Education is the transmission of knowledge, skills, and character traits. There are many debates
about its precise definition, for example, about which aims it tries to achieve. A further issue is
whether part of the meaning of education is that the change in the student is an improvement.
Some researchers stress the role of critical thinking to distinguish education from indoctrination.
These disagreements affect how to identify, measure, and improve forms of education. The
term can also refer to the mental states and qualities of educated people. Additionally, it can
mean the academic field studying education.
There are many types of education. Formal education happens in a complex institutional
framework, like public schools. Non-formal education is also structured but happens outside the
formal schooling system. Informal education is unstructured learning through daily experiences.
Formal and non-formal education are divided into levels. They include early childhood
education, primary education, secondary education, and tertiary education. Other classifications
focus on the teaching method, like teacher-centered and student-centered education. Forms of
education can also be distinguished by subject, like science education, language education, and
physical education.
Education socializes children into society by teaching cultural values and norms. It equips them
with the skills needed to become productive members of society. This way, it stimulates
economic growth and raises awareness of local and global problems. Organized institutions
affect many aspects of education. For example, governments set education policies. They
determine when school classes happen, what is taught, and who can or must attend.
International organizations, like UNESCO, have been influential in promoting primary education
for all children.
Many factors influence whether education is successful. Psychological factors include
motivation, intelligence, and personality. Social factors, like socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and
gender, are often linked to discrimination. Further factors include educational technology,
teacher quality, and parent involvement.
The main field investigating education is called education studies. It examines what education is
and what aims it has. It also studies how it happens, what effects it has, and how to improve it. It
has many subfields, like philosophy of education, psychology of education, sociology of
education, economics of education, and comparative education. It also discusses the history of
education. In prehistory, education happened informally through oral communication and
imitation. With the rise of ancient civilizations, writing was invented, and the amount of
knowledge grew. This caused a shift from informal to formal education. Initially, formal
education was mainly available to elites and religious groups. The invention of the printing press
in the 15th century made books more widely available. This increased general literacy.
Beginning in the 18th and 19th centuries, public education became more important. It led to the
worldwide process of making primary education available to all, free of charge, and compulsory
up to a certain age.
Definitions
Main article: Definitions of education
The definition of education has been explored by theorists from various fields.[1][2][3] Many
agree that education is a purposeful activity aimed at achieving certain goals, which include the
transmission of knowledge, skills, and character traits.[4][1][5] However, there is extensive
debate regarding its exact nature beyond these general features. Some theorists view education
primarily as a process that occurs during educational events such as schooling, teaching, and
learning.[6][7][2] Others perceive it not as a process but as the product resulting from this
process, emphasizing the mental states and dispositions of educated persons.[6][7][2]
Additionally, the term may also refer to an academic field that studies the methods, processes,
and social institutions involved in teaching and learning.[7] The term "education" is derived from
the Latin words educare, meaning "bring up, rear, educate", primarily related to the mind, and
educere, meaning "bring out, lead forth", and refers to the bodily level.[8]
Some theorists provide precise definitions by identifying the specific features that are exclusive
to all forms of education. R. S. Peters, for instance, outlines three essential features for
education:[9][10][1]
It is concerned with the transmission of knowledge and understanding.
This transmission is worthwhile.
It is done in a morally appropriate manner in tune with the student's interests.[9][10][1]
Such precise definitions often succeed at characterizing the most typical forms of education. But
they are criticized because there are counterexamples.[10][11][2] These difficulties have led
some theorists to develop less precise concepts. Some of them are based on family
resemblance. This means that all the forms of education are similar to each other. But they
need not share a set of essential features that all of them have in common.[1][12][13] Some
theorists claim that the term "education" is context-dependent. This implies that its meaning
varies depending on the situation in which it is used.[2] Having a clear idea of what the term
means is important to correctly identify forms of education. It also matters when trying to
measure or improve them.[14][15][16]
There is disagreement in the academic literature on whether education is an evaluative concept.
