The historical and geographical context
●
The Spartans were Dorians, a warlike tribe of people, who entered Greece from the north about 1100
BC
●
By the 10th century BC, there were five Doric villages in the Eurotas River Valley of Laconia, in the
south eastern Peloponnese: Pilana, Limnai, Mesoa, Kynosaura and Amyklai
●
The first four villages join together in the 9th century to form the polis of Sparta, By 750 BC, Amyklai,
the southernmost of the five original settlements, also became part of this union of villages
●
Other Dorians in Lacio were the perioikoi - who were made politically subordinate to the Spartans
●
The Spartans enslave the original non Dorian inhabitants of Laconia as helots
●
The most notable features of Laconia were the Eurotas river and its fertile valley and the mountain
barriers that hemmed in the river valley on the west, east and north.
●
Sparta was located on the western side of the Eurotas river, at the head of a plain where a spur of the
Arcadian mountains approached the city
●
Although the Eurotas river was bit navigable in its southern section, the port of Gytheon provided
Sparta with some direct contact with settlements in the eastern Mediterranean
●
The river provided the Spartans with a route to other parts of the Peloponnese, spartans could link up
with two other river systems systems: the Alpheus led to Olympia, and the Pamissos flowed down into
the fertile plain of Messenia, described by the poet Tyrtaeus as ‘good to plough and good to sow’.
●
To the west, the valley was dominated by Mt Taygetus, rising 2407 metres. The thickly forest peaks and
gorges of ranks, full of wildlife, were the Spartans hunting grounds - often covered in snow in winter
●
To the east were the high limestone Parnon Ranges, with Mount Parnon rising to a height of 1839
metres and dropping to the river in a line of red hills.
●
Rich agricultural lands of Laconia produced barley, wheat, olives, grapes and figs
●
Bees were kept, Sparta was renowned for its honey
●
Spartans bred horses and raised flocks of sheep and goats, producing fine Spartan wool and goats’
milk cheese
●
They kept pigs for their meat and the hides of their livestock were tanned and made into leather
●
The mountain forest of Taygetus provided timber, wildboar, venison and marble and limestone
●
Coastline around the port of Gytheon provided the Spartans with fish and seafood
●
The Murex molluscs, from which the famous purple-red dye was made, were harvested in great
numbers along the Laconian Gulf. This Murex dye was used to colour the Spartans’ distinctive cloaks.
●
There was a plentiful supply of clay for pottery, as well as iron ore.
Site of Sparta
● Sparta was a collection of rural communities scattered over a number of hills, and for most of its history
●
was never enclosed by a fortified wall as the surrounding mountains served that purpose
●
The Temple of Artemis Orthia was located between the village of Limnai and the Eurotas River
●
The Shrine of menelaus and Helen was four kilometres from Sparta
●
The sanctuary of Apollo at Amyklai was on a hilltop five kilometres south of Sparta
●
In the 5th century BC, Thucydides said that if Sparta was ever deserted with just temples remaining,
people would find it hard to believe it had ever been as powerful as represented
●
Pausianius : In the centre of the city he mentioned that the agora (market place) – situated on a terrace
●
– once had monumental buildings that dated from the 6th and 5th centuries BC, and that there was a
building known as a skias (canopy), the Persian Colonnade or Stoa built after the Persian Wars – one
of 20 colonnades identified by him – and even the chorus or dancing place where performances
occurred during festivals.
●
He also identified two gymnasia.
●
He described, in varying detail, some of the 63 temples, sanctuaries or sacred areas he identified and
mentioned 24 statues of gods and Olympian victors; 20 hero shrines; seven ancient cult statues;
Social structure and political organisation
The Great Rhetra : the issue of Lycurgus
The Great Rhetra
● The Great Rhetra was a series of political and legal reforms enacted in the early days of Sparta
(roughly 7th century BCE) supposedly introduced by the lawgiver Lycrugus - it was the foundation of
Spartan constitution
●
The term Rhetra means a declaration reflecting the oral tradition of the Spartans and their laws, based
on the tellings of the oracles (a priest or priestess who acts as a medium through whom advice or
prophecy could be sort from the gods and goddesses)
●
In the case of the Spartan Rhetrait came from the Delphic oracle which was then brought back to
Sparta by Lycurgus
●
The great Rhetra established the concept of Eunomia, or good order and transformed Spartan society
at the time as they began to adopt a more militaristic outlook
●
The Great Rhetra impacted the economic, political and social systems of Sparta
Economic system
Political system
Social system
Helots and perioikoi labour would
free Spartiates to become full time
soldiers.
Spartan citizens did not work, and
were discouraged from pursuing
luxury
Mixed constitution consisted of:
- Dual kingship
- Ephorate
- Gerousia
- Ekklesia
State ethos of militarism, courage,
comradeship, and obedience
taught and maintained through:
- Agoge
- Syssitia
- Hoplite training and service
The Issue of Lycurgus
● There is a possibility that Lycurgus was a mythological character, nevertheless he is one of the most
influential Spartans to walk
●
Lycurgus believers estimated he lived somewhere between the 9th and 7th century BCE
●
He was the Lawgiver of Sparta, and Spartans credit him with the significant role of setting up most of
Sparta’s political and social institutions
●
Some have suggested that we no one single person, rather a representation of a series of initiatives
that revolutionised the Spartan and legal system over time
●
Historians debate ether he was real
●
Ancient historians Aristotle, Herodotus and Xenephon do not entertain the possibility that was anything
less than a real spartan politician, each detailing an account of the way in which he handed frown the
Great Rhetra after consulting the Delphic Oracle
●
Modern historians W.G Forrest and A. Andrewes don't completely discount the possibility that Lycurgus
may have been a real person, suggesting that he was possibly even a mythological figure
Roles and Privileges of the two kings
●
This dual kingship originated early in Sparta’s history, when the two Peloponnesian tribes joined
together during the 9th century BCE. In order to keep both tribes happy, the kings of both communities
were made joint rulers
●
The two kings came from two different families – the Agiads and the Eurypontids, both of whom could
supposedly trace their heritage back to the god Heracles
●
The first born son would become the successor and if there was no son the closest male relative would
gain the title
●
Spartan kings were not above the law, and could be tried and even replaced if they were convicted of a
crime against Spartan people, such as King Agis IV, who was put to death by the Ephors (the council of
leaders of Sparta who shared power with the kings) without trial.
Religious role
● Two kings played a key role within the religious landscape of Spartan society
●
This is evident in the accounts by both Xenephon and Herodotus.
●
The two kings took on the role as chief priest of the state, and as intermediaries between the Olympian
Gods and the people
●
This meant that the kings were responsible for performing various religious sacrifices, such as
sacrifices to Apollo for the protection of the city, and making three sacrifice to the god Zues on the way
to war
●
As Xenephon states in “Lacedaemonian Politeia,” “The king shall offer in behalf of the state all public
sacrifices, as being himself of divine descent”
●
According to Herodotus, kings also appointed two Pythoi to consult the Delphic Oracle and report on
the Oracles direction.
