to be serviced soon.
Мою машину скоро нужно ремонтировать.
Perfect Infinitive: eg. Му сar should have been serviced last month.
Мою машину нужно было отремонтировать в
прошлом месяце.
-ing form:
eg. I insist on my car being serviced today.
Я настаиваю, чтобы мою машину отремонтировали
сегодня.
Modals:
eg. My car must be serviced before the weekend.
Моя машина должна быть отремонтирована до
выходных.
Exercise. Переделайте предложения из действительного
страдательный, используя конструкции в страдательном залоге.
залога
в
1. She must write all the letters till tomorrow morning.
2. They were to send the documents yesterday but they didn’t.
3. I dream to paint my car red.
151
4. They can pass the exams without bad marks.
5. It is necessary to install this equipment as soon as possible.
GLONASS
Найдите в словаре и запишите в тетрадь транскрипцию данных слов.
Прочитайте их вслух несколько раз.
Government, alternative, Chinese, European, ascending, roughly, equator,
sidereal, weight, cesium.
Words to be learnt
to complete- завершать, выполнять
to fall into disrepair- прийти в негодность
spares- запчасти
ascending node- восходящий узел
approximately- примерно, приблизительно
displacement- перемещение, смещение
altitude- высота над уровнем моря
latitude- широта (геогр.)
substantially- существенно, в значительной мере; главным образом
span- объем, размах, диапазон
aft- хвостовая часть
payload- полезная нагрузка
array- многовибраторная сложная антенна
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booster- ракета- носитель; стартовый двигатель
to make use of- использовать
to undertake- предпринимать
Text
GLONASS (GLObal'naya NAvigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema; "GLObal
NAvigation Satellite System" in English) is a radio-based satellite navigation
system, developed by the former Soviet Union and now operated for the Russian
government by the Russian Space Forces. It is an alternative and complementary to
the United States' Global Positioning System (GPS), the Chinese Compass
navigation system, and the planned Galileo positioning system of the European
Union (EU).
Development on the GLONASS began in 1976, with a goal of global coverage by
1991. Beginning from 12 October 1982, numerous rocket launches added satellites
to the system until the constellation was completed in 1995. Following completion,
the system rapidly fell into disrepair with the collapse of the Russian economy.
Beginning from 2001, Russia committed to restoring the system, and in recent
years has diversified, introducing the Indian government as a partner, and
accelerated the program with a goal of restoring global coverage by 2009.
GLONASS was developed to provide real-time position and velocity
determination, initially for use by the Soviet military for navigation and ballistic
missile targeting. It was the Soviet Union's second generation satellite navigation
system, improving on the Tsiklon system which required one to two hours of
signal processing to calculate a location with high accuracy. By contrast, once a
GLONASS receiver is tracking the satellite signals, a position fix is available
instantly. It is stated that at peak efficiency the system's standard positioning and
timing service provide horizontal positioning accuracy within 57–70 meters,
vertical positioning within 70 meters, velocity vector measuring within 15 cm/s,
and time transfer within 1 µs (all within 99.7% probability).
A fully operational GLONASS constellation consists of 24 satellites, with 21 used
for transmitting signals and three for on-orbit spares, deployed in three orbital
planes. The three orbital planes' ascending nodes are separated by 120° with each
153
plane containing eight equally spaced satellites. The orbits are roughly circular,
with an inclination of about 64.8°, and orbit the Earth at an altitude of 19,100 km
(11,868 mi), which yields an orbital period of approximately 11 hours, 15 minutes.
The planes themselves have a latitude displacement of 15°, which results in the
satellites crossing the equator one at a time, instead of three at once. The overall
arrangement is such that, if the constellation is fully populated, a minimum of five
satellites are in view from any given point at any given time.
Over the three decades of development, the satellites themselves have gone
through numerous revisions, separated here as generations. The name of each
satellite was Uragan (English: hurricane), followed either by a number for
operational satellites or by an acronym GVM (Russian: габаритно-весовой макет;
English: size weight dummy) for test satellites.