This means that being good in some sense is part of the definition of education. So-called thick
definitions affirm this. They may claim, for example, that an improvement of the learner is a
requirement of education. Different thick definitions may still disagree among themselves on
what kind of improvement is needed. Thin definitions, on the other hand, try to give a valueneutral account of education.[15][17] A closely related distinction is that between descriptive and
prescriptive conceptions. Descriptive conceptions aim to describe how the term is actually used
by regular speakers. Prescriptive conceptions try to express what good education is or how it
should be done.[4][18]
Many thick and prescriptive conceptions rely on the aims of education to explain their view. This
means that they see education as an activity that tries to achieve certain aims.[19][20][21]
These aims can be classified into different categories. There is one category for epistemic
goods, like knowledge and understanding. Another category covers skills, like rationality and
critical thinking. Additionally, there are character traits, like kindness and honesty.[15]
Some theorists focus on a single overarching purpose of education and see the more specific
aims as means to this end.[22][20] For example, they may claim that socialization is the aim of
education. This means that education is seen as the process of transmitting accumulated
knowledge from one generation to the next. This process helps the student to function in society
as a regular citizen.[4][23][2] More person-centered definitions focus on the well-being of the
student instead. For them, education is a process that helps them lead a good life or the life
they wish to lead.[4][22][2] Various scholars stress critical thinking to distinguish education from
indoctrination.[20][21][24] For them, mere indoctrination is only interested in instilling beliefs in
the student, independent of whether they are rational.[20][19] Education, on the other hand,
should also foster the rational ability to critically reflect on those beliefs and question them.[25]
But some theorists contend that some forms of indoctrination may be necessary in the early
stages of education. It may be needed until the child's mind is sufficiently developed.[20]
Education can be characterized from the teacher's or the student's perspective. Teachercentered definitions focus on the perspective and role of the teacher. They may claim, for
example, that education is the transmission of knowledge and skills in a morally appropriate
way.[26][2][9] Student-centered definitions, on the other hand, see education from the student's
experience in the learning process. For example, they may define it as a process that
transforms and enriches their subsequent experience.[27][10][28] Definitions taking both
perspectives into account are also possible. This can take the form of describing the process as
the shared experience of a common world. This shared experience involves discovery as well
as posing and solving problems.[10][26][29]
Types
There are many classifications of education. It depends on the institutional framework whether
education is formal, non-formal, or informal. Levels of education are distinguished based on
factors like the student's age and the complexity of the content. Some classifications focus on
the learner or the topic. Others rely on the teaching method, the medium used, or the
funding.[30]
Formal, non-formal, and informal
Photo of a tutoring lesson
Photo of father and daughter cooking
Tutoring is an example of non-formal education while learning how to cook from ones parents
belongs to informal education.
Education is often divided into types. The most common division is between formal, non-formal,
and informal education.[31] However, some theorists only distinguish between formal and
informal education.[32] Formal education happens in a complex institutional framework. Such
frameworks have a chronological and hierarchical order. For instance, the modern schooling
system has classes based on the student's age and progress, all the way from primary school to
university. Formal education is usually controlled and guided by the government. It is normally
compulsory up to a certain age.[33][34]
Non-formal and informal education take place outside the formal schooling system. Non-formal
education is a middle ground. Like formal education, it is organized, systematic, and carried out
with a clear purpose in mind. Examples are tutoring, fitness classes, and the scouting
movement.[35] Informal education, on the other hand, happens in an unsystematic way through
daily experiences and exposure to the environment. Unlike formal and non-formal education,
there is usually no designated authority figure responsible for teaching.[36] Informal education is
present in many settings. It happens throughout one's life, mostly in a spontaneous way. This is
how children learn their mother tongue from their parents or how people learn to prepare a dish
by cooking together.[33][34][2]
Some theorists distinguish the three types based on the location of learning. Formal education
takes place in school. Informal education occurs in places of everyday routines. Non-formal
education happens in places that are occasionally visited.[36] There are also differences in the
source of motivation. Formal education is mainly driven by extrinsic motivation for external
rewards. Non-formal and informal education are closely linked to intrinsic motivation because
the learning itself is enjoyed.[36] The distinction between the three types is normally clear for