●
Kings were also responsible for safety of Oracles in this region
Military role
● Both kings had a highly influential military role
●
Spartan society was militaristically orientated, and placed a great focus upon maintaining their military
strengths
●
Spartan leaders were expected to be capable warriors and excellent military strategists
●
According to Herodotus it was the king's right to war against whatever land they please
●
The two kings were responsible for conduction military campaigns
●
According to Herodotus they must go first on the way out and last on the way back, the king had the
right to decide life or death in battle and if a campaign failed they would face punishment
●
During times of war only one of the two kings would go to battle, while the other would stay in Sparta to
continue their administrative duties, one of the pragmatic benefits of this diarchy system of corulers
Restrictions to their powers
● The influence of the kings in the other areas were diminished by the powers of the Ephors
●
According to Aristotle the kings of Sparta command the army on foreign expeditions, supervise religious
worship, beyond that their sovereignty does not extend
●
This was due to Oligarchal elements of Spartan constitution, the Ephors, a group of five annually
elected individuals who heels considerable power of Spartan society
●
V. Ehrenberg: Sparta’s social structure and the firm leadership of the ephors, which henceforth
competed with the traditional role of the kings, prevented the state from ever being ruled by a tyrant
●
The ephors were intended to act as a check and balance to the power of the two kings, to ensure that
Sparta would not fall into a dictatorship
●
According to sources such as Aristotle who states the Ephors power almost was tyrannical that even
the kings have been obliged to seek their favour
●
Plutarch states that true power was not held by the kings but the Ephors
●
Led to limitations of the kings power, for example their judicial role was limited to dealing with
heiresses, adoptions and public areas, whereas civil cases and criminal jurisdictions were dealt with by
the Ephors
●
Historian Jones says this the Ephors were the reason for the series of successful kings in Sparta
Privileges
● Kings were accorded many luxuries and privileges
●
Totally financially supported by the state
●
Receiving part of the spoils from war
●
Given seats of honour at religious festivals and celebrations
●
Everyone aside from the ephors rising from their seats as the kings entered the Assembly
●
Being served their meals first at the syssitia, and receiving double the portion size of an ordinary
Spartiate
●
Receiving special meats and pelts from sacrifice
●
At the time of their death, a special ceremony was to be held in commemoration
Government
●
The Spartan government was a multifaceted institution that encompassed a variety of different political
systems, such as, according to Aristotle, Oligarchy, Monarchy and democracy
●
The main elements of the Spartan mixed constitution were the two kings, Ephorates, the Gerousia and
the Ekklesia
●
Ancient sources such as Aristotle praised the mixed constitution
●
V. Ehrenberg suggests that their praise may be misplaced, as the mixed constitution was not the cause
of Sparta’s stability. There was no equal distribution of power among the elements of the constitution,
and the conflicts between the kings and the Ephors never ceased
Ephorate
● Was a powerful body of five annually elected magistrates known as Ephors that were designed to limit
regulate and override the supreme power of the two kings
●
They contributed to the governance in Sparta in arguably the most holistic and all encompassing way,
and represent the oligarchical element of the Spartan constitutions. Their roles were numerous, with
legislative , judicial , financial and executive duties
●
Historians such as Paul Cartledge believe that between 700 - 600 BCE the Euphors held more power
than the Spartan kings
●
This is supported by Aristotle's statement saying the kings were obliged to seek favours of the Ephors
●
To prevent individuals gaining too much control, they were re-elected and replaced annually with no
possibility of re-election.
●
They also swore an oath each month, promising to uphold the powers of the kings lawfully
●
Were judges in criminal cases
Gerousia
● The Gerousia was the senatorial body of Sparta that represented both the democratic and oligarchic
elements of the Spartan constitution
●
It was comprised of 28 elected Spartiates known as Gerontes over the age of 60, along with the two
kings, member for life, who held significant influence over public life and whose main role was to decide
which debating motions were to be put forth to Ekklesia
●
Were also the legal justice system of Sparta, with the ability to try and to convict (sometimes including
the death penalty and exile) all Spariates, including the two kings.
●
Worked closely with the Ekklesia through both the electoral process, and the passing legislation, with
the ability to veto any decision they disagreed with
Ekklesia
● Known as the Apella or Spartan Assembly , was an important part of the Spartan government during
the period, representing the democratic component of their constitutions.
●
The assembly including all Spariate men over the age of 30 met monthly summoned by the Ephorate or
Gerousia in order to vote on proposed laws and legislations, by shouting either yes or no or to
participate in elections
●
This was not a complete democracy, however, as the Ekklesia was supervised by the Ephorate, the
Gerousia had the ability to veto decisions made by the Ekklesia and the Ekklesia were also unable to
debate issues, change motions or initiate legislations.
●
They were responsible for annually electing the 5 Ephors, along with military generals, admirals and the
members of the Gerousia
●
They decided whether Spara would remain at peace or go to war, with the ability to overrule the two
kings recommendations, as evidence, according to Thucydides, through the decisions of the Ekklesia in
432 BCE to fight in the Peloponnesian War despite the Eurypontid King Archidamus II recommending
against Spartan involvement
Social Structure and Occupations
Spartiates
● Spartiate is the term used to describe the male citizens of Sparta, the ruling elite
●
These are men who endured the Agoge system coming out as Homoioi or a member of a Syssitia
●
The term Homoioi means “equals,” however did not mean that all Spartiates were of the same financial
background or status - inequality existed
●
As Spartaiate they were entitled to full legal and political rights, and at the age of 30 automatically
became members of the Ekklesia
●
The only way they could lose their citizenships was if they were to displace cowardice, or break Spartan
law, in which case the Ephors or the Gerousia could choose to have their citizenship revoked, meaning
they would become inferiors
Perioikoi
● The Perioikoi – the dwellers around – were free group of non citizens from the conquered lands
Laconia and Messenia that lived within the various 100 settlements around the Spartan city
●
They were excluded from voting, taking part in the agoge, marrying or having relations with Spartiates
or having any voice in government or foreign policy
●
They still had to obey Spartan laws, and even fight for Sparta as hoplites if required, even though they
were not trained as soldiers
●
They were required to pay respect to the Spartan kings, sending representatives to attend their funerals
●
Perioikoi served an economic purpose. The Spartiates spent most of their day training and at the
syssitia manufacturing and agricultural roles were given to the Perioikoi
●
According to Pliny and Herodotus, the Perioikoi made shoes, purpler garments and objects from wood
and Iron
●
Supported by archaeological evidence, as bronze figures, marble reliefs and kraters have been found
in the areas the Perioikoi lived
●
The Perioikoi were used to buffer the Spartans from the helots
●
When Sparta faced population decline, they offered the Perioikoi citizenships
Inferiors
● Known as Hypomeinos, were neither slaves, Periokoi or citizens of Sparta
●
Classified into four types:
○ Partheniai: the illegitimate offspring of Spartiate men and helot/perioikoi women
○ Neodamodes: helots who had been granted ‘Freedom’ due to a courageous act or service to
Sparta
○ Mothaces: sons of helots who train alongside Spartan boys as companions during the agoge
○ Tresantes: Spartans who had their citizenship revoked due to an act of cowardice. This often
came in the form of being rejected by their syssitia, meaning that they failed to complete the
agoge
●
Being Stipped of their citizenship and all of their rights meant that members of the inferiors could not
take part in many important ceremonies/ festivals
●
Nor could they marry or have children with Spartan women
●
Spartiates were required by law to avoid communication with inferiors, which further contributed to their
sense of isolation and a lack of belonging.