The true first generation of Uragan (also called Glonass) satellites were all 3-axis
stabilized vehicles, generally weighing 1,250 kg and were equipped with a modest
propulsion system to permit relocation within the constellation. Over time they
were divided into Block IIa, IIb, and IIv vehicles, with each block containing
evolutionary improvements.Six Block IIa satellites were launched in 1985–1986
with improved time and frequency standards over the prototypes, and increased
frequency stability. These spacecraft also demonstrated a 16-month average
operational lifetime. Block IIb spacecraft, with a 2-year design lifetimes, appeared
in 1987, of which a total of 12 were launched, but half were lost in launch vehicle
accidents.
The second generation of satellites, known as Uragan-M (also called Glonass-M),
were developed beginning in 1990 and first launched in 2001.These satellites
possess a substantially increased lifetime of seven years and weigh slightly more at
1,480 kg. They are approximately 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in) in diameter and 3.7 m (12 ft)
high, with a solar array span of 7.2 m (24 ft) for an electrical power generation
capability of 1600 watts at launch. The aft payload structure houses 12 primary
antennas for L-band transmissions. Laser corner-cube reflectors are also carried to
aid in precise orbit determination and geodetic research. On-board cesium clocks
provide the local clock source.A total of fourteen second generation satellites were
launched through the end of 2007.
The third generation satellites are known as Uragan-K (also called Glonass-K)
spacecraft. These satellites are designed with a lifetime of 10 to 12 years, a reduced
weight of only 750 kg, and offer an additional L-Band navigational signal. As with
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the previous satellites, these are 3-axis stabilized, nadir pointing with dual solar
arrays. They will enter service in 2009.Due to their weight reduction, Uragan-K
spacecraft can be launched in pairs from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome launch site
using the substantially lower cost Soyuz-2 boosters or in six-at-once from the
Baikonur Cosmodrome using Proton-K Briz-M launch vehicles.
The ground control segment of GLONASS is entirely located within former Soviet
Union territory. The Ground Control Center and Time Standards are located in
Moscow and the telemetry and tracking stations are in Saint Petersburg, Ternopol,
Eniseisk, Komsomolsk-na-Amure.Septentrio, Topcon, JAVAD, Magellan
Navigation, Novatel, Leica Geosystems and Trimble Inc produce GNSS receivers
making use of GLONASS. NPO Progress describes a receiver called "GALS-A1"
which combines GPS and GLONASS reception. SkyWave Mobile
Communications manufactures an Inmarsat-based satellite communications
terminal that uses both GLONASS and GPS.
With GLONASS falling rapidly into disrepair, a special-purpose federal program
named "Global Navigation System" was undertaken by the Russian government on
August 20, 2001. According to it, the GLONASS system was to be restored to
fully deployed status (i.e. 24 satellites in orbit and continuous global coverage) by
2011.
Задание I. Задайте вопросы к предложениям, начиная их словами,
предложенными в скобках.
1. GLONASS stands for GLObal NAvigation Satellite System. (What...for?)
2. GLONASS is a radio-based satellite navigation system. (What kind of…?)
3. The development of GLONASS began in 1976 in the Soviet Union. (When…?,
Where…?)
4. Satellites constellation was completed in 1995. (When…?)
5. GLONASS was initially developed for the Soviet military navigation and
ballistic missile targeting. (What …for?)
6. A fully operational GLONASS constellation consists of 24 satellites. (How
many…?)
7. The name of each satellite of the system is Uragan. (What…?)
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8. There are three generations of GLONASS satellites: Uragan, Uragan-M and
Uragan-K. (How many…?)
9. The ground control segment of GLONASS is located within former Soviet
Union territory. (Where…?)
10. According to the special- purpose federal program the GLONASS system is to
be restored to fully deployed status by 2011. (When…?)
Задание II. a) Задайте составленные вами вопросы в группе.
b) Используя эти вопросы в качестве плана, расскажите о
GLONASS
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Unit 25.
Grammar Revision
Условные предложения
Способы выражения сказуемого в условных предложениях
Тип условного
Условие
Следствие
предложения
(придаточное)
(главное)
I тип – реальное условие,
If he comes,
относится к будущему
(без if)
II тип – маловероятное
I shall be glad
If he should come,
I shall be glad
Should he come,
I shall be glad
Если он придет,
я буду рад
If he came,
I should be glad
условие, относится к настоя-
If he should come,
I should be glad
щему или будущему (форма
Should he come,
I should be glad
прошедшего времени с части-
If he were to come,
I should be glad
цей бы)
Were he to come,
I should be glad
Если бы он пришел,
я был бы рад
(сегодня, завтра)
III тип – нереальное условие,
If he had come,
I should have been glad
относится к прошедшему
Had he come,
I should have been glad
157
(форма прошедшего времени
Если бы он пришел, я был бы рад (вчера)
с частицей бы)
Союзы, вводящие условные предложения
If - если
In case – в случае
Provided (providing), on condition – при условии, в случае
Unless – если не …
But for – если бы не …
Exercise . Переведите следующие условные предложения
I.