the typical cases. But some forms of education do not easily fall into one category.[33][36]
Formal education plays a central role in modern civilization. But in primitive cultures, most of the
education happened on the informal level.[23][37][38] This usually means that there is no
distinction between activities focused on education and other activities. Instead, the whole
environment acts as a form of school and most adults act as teachers. However, informal
education is often not efficient enough to pass on large quantities of knowledge. To do so, a
formal setting and well-trained teachers are usually required. This was one of the reasons why
in the course of history, formal education became more and more important. In this process, the
experience of education became more abstract and removed from daily life. More emphasis
was put on grasping general patterns instead of observing and imitating behavior.[23][37]
Levels
Types of education are often divided into levels or stages. The most influential framework is the
International Standard Classification of Education. It is maintained by the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). It covers both formal and nonformal education. It distinguishes levels based on the student's age, the duration of learning,
and the complexity of the discussed content. Further criteria include entry requirements, teacher
qualifications, and the intended outcome of successful completion. The levels are grouped
together into early childhood education (level 0), primary education (level 1), secondary
education (levels 2-3), post-secondary non-tertiary education (level 4), and tertiary education
(levels 5-8).[39][40][41]
photo of a kindergarten lesson in Japan
Young children in a kindergarten in Japan
Early childhood education is also known as preschool education or nursery education. It is the
stage of education that begins with birth and lasts until the start of primary school. It follows the
holistic aim of fostering early child development at the physical, mental, and social levels. It
plays a key role in socialization and personality development. It includes various basic skills in
the areas of communication, learning, and problem-solving. This way, it prepares children for
their entry into primary education.[42]
Primary (or elementary) education usually starts at the age of five to seven and lasts for four to
seven years. It does not have any further entry requirements. Its main goal is to teach the basic
skills in the fields of reading, writing, and mathematics. But it also covers the core knowledge in
other fields, like history, geography, the sciences, music, and art. A further aim is to foster
personal development.[43][39][44] Today, primary education is compulsory in almost all
countries. Over 90% of all primary-school-age children worldwide attend primary school.[45]
Secondary education is the stage of education following primary education. It usually covers the
ages of 12 to 18 years. It is commonly divided into lower secondary education (middle school or
junior high school) and upper secondary education (high school, senior high school, or college
depending on the country). Lower secondary education normally has the completion of primary
school as its entry requirement. It aims to extend and deepen the learning outcomes. It is more
strongly focused on subject-specific curricula and teachers are specialized in only one or a few
specific subjects. One of its aims is to familiarize students with the basic theoretical concepts in
these fields. This helps create a solid basis for lifelong learning. In some cases, it also includes
vocational training.[39][46][47] In many countries, it is the last stage of compulsory
education.[48][49]
A high-school senior (twelfth grade) classroom in Calhan, Colorado, United States
Upper secondary education aims to provide students with the skills and knowledge needed for
employment or tertiary education. Its requirement is usually the completion of lower secondary
education. Its subjects are more varied and complex. The students can often choose between a
few subjects. Its successful completion is commonly tied to a formal qualification in the form of a
high school diploma.[39][50][51] There are some types of education after secondary education
that do not belong to tertiary education. They are often similar in complexity to secondary
education. But they tend to focus more on vocational training to prepare students for the job
market.[52][53]
photo of students in a laboratory at the Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University
Students in a laboratory, Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University
Tertiary education is also referred to as higher education. It expands upon the foundations of
secondary education but has a more narrow and in-depth focus on a specific field or subject. Its
completion leads to an academic degree. It can be divided into four levels: short-cycle tertiary,
Bachelor's, Master's, and doctoral level education. They often form a hierarchical structure with
later levels depending on the completion of previous levels.[54][39][55]
Short-cycle tertiary education focuses on practical matters. It includes advanced vocational and
professional training to prepare students for the job market in specialized
professions.[56][39][57] Bachelor's level education is also referred to as undergraduate
education. It tends to be longer than short-cycle tertiary education. It is usually offered by
universities and results in an intermediary academic certification in the form of a Bachelor's
degree.[58][39][59] Master's level education is more specialized than undergraduate education.