Helots
● Lowest class of the social hierarchy of Sparta, probably most influential because the fear of a helot
uprising dictated much of Spartan law and activities
●
Were state owned serfs with pre-Dorian ancestry, who were enslaved by the Spartans when the latter
conquered the lands of Messenia
●
Exploited by the Spartans, from being forced to drink excessive amounts of wine for the amusement of
the Spartan to being publicly brutalised and murdered for the crime of being a helot
●
They had no legal or political standing or rights, could not move without the permission of the Spartan
government
●
Role was to work as slaves in areas such as agriculture and war
●
Agricultural helots worked on lands owned by Spartiates, and were required to give a minimum of half
of their total produce to the Spartans, leaving them with very little to feed their much larger population
●
Helots outnumbered the Spartans roughly 8 to 1
●
Spartans fear the possibility of a helot revolt, and they enacted a variety of cruel and excessive
measures to keep the helot population at bay
●
At the time of the election, the five elected Ephors were to declare war on the helots, making them
permanent enemies of the state
●
This declaration of war ensured that the Spartans could legally treat helots as cruelly as they wished
●
Led to the creation of Krypteia, a secret police force designed to keep the helots in a state of fear and
subjugation
The Spartan Army
●
Spartan soldiers were considered to be the best in Greece, not only by the Spartans themselves, but by
many other neighbouring city states
●
This was due to the fact that they placed a strong emphasis on the values of courage, comradeship,
obedience, and strength - values that were indoctrinated into Spartan youth from the age of seven.
●
Main army force was the hoplite army, a heavily armed infantry. The hoplites were to provide their own
equipment, meaning that the poorer perioikoi or helot soldiers wore very little clothing or armour,
carrying old a shield, spear and helmet
●
Hoplites from the wealthier Spartiate class would usually wear: A helmet with a distinctive red plum at
the top, Corselet to cover and protect their upper body, red capes, short sword and three metre long
thrusting spear and round hoplon shields
●
Hoplites were famous for the military strategy known as the phalanx
●
Planaxy was where the hoplites would form a tigh, closely packed fighting formation, working together
rather than individuals, it was organised, and was typically 8 to 12 rows of men deep
●
The men at on the front line would form a wall with their shields, with just enough space for the hoplites
behind them to stick their three metre long spears through
●
The phalanx would slowly edge forwards towards the enemy, creating a steam roller effect that would
force the enemy’s front line to retreat back and eventually collapse
●
Spartan Poet Tyrtaeus describes it as “Come forward, engage the enemy, strike with sword and spear
and kill him!”
●
Soldiers remained vulnerable from attacks from behind and sides, meaning it was most effective when
the enemy was cornered or unable to escape
●
L.F. Fitzhardinge suggests that the biggest factor to their success was the Spartans courage
●
The weaknesses in the Spartan army, were they lacked sufficient cavalry to protect the hoplite infantry,
training and tactics were inflexible, many soldiers wore little armour, they were vulnerable to archers,
slingers and javelin throwers
Training (Agoge)
● Was the Spartan education system mandated for all male citizens, focusing upon military and strength
training rather than academics
●
Thucydides in his History of the Peloponnesian Wars described the agoge system as a way in which
the Spartans enforced “state induced courage,”
●
Values instilled were, courage, endurance, obedience and loyalty
●
Boys undergoing the agoge were expect to put their syssitia first
●
They trained from the age of 7 to 30 in combat and endurance through a brutal training regimen that
involved the rejection of luxuries, limited food and clothing, gruelling physical education, and the
culminating final assessment known as the ‘taking of the cheese’
●
This is where young boys would be forced to fight against the elements and their peers in order to
collect as many pieces of cheese as possible from the Altar of Artemis Orthia, many being seriously
mained or killed in the process
●
Agoge training lifetime
○ Birth:
■ Child would be examined by city’s elders at the lesche where the child would be place in
a bath of vinegar
■ If healthy and strong they would live, if deformed or weak they were taken to the
apothetae and thrown off a cliff
○
Up to 7:
■ Mainly brought up by nurses not mothers to avoid gaining a strong family connection
■ Tough parenting, if children cried, left in the dark or ignored
○
Age 7:
■ Boys removed from family and began agoge
■ The city appointed a paidonomos or warden who had authority over the boys and
allowed to administer punishment
○
7 to 12:
■ Taught obedience, developed physical strength, and learn to respond to others and get
along with peers - building a camaraderie with other soldiers
■ Emphasis on athletic training
■ Only a light tunic was worn, they were responsible for keeping it clean
■ According to Xenephon, their heads were shaven and were to walk in silence with their
heads down
■ Any citizens had the write to punish the boys for misbehaviour
○
13 - 18:
■ Endured harsh discipline and physical training
■ Passed in herds based on year groups
■ Taught traditional songs, alongs with Homer and Spartan poetry
■ Given basic rations to eat, Spartans believed a smaller diet would produce taller and
healthier people
■ Encourage to steal food, but punished harshly if were caught
■ According to Plutarch, at this age young boys were to introduced to older men, as their
guardians and mentors
○
○
24 - 30:
■ Eligible for becoming front line troops
■ The ‘300’ came from this group of soldiers
30 - 60:
■ Full citizens and allowed to exercise political and legal rights as members of the Ekklesia
■ Eligible for military state and could be called by the state
■ Allowed to grow hair long, suggest physical vigour
■ Could live at home with a wife and family; they were expected to dine with their syssitia
every night for the rest of their lives
Composition
● Between 500 and 1200 men in each of the six morae or regiments in the Spartan army
● Not all were Spartiates, many were perioikoi and helots
●
Spartiates were the most highly trained members of the Spartan army, considering their experience
with the agoge, their were never a large enough amount of them to sufficiently form a workable military
force, meaning they relied on outside help to supplement forces
●
For example, at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BCE, the Lacedaemonian army was roughly 50% Spartiate
and 50% Perioikoi.
