AP Language and Composition: Rhetorical Handbook Style: The manner of expression of a particular writer, produced by choice of words, grammatical structures, use of literary devices, and all the possible parts of language use. Some general styles might include scientific, ornate, plain, and emotive. Most writers have their own particular styles. Diction: An author’s choice of words. Since words have specific meanings, and since one’s choice of words can affect feelings, a writer’s choice of words can have great impact in a literary work. TERM Connotation vs. Denotation DEFINITION An idea or meaning suggested by or associated with a word or thing –vs—literal definition of a word Pedantic vs. Simple Language that is academic sounding, characterized by a narrow, often ostentatious concern for book learning and formal rules –vs—pure, easy, plain, basic language Didactic Didactic is frequently used for those literary texts which are overloaded with informative or realistic matter and are marked by the omission of graceful and pleasing details. This type of writing is typically “preachy” and EXAMPLE A good example is the word “gold.” The denotation of gold is a malleable, ductile, yellow element. The connotations, however, are the ideas associated with gold, such as greed, luxury, or avarice. Writers use connotation to make their writing more vivid and interesting to read. Pedantic: “Though I employ so much of my time in writing to you, I confess I have often had my doubts whether it is to any purpose. I know how unwelcome advice generally is; I know that those who want it most, like it and follow it least, and I know, too, that the advice of parents, more particularly, is ascribed to the moroseness, the imperiousness, or the garrulity of old age.” –Lord Chesterfield, “Letter to His Son” Simple: “In a flash, Buck knew it. The time had come. It was to the death. As they circled about, snarling, ears laid back, keenly watchful for the advantage the scenes came to Buck with a sense of familiarity.”—Jack London, Call of the Wild Examples of didactic literature include Aesop's Fables. Novels written for women in the 18th and 19th century were also often didactic, kind of like fictionalized conduct manuals. Jane Austen's Northanger Abbey, for example, is often thought of as a didactic novel since it teaches STUDENT NOTES Literal vs. Figurative Active vs. Passive Overstated vs. Understated Colloquial vs. Formal Non-Standard Slang/ Jargon dull, and may seem more targeted for erudite readers than a common audience. What you see –vs—what you get from language, tone, symbol, etc. Subject of the sentence is performing or causing the action rather than a state of being – vs—subject is the object of the action or the effect of the verb. Exaggerated vs. expressed with restraint, lack of emphasis Informal, conversational vs. formal, proper language Not adhering to the standard, usually associated with a language variety used by uneducated speakers or socially disfavored groups readers how to act like a good young lady—and read like one, too. “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” by Robert Frost is a good example of a piece that could be interpreted literally or figuratively. Example (passive): The character is described as foolish. Revision (active): Dorine describes Tartuffe as foolish. Understatement: In Shakespeare’s Macbeth, Macbeth, having murdered his friend Banquo, understates the number of people who have been murdered since the beginning of time by saying, “Blood hath been shed ere now.” Example of colloquial: Books are a load of crap. Legal jargon: affiant, indigent, ex parte Internet Slang: BTW, LOL k Syntax: The way in which linguistic elements (words and phrases) are arranged to form grammatical structure Repetition: One key element of syntax is the use of repetition—of words, phrases, and punctuation. The repetition can often have a major connection to the rhetorical purpose of the passage. Genre: A literary genre is a recognizable and established category of written work employing such common conventions as will prevent readers or audiences from mistaking it with another kind. TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE STUDENT NOTES Autobiography The biography of a person written by The Autobiography of Malcom X by Malcom that person. X Biography An account of a person’s life as John Adams by David McCullough written or told by another. Memoir Chronicle Diary Essay Fiction Nonfiction Parody Prose Satire Sermon The story of a part of a person’s life, written by that person. Unlike an autobiography, a memoir does not try to capture the person’s whole life and instead focuses on a more narrow segment of time. An extended account of historical events without interpretation or comment. A daily written record of (usually personal) experiences and observations A short literary composition on a single subject, usually presenting the personal view of the author, analytic or interpretive. A literary work based on the imagination and not necessarily on fact. A work that draws its information from history or fact, rather than the imagination A literary form in which the style of an author or particular work is mocked in its style for the sake of comic effect. Writing distinguished from poetry by its greater variety of rhythm and its closer resemblance to the patterns of everyday speech. A literary work which exposes and ridicules human vices or folly. Historically perceived as tending towards didacticism, it is usually intended as a moral criticism directed against the injustice of social wrongs. An oration by a prophet or member of the clergy. Wild by Cheryl Strayed Anglo-Saxon Chronicle The Diary of Anne Frank by Anne Frank Francis Bacon’s essays Harry Potter by JK Rowling John Adams by David McCullough The clowns in Dr. Faustus Any fiction or nonfiction is prose. Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels satirizes the English people, making them seem dwarfish in their ability to deal with large thoughts, issues, or deeds. A literary mode based on criticism of people and society through ridicule. “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” by Jonathon Edwards Stream of Consciousness Editorial A technique that records the multifarious thoughts and feelings of a character without regard to logical or narrative sequence. The writer attempts by stream of consciousness to reflect all the forces, external and internal, influencing the psychology of a character at a single moment. An article in a newspaper or other periodical or on a website presenting the opinion of the publisher, writer, or editor. “A piece of dangling driftwood caught his attention and his eyes followed it down the current. How slowly it appeared to move! What a sluggish stream!” –“Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge” by Ambrose Bierce The New York Times Editorial Board publishes editorials regularly, where the board collectively reacts/responds to a current issue and constructs an argument regarding that issue. This differs from an unbiased news article. Rhetorical Strategies: Strategies that aid the attempt to sway the mind of the audience TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE Allusion An indirect or passing reference “You must borrow me Gargantua’s mouth first. ‘Tis a word to some event, person, place, too great for any mouth of this age’s size.” –Shakespeare or artistic work, the nature and relevance of which is not explained by the writer but relies on the reader’s familiarity with what is thus mentioned Ambiguity Something of doubtful I ran all the way to the main gate, and then I waited a meaning; an expression whose second till I got my breath. I have no wind, if you want to meaning cannot be determined know the truth. I’m quite a heavy smoker, for one thing— from its context, may have that is, I used to be. They made me cut it out. Another more than one meaning thing, I grew six and a half inches last year. That’s also how I practically got t.b. and came out here for all these goddam checkups and stuff. I’m pretty healthy though. - The Catcher in the Rye, “They” and “here” are rather ambiguous words. Salinger is assuming the reader will understand “they” refers to the medical professionals in the rehab center and “here” refers to the center itself. STUDENT NOTES Anecdote Analogy Anaphora A brief account of a particular incident, a story that can be personal or observed. The presentation of two things as similar based on common attributes, often used to explain an unfamiliar subject using objects and concepts that are more familiar to an audience. Repetition of single words, phrases, and clauses at the beginning of sentences to emphasize or create urgency. Antithesis A contrast of ideas presented in parallel grammatical structure. Aphorism A brief statement which expresses an observation on life, usually intended as a wise observation Asyndeton is a writing style where conjunctions are omitted in a series of words, phrases or clauses to place emphasis and meaning equally on the listed words/ ideas. This is a form of logical construction developed by Aristotle. Logic is based on syllogism (see below). An enthymeme removes part of the syllogism focusing on the premise and conclusion. Asyndeton Enthymeme The pressures students face now are so much more than past generations. I can account for this by my own experience as a student at Northview…. I had just rounded a corner when his insouciant1 step caught my eye; there was no one else in sight. The fact of his free fall was like the old philosophical conundrum about the tree that falls in the forest. Annie Dillard Pilgrim at Timber Creek Then – in the name of democracy – let us use that power – let us all unite. Let us fight for a new world – a decent world that will give men a chance to work – that will give youth a future and old age a security. By the promise of these things, brutes have risen to power. But they lie! They do not fulfil that promise. They never will! Charlie Chaplin "Everybody doesn't like something, but nobody doesn't like Sara Lee." - Sara Lee advertising slogan. “The book of Nature is the book of Fate.” “So far as a man thinks, he is free.” --Ralph Waldo Emerson, Free "I came, I saw, I conquered" Julius Caesar Premise: Dogs are more loyal than cats. Conclusion: So you should get a dog instead of a cat. Euphemism Fallacies Hyperbole Hypotheticals A mild or indirect word or expression substituted for one considered to be too harsh or blunt when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing. A mistaken belief, especially one based on unsound argument. Gross exaggeration not to be taken literally Creating a scenario based on a theory or idea Invective Abuse (tongue-lashing, diatribe, condemnation) Juxtaposition Placing two things side by side, usually to show contrast Malapropism An incorrect usage of a word, usually with comic effect. Paradox A seemingly absurd or selfcontradictory statement or proposition that when investigated or explained may “Downsizing” instead of saying we’re making “cuts” to the staff. He “passed away” instead of he “died.” Many politicians deliberately create fallacious arguments to manipulate their audiences. There are many types: ad hominem, false analogy, red herring, slippery slope etc. “I’m so hungry, I could eat a horse.” If we shall suppose that American slavery is one of those offenses which in the providence of God must needs come but which having continued through His appointed time He now wills to remove and that He gives to both North and South this terrible war as the woe due to those by whom the offense came shall we discern therein any departure from those divine attributes which the believers in a living God always ascribe to Him. Abraham Lincoln “I cannot but conclude the bulk of your natives to be the most pernicious race of little odious vermin that nature ever suffered to crawl upon the surface of the Earth.”—Swift A juxtaposition in Romeo and Juliet occurs between the realistic, informal Mercutio and the lovesick, unrealistic Romeo. “He is the very pineapple of politeness.” “Then, sir, she should have a supercilious knowledge in accounts;--and as she grew up, I would have her instructed in geometry that she might know something of the contagious countries, and likewise that she might reprehend the true meaning of what she is saying.” –The Rivals by Sheridan “It was the best of times; it was the worst of times.” Charles Dickens Parallelism Polysyndeton Rhetorical Question Sensory Detail Shift Syllogism Tone prove to be well founded or true. Phrases placed in the same grammatical structure. A stylistic device in which several coordinating conjunctions are used in succession in order to achieve a sense that what’s being discussed goes on and on and on… A question posed by the speaker or writer not to seek an answer but instead to affirm or deny a point simply by asking a question about it. An item used to appeal to the senses (sight, taste, etc) A general term in linguistics for any slight alteration in a word’s meaning, or the creation of an entirely new word by changing the use of an expression. The base of logical construction. The writer’s attitude towards the reader and his subject; his mood or moral view. A writer can be formal, informal, playful, ironic, and especially, optimistic or pessimistic. While both Swift and Pope are "My fellow citizens: I stand here today humbled by the task before us, grateful for the trust you have bestowed, mindful of the sacrifices borne by our ancestors." -Barack Obama “And we’re going to South Dakota and Oregon and Washington and Michigan, and then we’re going to Washington, D.C. to take back the White House!” (Howard Dean, January 2004) “..For if we lose the ability to perceive our faults, what is the good of living on?” –Marcus Aurelius “Just then in the room over us/ There was a pushing back of chairs,/ As some who had sat unawares/So late, now heard the hour, and rose.” –“My Sister’s Sleep” by Dante Gabriel Rossatti You can find shifts in tone, writing style, diction style, point of view, setting, etc. All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal. The tone of Steinbeck’s short novel “Cannery Row” is nonjudgmental. Steinbeck never expresses disapproval of the antics of Mack and his band of bums. Rather, he treats them with unflagging kindness. Tone Shift Perspective Purpose Theme/Thesis Voice satirizing much the same subjects, there is a profound difference in their tone. Tone may shift throughout a work as the narrator’s perspective changes, or as the plot becomes more complex, dramatic, bizarre, etc. There also may be more than one tone that an author takes toward a work at the same time. For example, a novel can be both humorous and dark, or both sentimental and formal. The point of view of the rhetor/ speaker of the argument. There may be a shift in perspective. WHY the argument was written—what does the writer hope to achieve by writing the argument. The message conveyed in a literary work. The textual features, such as diction and sentence structure, that convey a writer or speaker’s persona. A great example of tonal shift can be seen in the Harry Potter series. JK Rowling and Harry’s attitudes toward the story changed as Harry and the audience got older. It is, therefore, often said that the tone went from “light” to “dark” as the series progressed through the seven books. The shift in tone can be seen in everything from the language to the subject matter The writer may begin writing in first person, so the perspective is personal. The writer might then shift to second or third person changing the perspective towards the audience and topic. Lincoln’s 2nd Inaugural Address is a good example. Lincoln mentions “I” once and then shifts to third person, becoming an outside observer rather than participant in the argument. One might argue that Lin Minuel Miranda’s Hamilton is a celebration of Hamilton, but WHY the black actors, why the focus on his immigrant status? Purpose pushes a little deeper than surface level understanding of argument! The theme of Shakespeare’s Othello—that jealousy destroys—is a common one. The poet Sylvia Plath’s voice, for example, might be called that of a victimized daughter, wife, and mother. Figures of Speech: Review the following devices— Analogy, apostrophe (not the punctuation mark!), cliché, hyperbole, imagery, verbal irony, situational irony, extended metaphor, paradox/oxymoron, personification, pun, simile Argument/Persuasion Terms: Methods