Many programs require independent research in the form of a Master's thesis as a requirement
for successful completion.[60][39][61] Doctoral level education leads to an advanced research
qualification, normally in the form of a doctor's degree. It usually requires the submission of a
substantial academic work, such as a dissertation.[62][39][63]
Others
Many other types of education are discussed in the academic literature, like the distinction
between traditional and alternative education. Traditional education concerns long-established
and mainstream schooling practices. It uses teacher-centered education and takes place in a
well-regulated school environment. Regulations cover many aspects of education, such as the
curriculum and the timeframe when classes start and end.[64][65]
Image of a homeschooling lesson
Homeschooling is one form of alternative education.
Alternative education is an umbrella term for forms of schooling that differ from the mainstream
traditional approach. For example, they may use a different learning environment, teach
different subjects, or promote a different teacher-student relationship. Alternative schooling is
characterized by voluntary participation, relatively small class and school sizes, and
personalized instruction. This often results in a more welcoming and emotionally safe
atmosphere. It encompasses many types like charter schools and special programs for
problematic or gifted children. It also includes homeschooling and unschooling. For instance,
Montessori schools, Waldorf schools, and Round Square schools are alternative schools.
Further examples are Escuela Nueva schools, free schools, and democratic schools.[66]
Alternative education also includes indigenous education. It focuses on the transmission of
knowledge and skills from an indigenous heritage. Its method gives more emphasis to narration
and storytelling.[67][68][69]
Other distinctions are based on who receives education. Categories by the age of the learner
are childhood education, adolescent education, adult education, and elderly
education.[70][71][72] Special education is education that is specifically adapted to meet the
unique needs of students with disabilities. It covers various forms of impairments on the
intellectual, social, communicative, and physical levels. It aims to overcome the challenges
posed by these impairments. This way, it provides the affected students with access to an
appropriate education. When understood in the broadest sense, it also includes education for
very gifted children who need adjusted curricula to reach their fullest potential.[73][74][75]
Some classifications focus on the teaching method. In teacher-centered education, for example,
the teacher takes center stage in providing students with information. It contrasts with student-
centered education, in which students take on a more active and responsible role in shaping
classroom activities.[76] For conscious education, learning and teaching happen with a clear
purpose in mind. Unconscious education, on the other hand, occurs on its own without being
consciously planned or guided.[77] This may happen in part through the personality of teachers
and adults. Their personality can have indirect effects on the development of the student's
personality.[78]
Autodidacticism or self-education is self-directed learning. It happens without the guidance of
teachers and institutions. It mainly occurs in adult education. It is characterized by the freedom
to choose what and when to study. For this reason, it can be a more fulfilling learning
experience. However, the lack of structure and guidance can result in aimless learning. Due to
the absence of external feedback, autodidacts may develop false ideas and inaccurately assess
their learning progress.[79] It is closely related to lifelong education, which is an ongoing
learning process throughout a person's entire life.[80][81]
Forms of education can also be categorized by the subject and the medium used. Types based
on the subject include science education, language education, art education, religious
education, and physical education.[82][83][84] Special mediums, such as radio or websites, are
usually used in distance education. Examples include e-learning (use of computers), m-learning
(use of mobile devices), and online education. They often take the form of open education, in
which the courses and materials are made available with a minimal amount of barriers. They
contrast with regular classroom or onsite education.[85]
A further distinction is based on the type of funding. Public education is also referred to as state
education. It is education funded and controlled by the government. It is available to the general
public. It normally does not require tuition fees and is thus a form of free education. It contrasts
with private education, which is funded and managed by private institutions. Private schools
often have a more selective admission process. Many offer paid education by charging tuition
fees.[86] A more detailed classification focuses on the social institution responsible for
education. It includes categories for institutions like family, school, civil society, state, and
church.[87][88]
Compulsory education is education that people are legally required to receive. It concerns
mainly children who need to visit school up to a certain age. It contrasts with voluntary
education, which people pursue by personal choice without a legal requirement.[89][90][91]
Evidence-based education uses well-designed scientific studies to determine which methods of