●
The Spartan Phalanx was built by aggregating small units into larger ones, the smallest unit being the
Enomitia (maximum 40 men.)
○ The Enomotia was composed of two syssitia groups commanded by an Enomotiarch.
○ Four Enomotias made up a Penteconstys, commanded by a Penetecosteres.
○ Two Pentecostys made a Lochos, commanded by a Lochagoi,
○ Four Lochos made a Mora, commanded by a Polemarch, roughly equalling a maximum of 1,200
men
Control of the Helots
●
According to Thucydides Spartan policy with regard to the helots had always been based most entirely
on the idea of security
The military
● A way Sparta aimed to control the helot population was through compulsory military service. For the
most part, helots were not soldiers, and acted as slaves for Spartiates headed to battle
●
During the peloponnesian war in 425 BCE, helots were used as transporters of food, according to
Thucydides large money rewards and freedom was the prize for it
●
During the Peloponessian war, helots were also used as soldiers, with the promise of freedom as a
motivating factor
●
The promise of freedom was often a farce
●
For example Thucydides details an event during the Athenian occupation of Pylos in Messenia,
Spartans offered freedom to helots who done best service on the battlefield, with approximately 2000
helots selected, this was actually a test to see who showed the most spirit - possible of rebelling, these
men were taken to the temples under the impression they were free men, instead they were murdered
●
Spartans routinely declares war on the helots, meaning they could legally raid and torture and
communities without repercussion
●
Army organised raids on helot homes, used terror to suppress the population, in search of revenge
many helots help the Athenians during the Peloponessian war
Syssitia
● Was an obligatory dining group, held daily by the Homoioi
●
Spartan men aged 20+ would socialised with a group of 15 soldiers
●
Designed by Lycurgus to emphasise the equality of spartiates – all being served the same plain meal
●
Create fellowship, unity and camaraderie amongst the group
●
All members of syssitia had to agree to a new member being initiated
●
Inability to be elected into these groups meant social exclusion and disgrace – became an inferior
●
Daily attendance at evening meal was compulsory
●
Food was provided out of monthly contributions from members of the Syssitia including: Olive oil,
Barley, Figs, 39 litres of wine and 3kg of cheese
●
Food was produced from the donating members estates, farmed by helots as part of their roles as
spartiate slaves
●
Meal was meant to provide just enough food to satisfy the members hunger
●
Alcohol was discouraged, helots brought into the syssitia forced to drink copious amounts to
demonstrate the effects of alcohol on mind and body
Krypteia
● State institution involving young Spartan men who completed the agoge with honours, marking them as
potential future leaders of the society
●
Widely believed that the Krypteia was utilised by the Spartans as a secret police force
●
Its aim being to terrorise and control helot populations in order to prevent revolts
●
At night, were sent out into rural areas of Laconia where helots resided and killed any helots they
encountered
●
Particularly those they believed to be the strongest and most talented
●
According to Plutarch, the Krypteia was a unit of the Spartan army, many scholars suggesting its
purpose was to undertake reconnaissance and special operations on the battlefield
●
Only Spartans who served as Krypteia could ascend to the highest ranks of Sparta
●
As through the membership they were able to demonstrate their ruthlessness and willingness to kill for
the state
Role and status of women
●
According to historian Bettany hughes, Spartan women experienced a unique social and sexual
freedom
●
Still considered secondary to males
●
Their place was considered to be the Oikoi (home)
●
Spartan women in the absence of men (quite common, agoge and war, syssitia), were in charge of the
domestic servants and the supervision of helots working on the estate
●
Women could a make a name for themselves economically and politically due to fairer inheritance laws
than in other parts of Greece
●
Arranged marriage was customary, women had little to no choice who they marry
●
Promiscuity was not a sin and was in fact encouraged
●
State encourage women to have sexual relationships with other men, in order to increase the chances
of producing a strong cold
●
There was an emphasis of natural beauty, something that Spartan girls were famous for
●
Forbidden to wear jewellery, perfume of makeup
●
Were seen as mothers of future generations of warriors
●
Unique character of motherhood not nurturing and kind but rather stern and emotionally distance from
their children
●
Expected to be fit and healthy to produce healthy children
●
Expectations stemmed from Lycurgus
●
Xenephon states that Spartans believed that if both parents were strong, their progeny would be found
more vigorous
●
Had a religion role, mothers required to make sacrifices to the goddesses Aphrodite and Hera
●
At festivals women would dance and sing in choruses
●
Women who were pregnant, survived childbirth or barren would make offerings to Artemis Orthia
●
Experience for Perioikoi and helot women were different, helot women would often be nannies for
Spartan children and do household chores – had the reputation for the best nurses in Greece
Land ownership and inheritance
● Spartans accepted female land ownership, with more than ⅖ of land owned by women in the 5th
century BCE according to Aristotle
●
According to plutarch by the 3rd century BCE women owned more than half the land
●
Land was acquired through inheritance - women could inherit land
●
In abscess of mae descendent, property and wealth could be left to women, with numerous heiresses
living in Sparta – common practise and royal and elite families
●
Marrying heiress to uncles of cousins in order to keep property and wealth within the family rather than
going to a non blood husband
●
Means women could become wealthy and influential individuals
Education
● Lycurgus established a custom for women’s training, Plutarch noticed that girls likely participated in foot
races, wrestling, discus, javelin and dancing
●
Xenephon claims that this was due to the fact that Lycurgus prescribed physical training for the female
sex no less than the male
●
Archaeological evidence such as bronze statue of Spartan girl running
●
Physical and athletic training was to be done naked
●
Noted by Aristotle who had a low opinion of Spartan women seeing them as a corrosive force on the
Spartan constitution
●
Women were instructed in more artistic pursuits such as song, dancing and weaving
●
Some were literate, ancient writers such as Herodotus suggests the Gorgo the wife of King Ledonidas
could read
●
Evidence for existence of two female pets
The Economy
Land ownership
●
Economic equality existed, though Plutarch states in the Life of Lycurgus that the Spartans would all
live on equal terms with one another with the same amount of property to support each
●
Each Spartiate was granted a basic allotment of land by the state known as a kleroi – Spartans pushed
land to
●
Hodkinson state that's ownership of land was never equal, with divisions between poor and rich due to
privately owned states
●
In the 4th and 5th century there was a decline in Spartan economic activity caused by the significant
decline in Spartiate population.
●
This meant that concentration of the land was held by few people, with more land help by the state
●
Many people faced financial strain, as the sizes of their allotments became smaller, sometimes not
large enough to accommodate popular activities such as chariot racing, meaning that these Spartiates
would have to mortgage a private property
●
Pressure was alleviated a bit in the 4th century BCE when a law was passed which allowed Spartans to
sell kleroi any way they wanted
●
Food production was a basis for Spartan citizenship as each Spartiate was obliged to contribute to his
syssitia on a regular bases
●
Fertility of land in Laconia, particularly in Messenia along the Eurotas river allowed for an abundance of
food to be produced
●
Agricultural responsibilities fell to the perioikoi on their own independent farms, and helots as slaves for
Spartiates.