1. If a solid body or a liquid is heated, it will usually expand.
2. The measurements were always correct provided the necessary
instruments were used.
II.
1. Providing mercury did not expand when heated, it would not be used
for taking temperatures.
2. But for electricity little could be done in a modern research laboratory.
III.
1. Provided the operator’s cabin had been equipped with electronic
control, he would have been able to work faster and with greater precision.
3. The manned spaceships might not have been launched into the cosmos
unless scientists had studied the information received from the space
satellites.
158
Nanotechnology
Найдите в словаре и запишите транскрипцию следующих слов. Правильно
прочитайте данные слова несколько раз вслух и постарайтесь запомнить их
произношение
Successful, either, precision, approach, dimension, time-consuming, thread, issue,
occur, average, flexibility, influence
Words to be learnt
to fulfill – выполнять
attempt – попытка, усилие
ultimate goal – окончательная цель
precision – точность
proof – доказательство
approach – подход, направление, способ
to strive – стараться,
simple logic gates – логичная манера поведения, образ действия
assembly – сборка, сбор
time-consuming – долговременный
three-dimensional – трёхмерный
to thread – проходить сквозь
to shrink – сжимать(ся)
feedback – обратная связь
relevant – относящийся к делу, подходящий
double-helical structure – двух-спиральная структура
strand – скрученная полоска, нить
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backbone – основа, сущность; позвоночник
to occur – получаться, случаться, происходить
adjacent bases – смежные, близлежащие основы
Text
There is already one highly successful nanotechnological system: we call it
life. All the goals of nanotechnology are already fulfilled in living systems, and
most of our attempts at nanotechnological applications can be called biomimetic,
either applying the structural principles of living systems to different compounds
or using the compounds of living systems for different purposes.
Nanotechnology can be defined as the development and use of devices that
have a characteristic size of only a few nanometers. The ultimate goal is to
fabricate devices that have every atom in the right place. Such technology would
give the opportunity to minimize the size of a device and to reduce the material,
energy and time necessary to perform its task. Potential applications include
electrical circuits, mechanical devices and medical instruments. Molecular biology
is a source of inspiration in this field of research: Living cells can synthesize a
wide variety of macromolecules with atomic precision, that all have a specific
function in the cell. This can be considered as the proof that there are no physical
laws that forbid the construction of structures with atomic precision.
Essentially, there are two approaches towards the fabrication of structures at
or near the atomic level: The first is the 'top down' approach where the precision of
existing macroscopic techniques is improved. This concept has been demonstrated
in semiconductor industry, where lithographic processes are nowadays used to
make integrated circuits with critical dimensions smaller than 100 nm. This
precision will be improved further, but true atomic precision cannot be obtained
with this approach. The second 'bottom up' approach strives to build structures
using atoms or molecules as building blocks. Most striking are experiments where
individual atoms are positioned on an atomically flat substrate using scanningprobe techniques. Patterns of atoms have even been demonstrated to act as simple
logic gates. Such scanning-probe techniques however are not very practical:
Assembly by placing a single atom at a time is a very time-consuming process.
160
A particularly interesting 'bottom up' approach is to assemble structures
from molecular building blocks. Using synthetic chemistry, large amounts of
identical building blocks can be obtained at low cost. One of the most promising
ideas is to use building blocks from living systems: The advantages are that these
molecules are intensively studied and that they can be synthesized with atomic
precision. Moreover, DNA building blocks have been used to assemble threedimensional structures from small synthetic building blocks.
This thesis describes experiments where we use silicon nanotechnology to
address the physical properties of individual molecules. A first set of experiments
probes the polymer dynamics of DNA threading through small pores. In order to
fabricate holes with a diameter on the order of the diameter of DNA we have
developed a new technique to controllably shrink larger silicon oxide pores with
direct visual feedback. We have also addressed the question whether a single DNA
molecule can carry an electrical current. This is an important issue for potential
DNA-based electronics. The last topic is electrochemistry using nanometer-scale
electrodes, fabricated using silicon processing. A standing goal is to develop the
technology to perform electrochemical experiments on a single molecule.