education work best. Its goal is to maximize the effectiveness of educational practices and
policies. This is achieved by ensuring that they are informed by the best available empirical
evidence. It includes evidence-based teaching, evidence-based learning, and school
effectiveness research.[92][93][94]
Role in society
Education plays various roles in society, including in social, economic, and personal fields. On a
social level, education makes it possible to establish and sustain a stable society. It helps
people acquire the basic skills needed to interact with their environment and fulfill their needs
and desires. In modern society, this involves a wide range of skills like being able to speak,
read, and write as well as to solve problems and to perform basic arithmetic tasks. It also
includes the ability to handle information and communications technology. Children are
socialized into society by acquiring these skills. Another key part of socialization is to learn how
to live in social groups and interact with others by coming to understand social and cultural
norms and expectations. This requires an understanding of what kinds of behavior are
considered appropriate in different contexts. This way, new members are introduced to the
culture, norms, and values that are dominant in their society. Socialization happens throughout
life but is of special relevance to early childhood education. It enables a form of social cohesion,
stability, and peace needed for people to productively engage in their daily business. Education
plays a key role in democracies by increasing civic participation in the form of voting and
organizing and through its tendency to promote equal opportunity for all.[95]
A further issue is to enable people to become productive members of society by learning how to
contribute to it. Through education, individuals acquire the technical and analytical skills needed
to pursue their profession, produce goods, and provide services to others. In early societies,
there was little specialization and each child would generally learn most of the tasks relevant to
help their group. Modern societies are increasingly complex and many professions are only
mastered by relatively few people who receive specialized training in addition to general
education. Some of the skills and tendencies learned to function in society may conflict with
each other and their value depends on the context of their usage. For example, fostering a
questioning mind is necessary to develop the ability of critical thinking but in some cases,
obedience to an authority is required to ensure social stability.[96][97][98]
By helping people become productive members of society, education can stimulate economic
growth and reduce poverty. It helps workers become more skilled and thereby increases the
quality of the produced goods and services, which in turn leads to prosperity and increased
competitiveness.[99] In this regard, public education is often understood as a long-term
investment to benefit society as a whole. The rate of return is especially high for investments in
primary education.[100][97] Besides increasing economic prosperity, it can also lead to
technological and scientific advances as well as decrease unemployment while promoting social
equity.[101]
Education can prepare a country to adapt to changes and successfully face new challenges. For
example, it can help raise awareness and contribute to the solution of contemporary global
problems. Examples are climate change and sustainability as well as the widening inequalities
between the rich and the poor.[102][103][104] By making students aware of how their lives and
actions affect others, it may inspire some to work toward realizing a more sustainable and fair
world.[105] This way, education serves not just the purpose of reproducing society as it is but
can also be an instrument of development by realizing social transformation to improve
society.[106] This applies also to changing circumstances in the economic sector. For example,
due to technological advances and increased automation, many jobs may be lost in the coming
decades.[107] This may render currently taught skills and knowledge redundant while shifting
the importance to other areas. Education can be used to prepare people for such changes by
adjusting the curriculum. This way, subjects involving digital literacy and skills in handling new
technologies can be promoted.[108][109][110] Another example is online education in the form
of massive open online courses.[111]
On a more individual level, education promotes personal development. This can include factors
such as learning new skills, developing talents, fostering creativity, and increasing selfknowledge as well as improving problem-solving and decision-making abilities.[112][113] It
further has positive effects on health and well-being.[114] While education is of high relevance
in childhood, it does not end with adulthood and continues throughout life. This phenomenon is
known as lifelong learning. It is of specific significance in contemporary society due to the rapid
changes on many levels and the need for people to adjust to them.[115][116][117]
The social importance of education is recognized in the annual International Day of Education
on January 24. The year 1970 was declared International Education Year.[118][119]
Role of institutions
photo of a sign of the Beijing Normal University
Beijing Normal University, which is governed directly by the Chinese Ministry of Education, is an
example of collaboration between different entities in the education sector.