●
Citizens were all required to give surplus produce to the state, so they had income to pay for armour
equipment made by the perioikoi
●
Sparties wives would manage farms and helots so they could devote their time to military
Technology
●
Technology included equipment designed for war times
●
Was manufactured by the Perioikoi
War and amour
● Spartiates often wore very little into battle
●
Armour would typically consist of bronze helmet with a red plume, a curiass (breastplate), and greaves
(leg protectors).
●
Hoplon (a round heavy shield), A bronze tipped spear, and a short sword or dagger, which would be
carried in a belt worn around their waist
●
Evidence of pottery depicting hoplites carrying hoplons, spears and wearing armour
Pottery
● Important to Spartans
●
Laconia is famous for its pottery and exported it across Greece and the wider Mediterranean
●
●
Had daily use such as pots, cups and bowls used for cooking as as containers to keep goods
Intricately decorated
●
Fitzhardinge states in The Spartans, art on pottery was “interested in human subjects and in telling a
story”
●
For example the Arkesilas cup shows scenes of trades with the kings of Cyrene
●
Kilns have been found in Spartan villages, suggesting that it may have been pursued by poorer
Spartiates to supplement their income
Economic roles of the perioikoi and helots
Perioikoi
● Were the free people of the conquered lands of Laconia and Messenia
●
Not citizens, still obeyed spartan law
●
Involved in industries such as mining, manufacturing and commerce as they controlled all mineral and
marine resources in the region
●
According to Pliny and Herodotus the perioikoi were responsible for the production of shoes, purple
garments, and wooden iron objects (including armour and weaponry)
●
Archaeological evidence supports this as bronze figures, marbles reliefs and kraters have been
discovered in the areas known to have been settle by Perioikoi
Helots
● Lowest class in the social hierarchy of Sparta
●
Were state owned serfs with Pre Dorian ancestry, who were enslaved by the Spartans after conquering
of Messenia
●
No legal or political stand or right, could not move without permission of the Spartan government
●
Essentially slaves, forced to work for the Spartiates in areas such as agriculture
●
Agricultural helots worked on the kleroi (land) owned by Spartiates, and were required to give a
minimum of half of their total produce to the Spartans, leaving them little to feed their large populations
Economic exchange
Use of iron bars
● The main form of currency were iron bars, a practise introduced by Lycurgus in an effort to ensure
Eunomia, and the self sufficiency of Sparta
●
Paul Cartledge suggests that it was this iron bar currency that helped promote the decline of Sparta, as
it successfully limited trade and transactions with other Greek states.
●
Moderns scholars have suggested iron bars were evidence for trading and diplomacy, which suggests
that some of the form Hellenic currency must have been circulation as well, in order to pay for
mercenaries
Trade
● Spartans did not trade much with outsiders, as they were suspicious of them
●
They relied on local production
●
Spartan iron bar currency discouraged trading, not to mention they were impractically large and heavy
●
Because of this most trading activity was conducted by the Perioikoi, through the port at Gytheum
●
Their main exports were wool, wine, oil, pottery, and bronze.
Religion, death and burial
●
Spartans held strong religious beliefs which dictated many aspects of their lives
●
Spartans were polytheistic – worshipped more than one god
●
Believed in myth and legends
Gods and goddesses
●
Were polytheistic, like most Greek cultures, meaning that they believed in the existence of multiple
gods
●
Particularly important gods included Artemis Orthia, Poseidon and Apollo
Artemis Orthia
● Is a goddess that combines the worship of Artemis, the commonly worshipped Greek goddess and
sister of Apollo, and the local goddess Orthia
●
Patron goddess of nature, hunting, fertility, childbirth, wild animals, untamed places and vegetation
●
She is depicted as having wings and controlling animals
●
For example an ivory brooch found, which portrays Artemis Orthia grasping a bird
●
Evidence of worship is found at the temple of Artemis Orthia, the fusing of the two goddesses Orthia is
known as syncretism, and is actually a fairly common practice in Greece
Poseidon
● God of sea
●
Pausianius suggests that a sanctuary existed that was dedicated to Poseidon as the house god.
●
Shrines to poseidon, such as the one near Therapne have also been discovered, emphasising his role
within Spartan religious practises
●
According to Thucydides, Spartans believed he sent an earthquake to the region in the 5th century
BCE to punish them for killing helots who had sought refuge at the altar of Poseidon
Apollo
● One of the most revered gods in all of Greece, though particularly in Sparta, where he was worshipped
● Amyklaion dedicated to Apollo
●
He was associated with light and power of the sun, and represented the ideals of harmony, order and
reason in the world
●
He also happened to be the brother of Sparta’s favourite goddess, Artemis
●
Apollo is the god of music and poetry
●
Apollo is connected to Delphi (where the Delphic Oracle resided)
●
According to legend, he defeated a dragon python at Delphi, rescuing those who lived at the site
●
Evident in the shine of Apollo at Delphi, which the oracles would consult for guidance and wisdom
●
Was worshipped at the Hyakinthia
Myths and Legends
●
Most important were Lycurgus and the Dioscuri
Lycurgus
● Worshipped as a god by spartans, because he did so much for them by creating their constitution
●
He was seen as an central figure and a role model
●
According to Herodotus he was worshipped as a god because he was recognised by Delphic ORacles
as one
●
Delphic Oracle says that Sparta was the only polis in Greece that had its constitution established by the
gods
Dioscuri
● Were the mythical ‘Youths of Zeus’
●
Shared a mother in the form of Leda, a queen of Sparta
●
Castor was the son of the mortal king Tyndareus
●
Pollus was the son of the god Zeus making him a demigod
●
Apparently brothers or half brothers of Clytemnestra and the famous helen of troy
●
Legend goes, Zeus turned into a swan and had sex with the human female Leda led to the birth of
Pollux and his twin Castor
●
The twins were looked after by the two kings as protection in battle
●
One live underground at Therapne while the other lived with the Gods on Mount Olympus
●
Castor was eventually killed, and Pollux distraught asked his father to let him share his own immortality
with his twin so that they could be together
●
A white marble relief from the 6th century BCE features the two brothers holding Spears and facing one
another. They are both naked, reflecting no only their heroics but association with athletics
●
The Dioscuri were also worshipped in Roman mythology – many statues found in Sparta
Festivals
●
Reinforced Spartan values and the overarching sense of the community
●
Festivals were considered sacred times, and no government business could be conducted, nor wars
waged during this time
●
The whole community was expected to be involved
●
Rituals included the foot race in the Karneia or the taking of the cheese initiation during the
Gymnopaedia
●
Expressed religious and cultural elements of Sparta
Hyakinthia
● Celebrated the legend of Hyakinthos
●
Hyakinthos was loved by Apollo, during a game of discuss Apollo accidentally threw it at Hyakinthos’
head, killing him
●
Apollo turned Hyakinthos into purple flowers, so that he could live on
●
The celebration was held at the Amyklaion in early summer around July and went for three days
●
Purpose of the festival was to mourn the death of Hyakinthos
●
The Sorrowful stage
○ Would be a procession to Amyklai and offerings placed at the tomb of Hyakinthos
○ Prohibited to wear festive wreaths, sing joyful paeans and eat bread and cake.