Most experiments in this thesis are performed on DeoxyriboNucleic Acid
(DNA). This section contains a brief review of the relevant properties of this
unique molecule. The structure and function have been intensively studied and the
basics can be found in many biological textbooks. It consists of two polymer
chains. Each monomer consists of a sugar ring, a phosphate group, and one of the
four bases Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Thymine (T) or Cytosine (C). Watson and
Crick were the first to determine the double-helical structure of DNA. They found
that DNA consists of two strands, running anti-parallel. On the outside are the
sugar-phosphate chains, also known as the 'backbone' of the molecule. On the
inside of the helix are the bases, occurring in specific pairs: Adenine (A)
specifically binds to Thymine (T) and Guanine (G) to Cytosine (C). From X-ray
diffraction experiments on fibers of DNA, Watson and Crick were able to deduce
the double helical structure.
The structure as reported by Watson and Crick became known as the 'BDNA' helix. The diameter is about 2 nm and the distance between two bases is
0.34 nm. Each 10.4 bases or 3.6 nm, DNA makes a full helical turn. The structure
is stabilized by the base-specific hydrogen bonds between the strands and the
hydrophobic interactions between adjacent bases. This B-DNA helix is the
structure for DNA with a mixed sequence at physiological conditions. It should be
161
noted that these properties are averaged over many subunits, and that the structure
can vary with temperature, buffer conditions and the local sequence of bases. An
intriguing property of double-strand DNA is its moderate flexibility: It can be
smoothly bent or twisted with very little influence on the helical properties. An
important property for our work is the fact that DNA in solution is highly charged
at neutral pH. Each phosphate group on the backbone has a negative charge,
resulting in a linear charge density of 5.9 e per nanometer. The effective charge
density however is considerably lower due to countering condensation.
Задание I. Расставьте вопросы в соответствии с содержанием текста
1. What are two approaches towards the fabrication of structures at or near the
atomic level?
2. What is the reason of development a new technique of fabrication holes
with the diameter of DNA?
3. What is important issue for potential DNA-based electronics?
4. What is the most successful nanotechnological system?
5. What is the structure of Watson and Crick stabilized by?
6. When can the structure vary?
7. What is intriguing property of double-strand DNA?
8. How can nanotechnology be defined?
9. What does DNA molecule consists of?
10. Who determined DNA as the double-helical structure?
Задание II. Задайте данные в предыдущем упражнении вопросы «по
цепочке» в группе
Задание III. Будьте готовы побеседовать по теме «Nanotechnology» с
преподавателем и с группой
162
СПИСОК НЕПРАВИЛЬНЫХ ГЛАГОЛОВ (Irregular Verbs)
Indefinite
1. to be
Past Indefinite
Participle II
was, were
been
Перевод
быть, находиться
рождать
2.to bear
bore
3.to beat
beat
beaten
4.to become
became
become
становиться
5.to begin
began
begun
начинаться
6.to break
broke
broken
ломать, разбивать
7.to bring
brought
brought
приносить
broadcast; -ed
передавать, вещать
8,to broadcast
9.to build
born
broadcast; -ed
built
бить
built
строить
10.to burn
burnt
burnt
гореть, жечь
11.to buy
bought
bought
покупать
12.to catch
caught
caught
13.to choose
chose
chosen
выбирать
14. to come
came
come
приходить
15..to cost
cost
cost
стоить
16.to cut
cut
cut
резать
17.to deal (with)
dealt (with)
dealt (with)
18.to do
did
done
19.to draw
drew
drawn
20.to dream
dreamt; -ed
dreamt; -ed
21.to drink
drank
drunk
22.to drive
drove
driven
управлять
23.to eat
ate
eaten
есть
24.to fall
fell
fallen
падать
ловить, хватать
иметь дело с
делать