Organized institutions play a key role for various aspects of education. Institutions like schools,
universities, teacher training institutions, and ministries of education make up the education
sector. They interact both with each other and with other stakeholders, such as parents, local
communities, and religious groups. Further stakeholders are NGOs, professionals in healthcare,
law enforcement, media platforms, and political leaders. Many people are directly involved in the
education sector. They include students, teachers, and school principals as well as school
nurses and curriculum developers.[120][121]
Many aspects of formal education are regulated by the policies of governmental institutions.
They determine at what age children need to attend school and at what times classes are held
as well as issues pertaining to the school environment, like infrastructure. Regulations also
cover the exact requirements for teachers and how they are trained. An important aspect of
education policy concerns the curriculum used for teaching at schools, colleges, and
universities. A curriculum is a planned sequence of instructions or a program of learning that
intends to guide the experience of learners to achieve the aims of education. The topics are
usually selected based on their importance and depend on the type of school. For example, the
goals of public school curricula are usually to offer a comprehensive and well-rounded
education while vocational trainings focus more on specific practical skills within a field. The
curricula also cover various aspects besides the topic to be discussed, such as the teaching
method, the objectives to be reached, and the standards for assessing progress. By determining
the curricula, governmental institutions have a strong impact on what knowledge and skills are
transmitted to the students.[122]
International organizations also play a key role in education. For example, UNESCO is an
intergovernmental organization that promotes education in many ways. One of its activities is to
advocate education policies. One example is the treaty UNCRC. It states that education is a
human right of all children and young people. Another is the Education for All initiative. It aimed
to offer basic education to all children, adolescents, and adults by the year 2015. It was later
replaced by the initiative Sustainable Development Goals as goal 4.[123] Related policies
include the Convention against Discrimination in Education and the Futures of Education
initiative.[124][125]
Some influential organizations are not intergovernmental but non-governmental. For example,
the International Association of Universities promotes the exchange of colleges and universities
around the world. The International Baccalaureate offers international diploma
programs.[126][127][128] Many institutions, like the Erasmus Programme, facilitate student
exchanges between countries.[129]
Factors of educational success
Many factors influence educational achievement. They include psychological factors, which
concern the student as an individual, and sociological factors, which pertain to the student's
social environment. Further factors include access to educational technology, teacher quality,
and parent involvement. Many of these factors overlap and influence each other.[130]
Psychological
On a psychological level, relevant factors include motivation, intelligence, and personality.[131]
Motivation is the internal force propelling people to engage in learning.[132][133][134] Motivated
students are more likely to interact with the content to be learned by participating in classroom
activities like discussions, which often results in a deeper understanding of the subject. It can
also help students overcome difficulties and setbacks. An important distinction is between
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsically motivated students are driven by an interest in the
subject and the learning experience itself. Extrinsically motivated students seek external
rewards. They may strive for good grades and recognition by their peers. It is often claimed that
intrinsic motivation is more beneficial by leading to increased creativity and engagement as well
as long-term commitment.[135] Educational psychologists try to discover how to increase
motivation. This can be achieved by encouraging some competition among students. Another
factor is to balance positive and negative feedback in the form of praise and criticism.[132][136]
Intelligence is another important factor in how people respond to education. It is a mental quality
linked to the ability to learn from experience, to understand, and to employ knowledge and skills
to solve problems. Those who have higher scores in intelligence metrics tend to perform better
at school and go on to higher levels of education.[137] Intelligence is often primarily associated
with the so-called IQ, a standardized numerical metric for assessing intelligence. However, it
has been argued that there different types of intelligences pertaining to distinct areas. According
to Howard Gardner, some affect the areas of mathematics, logic, and spatial cognition. Others
concern language and music. There are also distinct types for interacting with other people and
with oneself. These forms are largely independent of each other. This means that someone may
excel at one type while scoring low on another.[138][139]
A closely related factor concerns learning styles. A learning style is a preferred form of acquiring
knowledge and skills. For example, students with an auditory learning style find it easy to follow