○ This period was a day of ritual grief , and special funeral meal was consumed in the evening
●
The Joyful Stage
○ Whereby citizens were allowed to wear wreaths and offer sacrifices to Apollo
○ Choirs of boys would sing paeans
○ Special festive meal that they would hold, where masters were to serve and entertain their helot
slaves
○ Women of sparta would also offer a tunic woven for statue as an offering to Apollo
●
According to Xenephon this festival was so important they were willing to interrupt military campaigns in
order to return for the festival
Gymnopaedia
● Celebrated from the 6th to 10th July was a festival connected to the agoge
●
Known as the festival of the unarmed boys
●
Coming of age ritual, where naked boys would displace their athletic and martial talents
●
Taking part in the Gymnopaedia indicated membership and commitment to the community
●
Was held in memory of Sparta’s defeat by Argos at the battle of Thyrea 550 BCE with the aim of
calming the gods to prevent the recurrence of a such a defeat
●
According to Plato the Gymnopaedia was an example of the strength of the Spartan education system,
as the boys without complaint trained and performed in the heat
●
Ancient writer Aristophanes suggest that women took part in the Gymnopaedia as well
●
Was a way for young women to demonstrate their own physical strength and ability to carry strong
children
Karneia
● Was to celebrate the migration and colonisation of Sparta, and the foundation of the Doric people and
their military achievements
●
One of the most sacred celebrations of the period, and soldiers on military campaigns would return in
order to take part in the festival
●
Pausanias states that it based on the legend of Karnos, and was celebrated for nine days some time
during the month of August
●
Festival included a shared dining and living experience where men would divide in 9 groups of 3
phraties each occupying a skias
●
The foot race included one Spartiate citizen being chased by other unmarried Spartan men
●
If they caught the man, that indicated prosperity for the state over the coming year, if they were to fail
this was considered a bad omen
●
Five unmarried men were required to cover the cost of this festival
Religious role of the kings
●
Two kings played a key role within the religious landscape of Spartan society
●
This is evident in the accounts by both Xenephon and Herodotus.
●
The two kings took on the role as chief priest of the state, and as intermediaries between the Olympian
Gods and the people
●
This meant that the kings were responsible for performing various religious sacrifices, such as
sacrifices to Apollo for the protection of the city, and making three sacrifice to the god Zues on the way
to war
●
As Xenephon states in “Lacedaemonian Politeia,” “The king shall offer in behalf of the state all public
sacrifices, as being himself of divine descent”
●
According to Herodotus, kings also appointed two Pythoi to consult the Delphic Oracle and report on
the Oracles direction.
●
Kings were also responsible for safety of Oracles in this region
Funerary customs and rituals
●
Knowledge on Spartan funerary customs is limited due lack of surviving evidence
●
Dead were buried within the city walls in an attempt to encourage a general acceptance of death
●
Treated death as an honourable stage of life rather than something to be feared
●
Only people to receive marked graves were men who died in battle, women who died in childbirth and
the two kings
●
Herodotus in his Histories also outlines the funerary customs specific to the burial of kings. As soon as
the king was pronounced dead, a horseman would travel all over Laconia spreading the news
●
A period state of mourning would begin, with heavy fines handed out for those that did not wear the
correct attire
●
Women would walk through the street beating cauldrons
●
Man and women from each household would strike their head in respect for the dead king
●
Spartiates and representative perioikoi and helots were required to attend funerals – large display of
public grief, crying and decorations
●
After funeral was an uninterrupted period of mourning for 10 days in which public meetings and
elections were forbidden
●
If the kings died in battle, a statue would be built in his honour
●
Average burial was organised the same as the traditional ancient greek burial processes, Preparation,
Procession and Burial
●
Archaeological evidence suggests that Spartiates would be buried with a Spartan warrior cloaks and
hoplon
Cultural and everyday life
Art: sculpture, painted vases, bone and ivory carving
●
Sparta produced sculpture in stone and marble, large and small bronze artefacts, carved ivories and an
original and confident style of ceramics exported around the mediterranean
●
2nd half of the 6th century – golden age in bronze work – very high quality and used as diplomatic gifts
– found all over Europe
●
According to Pausianias, the Temple of Athena Chalkioikos was richly decorated with bronze reliefs and
figurines depicting mythological scenes
●
Other significant statues have been excavated, such as the marble bust of a hoplite found in the
Acropolis, that may be believed to depict the famed Spartan King Leonidas.
●
Example: Vix krater, a masterpiece of Spartan skill, found in a Celtic burial in northern France. Was
Bronze and capable of holding approximately 1136 litres of wine. Around the crater is a frieze of 23
groups of figures in relief, individually crafted. This provides evidence to suggest that the Spartans were
engaged in trade, and their artistic works were often heavily sought after
●
Other smaller bronzes included:
○ Small figures of female goddesses and worshippers
○ Bronze mirrors
○ Elaborate mixing bowls, water jars and tripods
●
Spartan ivory carving reflected an eastern influence as Syrian and phoenician traders sourced ivory
from Africia, and both countries had a rich tradition in ivory work
●
Over 200 ivory carvings were found in the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, and one of the largest ivory
plaques, 24 cms in length, shows a complex scene of the arrival or departure of a warship.
●
In the late 7th century, Vase painting changed from geometric decoration to a more ornate style of
friezes featuring animals, fish and birds. In the middle of the 6th century Laconian III pottery appeared,
featuring human subjects that told a story usually from mythology
●
A Laconian kylix which is a wine drinking cup with two handles known as the Arkesilas cup, is unique
as it depicts a contemporary scene of King Arkesilas II of Cyrene in North Africa and shows him
supervising the loading of cargo on a ship.
●
During the 6th century Laconian pottery was found throughout the Mediterranean, as it was highly
sought after by other Greek states due to its elegant design. For example, the Arkesilas cup, which
found its way to central Italy, features scenes of trade.