рисовать, чертить
мечтать
пить
163
25.to feed
fed
fed
26.to feel
felt
felt
27.to fight
fought
fought
28.to find
found
found
кормить, питать
чувствовать
сражаться
искать, находить
летать
29.to fly
flew
flown
30.to foresee
foresaw
foreseen
предвидеть
31.to forget
forgot
forgotten
забывать
32.to freeze
froze
frozen
33.to get
got
got
34.to give
gave
given
давать
35.to go
went
gone
идти, ехать
36.to grow
grew
grown
37.to hang
hung
hung
38.to have
had
had
иметь
39.to hear
heard
heard
слышать
40.to hold
held
held
владеть
41.to keep
kept
kept
хранить
42.to know
knew
known
знать
43.to lay
laid
laid
класть
44.to lead
led
led
45.to learn
learnt; -ed
learnt; -ed
изучать
46.to leave
left
left
покидать
47.to let
let
let
позволять
48.to lie
lay
lain
лежать
49.to light
lit (lighted)
lit (lighted)
освещать
50.to lose
lost
lost
терять
51.to make
made
made
выполнять
значить
замораживать
получать
расти
висеть, вешать
приводить к
164
52,to mean
meant
meant
53.to meet
met
met
54.to overcome
overcame
overcome
55.to pay
paid
paid
встречать
преодолевать
платить
56.to put
put
put
класть
57.to read
read
read
читать
58.to ring
rang
rung
звонить
59.to rise
rose
risen
вставать
60.to run
ran
run
бежать
61.to say
said
said
сказать
62.to see
saw
seen
видеть
63.to sell
sold
sold
продавать
64.to send
sent
sent
отправлять
65.to set
set
set
66.to shine
shone
shone
67.to show
showed
shown; -ed
68.to sit
sat
sat
69.to sleep
slept
slept
70.to speak
spoke
spoken
71.to spend
spent
spent
проводить
72.to split
split
split
расщеплять
73.to spread
spread
spread
74.to stand
stood
stood
75.to strike
struck
struck
ударять
76.to swim
swam
swum
плавать
77.to take
took
taken
брать
78.to teach
taught
taught
устанавливать
блестеть
показывать
сидеть
спать
говорить
распространять
стоять
учить, обучать
165
79.to tell
told
told
80.to think
thought
thought
81.to throw
threw
thrown
82.to undergo
underwent
undergone
рассказывать
думать
бросать
подвергаться
83.to understand
understood
understood
понимать
84.to wake
woke; -ed
woken;-ed
просыпаться
85.to wear
wore
worn
86.to win
won
won
87.to withstand
withstood
withstood
88.to write
wrote
written
носить
выигрывать
противостоять
писать
166
Оглавление (Contents)
Введение
3
Unit 1. Личные местоимения. Глагол to be
5
My University and my profession.
8
Unit 2. Оборот there +be
12
The Russian Army
14
Unit 3. Глагол to have
19
The British Army
21
Unit 4. Глагол to do
25
The United States Army
27
Unit 5. Форма английского глагола
31
Radio
33
Unit 6. Времена группы Indefinite (Simple) действительного залога (Active Voice)
History of Radar
37
39
Unit 7. Времена группы Continuous (Progressive) действительного залога
Radar as a Weapon
43
46
Unit8. Времена группы Perfect (Active Voice)
Radar Components
48
53
Unit 9. Времена группы Perfect Continuous (Active Voice)
Radar Types
54
56
Unit 10. Времена группы Indefinite страдательного залога (Passive Voice)
Communication Satellite
61
63
Unit 11. Времена группы Continuous и Perfect (Passive Voice)
Military Satellite
66
68
Unit 12. Модальные глаголы
72
Laser
75
167
Unit 13. Эквиваленты модальных глаголов
Antenna
Unit 14. Имя числительное
79
82
85
Radar Antenna
Unit 15. Повелительное наклонение
Radar Receiver (part I)
Unit 16. Инфинитив
Radar Receiver (part II)
Unit 17. Герундий
Radar Receiver (part III)
Unit 18. Причастие
Optical technology
Unit 19. Словообразовательные суффиксы существительных
Internet
Unit 20. Cловообразовательные суффиксы глаголов
Cellular Communication. History
Unit 21. Cловообразовательные суффиксы прилагательных
Cellular Communication
Unit 22. Степени сравнения прилагательных и наречий
GPS
Unit 23. Сравнительные конструкции
Galileo
Unit 24. Конструкции в страдательном залоге
GLONASS
90
93
97
99
102
105
107
110
115
118
122
124
126
130
133
135
138
142
144
150
152
Unit 25. Условные предложения
156
Nanotechnology
159
Список неправильных глаголов
162