spoken lectures and discussions while visual learners benefit if information is presented visually
in diagrams and videos. For efficient learning, it is often beneficial to include a wide variety of
learning modalities.[140][141][142] The learner's personality may also affect educational
achievement. For example, the features of conscientiousness and openness to experience from
the Big Five personality traits are linked to academic success.[143] Further mental factors
include self-efficacy, self-esteem, and metacognitive abilities.[131][144]
Sociological
Unlike psychological factors, sociological factors focus not on the mental attributes of learners
but on their social status and environment. They include socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and
cultural background as well as gender. They are of interest to researchers since they are
associated with inequality and discrimination. For this reason, they play a key role in policymaking in attempts to mitigate their effects.[145]
Socioeconomic status depends on income but includes other factors as well, such as financial
security, social status, and social class as well as quality of life attributes. Low socioeconomic
status affects educational success in various ways. It is linked to slower cognitive developments
in language and memory and higher dropout rates. Poor families may not have enough money
to invest in educational resources like stimulating toys, books, and computers. Additionally, they
may be unable to afford tuition at prestigious schools and are more likely to attend schools in
poorer areas. Such schools tend to offer lower standards of teaching, for example, because of
teacher shortages or because they lack educational materials and facilities, like libraries. Poor
parents may also be unable to afford private lessons if their children lack behind. Students from
a low socioeconomic status often have less access to information on higher education and may
face additional difficulties in securing and repaying student loans. Low socioeconomic status
also has many indirect negative effects because it is linked to lower physical and mental health.
Due to these factors, social inequalities on the level of the parents are often reproduced in the
children.[146][147][148]
Ethnic background is linked to cultural differences and language barriers, which make it more
difficult for students to adapt to the school environment and follow classes. Additional factors
are explicit and implicit biases and discrimination toward ethnic minorities. This may affect the
students' self-esteem and motivation as well as their access to educational opportunities. For
example, teachers may hold stereotypical views even if they are not overtly racist, which can
lead them to grade comparable performances differently based on the child's ethnicity.[149]
Historically, gender has been a central factor in education since the roles of males and females
were defined differently in many societies. Education tended to strongly favor males, who were
expected to provide for the family. Females, on the other hand, were expected to manage the
household and rear children, which severely hampered the educational opportunities available
to them. And while these inequalities have improved in most modern societies, there are still
gender differences in education. Among other things, this concerns biases and stereotypes
linked to the role of gender in education. An example is that subjects like science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics are often presented as male fields. This discourages female
students to follow them.[150][151][152]
One aspect of many social factors is given by the expectations associated with stereotypes. On
the one hand, they work on an external level based on how people react to a person belonging
to a certain group. On the other hand, they also affect the internal level because the person
internalizes them and acts accordingly. In this sense, the expectations may turn into self-fulfilling
prophecies by causing the educational outcomes they anticipate. This can happen both for
positive and for negative stereotypes.[153][154]
Technology and others
Technology plays another significant role in educational success. Educational technology is
commonly associated with the use of modern digital devices, like computers. But understood in
the broadest sense, it involves a wide range of resources and tools for learning, including basic
aids that do not involve the use of machines, like regular books and worksheets.[155][156]
photo of a group of children being introduced to a laptop
The OLPC laptop being introduced to children in Haiti
Educational technology can benefit learning in various ways. In the form of media, it often takes
the role of the primary supplier of information in the classroom. This means that the teacher can
focus their time and energy on other tasks, like planning the lesson and guiding students as well
as assessing educational performance.[155] It can also make information easier to understand,
for example, by presenting it using graphics and videos rather than through mere text. In this
regard, interactive elements may be used to make the learning experience more engaging, for
example, in the form of educational games. Technology can be employed to make educational
materials accessible to many people, like when using online resources. It additionally facilitates
collaboration between students and communication with teachers.[157][158][159] Lack of
educational technology is an issue specifically in various developing countries and many efforts
are made to address it, like the One Laptop per Child initiative.[160][161][162]