●
The Pyxis from Amyklaion, another example of Spartan pottery, features male dancers holding lyres,
showing that dancing was a prominent activity in Sparta, particularly for the hoplites prior to battle
Architecture: Amyklaion, Menelaion, the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia
●
No remains of Spartan houses have been excavated, chief sources for Spartan public buildings are a
number of excavated sites as well as Pausanius’ A Guide to Greece written late in the 2nd century AD
Artemis Orthia
● The original Temple of Artemis Orthia - built about 700 BC - was rebuilt in 580 after its destruction by a
flood. Believed to have had Doric columns and a gabled roof with a stone lion on top of the pediments
●
It is situated within a natural basin between Limnai and the west bank of the Eurotas River, a bit outside
of the Spartan borders
●
It was discovered by the British School of Archaeology under E.M Dawkins in 1906
●
The site is believed to have been established in the 9th century BCE, however the main temple was
constructed until at least 700 BCE
●
The temple was dedicated to the merged goddesses Artemis and Orthia who were worshipped.
●
From may to June in the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, a festival was held which historian Bettany
Hughes describes as a brutal rite of passage
●
Theatre was constructed which was excavated first
●
During excavations numerous artefacts were uncovered including, Inscriptions, Ivory and bone carving,
Clay mask, Pottery fragments and the bone relief of Orthia.
Amyklaion
● The Amyklaion, built in the 6th century, was regarded as the most significant temple in Lacedaemon
●
The remains of the Amyklaion have been found approximately 5 km south of Sparta on the hill of Agia
Kyriaki
●
It was excavated by the Greek archaeologist Christos Tsountas in 1890
●
Pausanias proves a detailed but confusing description of the building that was both a shrine to Apollo
and the tomb of Hyakinthos
●
Pausanias’ account makes it clear the building, surrounded by colonnades, served as a ‘throne’ for a
massive bronze cult statue of Apollo. This bronze statue was a xoanon, a crudely-made representation
of the god
●
Pausanias notes that the base of the statue of Apollo was shaped like an altar, suggesting a block. In
this, it was believed, Hyakinthos was buried
●
Like the Menelaion, it features elements of a variety of different periods, from archaic to Roman (such
as both Doric and Ionic columns), revealing its continual use between those two periods
●
There are finds of pottery and fragments of metal objects, dating from the 7th century BC, left here at
this sacred place as votive offerings
●
Although Pausanius’ description is very detailed, there is not enough evidence left to gauge what the
building actually look like
Menelaion
● The Menelaion (shrine of Menelaos and Helen) was rebuilt in the 5th century, using blue and white
limestone that was 8 metres in height
●
The remains can be found approximately 5 km south-east of the centre of Sparta, at the top of the
Parnon Mountains, above the eastern bank of the Eurotas River
●
The most significant discoveries were made between 1973 and 1976, when, under archaeologist Dr H.
Catling, it was revealed that the sanctuary would have been constructed during the Late Mycenaean
period
●
Like the Amyklaion, the Menelaion contains archaeological evidence from a variety of different periods.
This shows continuous use of the site from the 8th century BCE to the 2nd century AD
●
The building was consolidated and buttressed by a terrace that was also used for the display of large
dedications
●
Nearby, a cistern about 5.5 metres deep was discovered. With a capacity of 35 cubic metres, it was
designed to hold water for the shrine and for visitors to this place high on the ridge above the town
Writing and literature: Alcman and Tyrtaeus
●
The poets Alcman and Tyrtaeus are the only surviving examples of Spartan literature
●
During the 7th century, Sparta attracted famous poets and musicians from all over the Greek world and
people are supposed to have travelled great distances during the various festivals in Sparta, to see
renowned choral dancing
●
Poetry was generally recited by groups or sung by dancing choruses. There were songs of praise,
battle songs, drinking songs, songs of politics and songs of consolation
●
The three most associated men with poetry and music were Alcman, Tyrataeus and Terpander.
Alcman
●
Was a 7th century Greek Choral lyric poet, who worked and lived in Sparta following the second
Messenian War. His origin was possibly from Sardis or Messoa
●
According to the Greek philosopher Heraclides Ponticus, he was brought into Laconia as a slave, but
emancipated by his master upon discovering his talents.
●
Fragments of his poems have been found, such as, Parthenions. Partheneion is also known as
‘Maidens song which was seasonally performed at large public festivals by a chorus of women
●
HIs poems have a hymn-like structure, with a clear, light and pleasant tone and a lot of rich language
and imagery. His poems focus on the artistic and cultural elements rather than militaristic aspects of
Spartan society, revealing a prosperous civilisation.Love and romance feature strongly within his
poems, which contrasts with the militaristic poems of Tyrtaeus
●
His poems were meant to be performed within the social, political and religious landscapes of Sparta,
and focused upon the natural and social aspects of society. Furthermore his poetry includes details on
various rituals, festivals and other celebrations of Sparta
Tyrtaeus
●
Was a Greek lyric poet who worked and lived in Sparta during the second Messenian war.
●
According to Pausianias, he was an Athenian school teacher who was sent to Sparta after the oracle
demanded an Athenian general.
●
Only fragments of his poems have been found such as Eunomia
●
Eunomia (‘good order’), was written to inspire the flagging spirits of the Spartan soldiers during their
war against the Messenians and to soothe the passions of the people in the political upheaval after the
war
●
He uses a clear, hard and strong tone, with rich language and imagery. However unlike Alcman, his
poems focus more on the militaristic aspects of Spartan society encouraging Spartans to fight bravely
during the second messenian war.
●
Tyrtaueus' poems mark a critical point in Spartan history where they turned away from art and culture to
a more militaristic way of life.
●
According to Pausianis the poems were sung around campfires and even marching into battle.
●
Some historians such as E.N Tigersted believe Tyrtaues was a factor in this transition whereas others
such as David A.Campbell think that he merely documented it.
Greek writers’ views of Sparta: Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Aristotle,
Pausanias, Plutarch
●
Most of the Greek writers knew little about Sparta and what they knew was seen by was of so many
distorting mirrors
●
No Spartan chose to share his knowledge with the outside world and no Spartan material has survived
apart from the fragments of the Poets Tyrtaeus, who wrote propaganda, and Alcman, who wrote lyric
poetry.
●
Herodotus wrote 484 – 425 BCE. He was a pro athenian write who described the customs and lifestyle
of Ancient Greece Including Sparta
○ He suggested that the early days of Sparta were prosperous
○ “Living in a fertile country and with a numerous population of men, they immediately shot up and
flourished” Herodotus, The Persian Wars
○ However he is limited discussing the cultural life of Sparta, focusing more on political aspects of
the Society which are overall positive
●
Thucydides was the author of History of the Peloponnesian war, and wrote 460 – 403 BCE. He was
very pro Athenian, and consistently compared Sparta unfavourably to Athens. He focused more so on
Sparta’s military strength than their cultural lives
●
Xenephon presents Sparta in a very positive light. He wrote from 430 – 354 BCE. He admired the
cultural traditions of Sparta, particularly the Agoge
○ “The agoge had the effect of making boys more respectful; in facts boys and men alike respect
their rulers above everything” Xenephon, The constitutions of the Laceaemonians
○ Historian powell suggest his book Athens and Sparta and Social history must assess
Xenephons bias
○ He has political motive as he was friends with Spartan King Agesilaus II and fought with the
Spartans in the Battle of Coronea
●
Aristotle wrote 384 – 322 BCE and focused on both political and social aspects of Spartan life, though
like many writers he provides limited information on the cultural elements
○ His evidence conflicts with other writers, particularly his suggestions that there was wealth
inequality in Sparta
○ Aristotle admired the origins of Sparta (Lycurgen reforms and mixed constitutions) and he
blamed the eventual decline of Sparta on the uniquely prominent role of women in society.