and techniques that help the construction of an argument TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE Audience The people the author is speaking A writer might use a specific type of language to (listeners, readers, onlookers) when composing for an audience made up of teenagers. Argument A way of reasoning where a subject In Arthur Miller’s The Crucible, one of his is proved correct/incorrect arguments is that hysteria often initiates false accusations. Ethos (ethical) A rhetorical appeal to an audience “I am a husband, a father, and a taxpayer. I’ve based on the speaker/writer’s served faithfully for 20 years on the school board. credibility. I deserve your vote for city council.” Pathos (emotion) The emotional appeal to an “Bob Dole wants to hurt the elderly by cutting audience in an argument. Medicare.” Logos (rational) Rhetorical appeals based on logic “We do not have enough money to pay for or reasoning. improvements to our railroads. And without improvements, this transportation system will falter and thus hinder our economy. Therefore, we should raise taxes to pay for better railroads.” Rhetorical Occasion: The components that impact the For every argument you read, understanding the Audience/ Speaker reason for creating the argument. occasion will help deepen the understanding of (rhetor)/ context/ (exigence is a new term: it refers to the argument. exigence/ purpose what compels the rhetor to create the purpose for the argument and will be impacted by context, audience, and speaker/rhetor) Claim To make an assertion, to state as Everyone should buy a computer. true. Deductive Reasoning Reasoning that utilizes elements of All humans are mortal (major premise). I am a persuasion by asserting a claim, human (minor premise); therefore, I am mortal consists of a major premise, a (conclusion). minor premise, and a conclusion. Inductive Reasoning Reasoning that begins by citing a Fair trade agreements have raised the quality of number of specific instances or life for coffee producers, so fair trade agreements examples and then shows how could be used to help other farmers, as well. collectively they constitute a general principle. Line of reasoning The formal structure or Deductive and Inductive reasoning are examples arrangement of an argument. In of types of lines of reasoning. STUDENT NOTES other words, the way that claims and reasons are arranged to lead to the conclusion Evidence/Data Warrant Counterargument Support from a claim/assertion An assumption that there is a connection between evidence and claim. A direct opposing argument to the argument created. Concession An acknowledgement that an argument has value, but there is validity in your argument too. Rebuttal A refutation of an argument presented. Good jobs require technological proficiency. Getting left behind by the technological revolution is bad for everyone. Many argue that you have a right to choose to vaccinate or not, but when the health of a community relies on everyone vaccinating, your right to choose no longer matters. The right to choose is part of the rights of being American. However, when an entire community is affected by a sweeping pandemic that right to choose should be for the benefit of others and thus we should all vaccinate. A rebuttal is often introduced by words like “but” and “however.” While many people have argued that women’s soccer does not bring in enough fans and thus women should not receive equal pay, the recent EUFA final between England and Germany would indicate that this argument is no longer value. Wembley Stadium was at capacity with only 8 seats that were not sold…etc! Modes of Rhetoric: Manner of expressing language TERM DEFINITION Expository: Informs, 1. Classification: Identifies the subject as instructs, or presents part of a larger group with shared features ideas and general truths. 2. Cause/Effect: Arguing from the presence/ absence of the cause of the (non)existence Some major types: of the result 1. Classification EXAMPLE 1. An essay describing how Poe’s writing could be classified as Dark Romantic. 2. An essay evaluating how the historical context affected the writing style of a particular author. STUDENT NOTES 2. Cause and Effect 3. Comparison and Contrast 4. Definition 3. Compare/Contrast: The subject is shown more clearly by pointing out similarities/differences 4. Defining the writing style of an author. 4. Definition: Places the subject in a group and then differentiates the subject from other sections of the group. 5. Analysis Description Narration Persuasion/Argument 3. An essay comparing and contrasting the writing style of two authors. 5. Analysis: The discussion of a subject based on content and style. Depicts images verbally in space and time, arranges those images in a logical pattern Organizes the events or actions in time or relates them in space. Tells what happened, when it happened, and where. Convinces an audience by proving or refuting a point of view using induction or deduction. Portions of the above definitions and examples came from the following websites: --cfl/eghsap/apterms --wikipedia --wordnet/Princeton --dictionary.reference 5. An essay that analyzes an excerpt or piece from a particular author. An essay describing the appearance of something. An actual story with plot, climax, and resolution. A piece (pamphlet, article, etc) persuading the reader to vote for a particular candidate. --educationplanner --uttyler.edu/meidenmuller --bedfordstmartins.com --tnellen --rwc.hunter.cuny.edu