●
Pausanias wrote Description of Greece 200AD, which meant his discussions of culture, society and
politics were based on the accounts of other earlier historians.
○ However he described the buildings and the sites that he visited making him a valuable source
for archaeologists searching for the lost remains, or piecing together the geography of the
region
●
Plutarch wrote centuries after Sparta had fallen around 46 – 120 AD. According to historians such as
Sarah Pomeroy and Walter donland he was influenced by histories written after the decline of Sparta
and marked by a nostalgia for a happier past, real or imagined. Hence he exaggerated the egalitarian
values and physical strength of the Spartans
●
The Sparta created by these writers was what Plutarch, in the 1st century AD, based his extensive
writings on – a ‘mass of tradition and counter-tradition 43– and in the 2nd century AD, Pausanius tried
to make sense out of Sparta’s antiquities.
Leisure activities
●
According to plutarch there was an abundance of leisure activities in Sparta such as hunting,
equestrian sports, cockfighting and boar fighting and banquets
●
Athletics was very popular in the Spartan state as men tried to achieve physical perfection and
profound strengths
○ Sports such as discus, javelin, jumping, wrestling and boxing were completed naked.
○ Girls participated in athletics and depicts show them running and dancing
○ According to Pausanias, Spartans who were particularly prolific in sports were revered such as
Hetoimokles who had a statue in his honour after he won 11 wrestling matches.
○ At the temple of Athena Chalkiokos, the is also the Stele of Damonon, which lists running
victories along with those of his son, Enymakradtias
●
Hunting was popular pastime and according to Xenephon is encouraged hunting had practical benefits,
as it helped to develop a man's body, eyes and ears to hardship and enable them to think better on
their feet
○ He suggested that boar hunting was demonstrative of Spartan masculinity
○ Hunting could be either done using horses or on foot using dogs.
○ The Laconian Kylix is a piece of Archaeological evidence which depicts a hunting scene taking
place revealing that spears were often used to kill game ‘
●
Horse riders were known as hippeis, and the Spartans believed that proficiency in equestrian sports
demonstrated skill and endurance and those who won them also won great respect for themselves.
○ For example the Stele of Damonon at the Temple of Athena Chalkioikos notes twenty one
equestrian victories.
○ Herodotus also details Spartan equestrian victories, discussing the 6th century BCE rider
Evagoras, who won three consecutive victories in the four horse chariot race at the Olympic
games.
○ According to Pausianias, Kyniska, the daughter of Archidamus, won the Olympic chariot race,
which inspired many other women to get involved in the sport.
●
Cockfighting and boar fighting were very popular
○ According to Plutarch, the roosters in cockfights would literally fight to the death, with strong
roosters being a symbol of masculinity
○ Attic vases that have been found in Sparta have compared the fighting of roosters to the
fighting of hoplites
○ Wild boars would be caught and raised in captivity, then matched adolescents. According to
Pausanias, kicking and eye gouging were commonplace at boar fights.
●
Banquets
○ A festival meal known as a symposion, and was often associated with religious occasions
○ Spartans prohibited drunkenness, making them sober celebrations
○ Archaeological artefacts depict banquets scenes, such as the Laconian kylix, and bronze figures
from the 6th century BCE which depict a reclining banqueter
●
Music and dancing were enjoyed by both Spartan men and women:
○ They appreciated music and dancing to the accompaniment of the flute or lyre.
○ Many of the dances represented battles, military drills, or simulated wild animal hunts.
○ Religious dances were also common and held significance in Spartan culture.
○ According to Plutarch, their songs stimulated the spirit and encouraged energetic and effective
action.
Marriage customs
●
Marriage was highly valued and taken seriously by the Spartans, although their customs were seen as
peculiar by other Greeks.
●
Women would perform gymnastics rituals, demonstrating not only physical attractiveness, but also their
strength and fitness. This was an opportunity for men to choose women they desired.
●
When the man had chosen his bride. They men had to sneak of their camp to spend time with their wife
and sneak back in without getting caught
●
The husband had to kidnap his fiancee, to prove his strength in seizing in women. Her bridesmaid
would then shave shave off her hair and dress her in a man's cloak and sandals
●
The primary purpose of these customs was to ensure the production of healthy babies and increase the
citizen population.
●
Evidence from the poems of Alcman suggests that feelings of love were also present in Spartan
marriages.
●
According to Xenophon, men and women were not allowed to marry until they reached their physical
prime:
○ The approximate age for girls was 18, while young men needed to reach warrior status, typically
around 20 years old.
●
One custom mentioned by Plutarch was "bride capture":
○ This involved shaving the bride's head and dressing her like a boy before the husband secretly
took her to bed.
○ The symbolism behind this custom remains unknown, although there are various theories.
●
Until the age of 30, men slept in the barracks every night and only visited their wives clandestinely:
○ Xenophon and Plutarch suggested that this practice promoted self-control, increased fertility,
enhanced desire during subsequent encounters, and resulted in stronger offspring.
●
Adultery does not appear to have been prevalent in Sparta, but there was a form of controlled
permissiveness known as wife sharing:
○ If a respectable man admired another man's wife for the children she produced, he could
approach her husband and seek permission to sleep with her.
○ The intention was to have children who would be connected to esteemed ancestors by blood
and family.
●
There is no specific information about divorce in Sparta, but the absence of divorce could be attributed
to the fact that Spartan women owned their dowries:
○ If a woman were to be divorced, the dowry would have to be returned.
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Men who remained unmarried were purportedly excluded from the Gymnopaedia (a festival), and
Aristotle mentioned that the Spartan government granted exemptions from military service and taxation
to those who fathered three or four sons.
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Plutarch: “The custom was to capture women for marriage – not when they were slight and immature,
but when they were in their prime and ripe for it. The so-called ‘bridesmaid’ took charge of the captured
girl. She first shaved her head to the scalp, then dressed her in a man’s cloak and sandals, and laid her
down alone on a mattress in the dark. The bridegroom ... first had dinner at the mess, then would slip
in, undo her belt, lift her and carry her to the bed. After spending a short time with her, he would depart
discreetly so as to sleep wherever he usually did, along with the other young men. And this continued
to be his practice thereafter …”