Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by University of California, San Diego on 06/21/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved. Enhancing Trust-Based Interface Management in International Engineering-Procurement-Construction Projects Wenxin Shen 1; Wenzhe Tang, A.M.ASCE 2; Shuli Wang, Ph.D. 3; Colin F. Duffield 4; Felix Kin Peng Hui 5; and Richun You 6 Abstract: The engineering-procurement-construction (EPC) method is gaining more acceptance worldwide as a project delivery strategy due to the construction efficiencies gained through making one organization responsible for integration of the processes of design, procurement, and construction. Such EPC projects are not without their difficulties—for example, the time pressures frequently brought by overlapping design, procurement, and construction increase uncertainty and complexity in managing the multiple interfaces between different interacting stakeholders. This paper aims to quantitatively and systematically examine how trust, openness, and communication interrelate to improve interface management performance in international EPC projects. A conceptual model is developed and tested with data collected from a questionnaire survey and interviews. The path analysis demonstrates that trust not only can be directly conducive to interface management but also has a positive impact on interface management through enhanced interorganizational openness and communication. Social network analysis visualizes contractors’ industrial relations and reveals different impacts of stakeholders in trust and interface networks of international EPC contractors. This study advances previous research by developing a systematic framework on the basis of trust for understanding and promoting interface management. Understanding the in-depth underlying interrelations of trust, openness, and communication can contribute to improving alignment between stakeholders and to appropriately applying interface management in practice. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0001351. © 2017 American Society of Civil Engineers. Author keywords: Engineer-procure-construct; Interface management; Trust; Information sharing; Communication; Social network; Organizational boundary; Contracting. Introduction The engineering-procurement-construction (EPC) method is gaining acceptance worldwide (Hale et al. 2009). With a fast-track lifecycle, the EPC method can achieve lower costs and a reduced project duration by integrating the design, procurement, and construction processes (Back and Moreau 2000). However, the adoption of concurrent design, procurement, and construction increases the uncertainties and complexities of EPC projects, which makes it 1 Doctoral Candidate, Institute of Project Management and Construction Technology, State Key Laboratory of Hydroscience and Engineering, Tsinghua Univ., Beijing 100084, China. 2 Associate Professor, Institute of Project Management and Construction Technology, State Key Laboratory of Hydroscience and Engineering, Tsinghua Univ., Beijing 100084, China (corresponding author). E-mail: twz@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn 3 Research Engineer, Electric Power Planning and Engineering Institute of China, Beijing 100120, China; Institute of Project Management and Construction Technology, Tsinghua Univ., Beijing 100084, China. 4 Professor, Dept. of Infrastructure Engineering, Univ. of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia. 5 Senior Research Fellow, Dept. of Infrastructure Engineering, Univ. of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia. 6 Doctoral Candidate, Institute of Project Management and Construction Technology, State Key Laboratory of Hydroscience and Engineering, Tsinghua Univ., Beijing 100084, China. Note. This manuscript was submitted on October 6, 2016; approved on March 14, 2017; published online on June 21, 2017. Discussion period open until November 21, 2017; separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, © ASCE, ISSN 0733-9364. © ASCE more difficult to control and manage interfaces when in project execution (Lee et al. 2006). Interface management is associated with managing common boundaries between or among interacting organizations/ stakeholders, systems, and project phases (Lin 2013). The Construction Industry Institute (CII) created a research team to study interface management in 2012 and defined it as the “management of communications, relationships, and deliverables among two or more interface stakeholders” (CII 2014). It has been considered an effective way to improve stakeholder alignment, enhance communication and coordination, and reduce potential conflicts and transaction costs in advance (Nooteboom 2004). Projects with systematic interface management are likely to have better cost performance (Shokri et al. 2015a, b). Implementing interface management can improve partnering between project stakeholders throughout overlapping phases and prevent the problems that stem from incomplete information and miscommunication (Chen et al. 2008). Moreover, interface management can achieve its fullest potential in an EPC project because it can be applied and coordinated extensively given its high degree of integration of design, procurement, and construction (Shokri et al. 2014; Chen et al. 2010). Managing the inherent interdependencies between organizations in projects requires a high degree of trust-based coordination, sharing and exchanging information, and solving emerging conflicts (Galbraith 1973). Existing studies agree that interface management, which is an information- and relational-processing activity, is closely related to trust, openness, and communication (Chen et al. 2008). However, comprehension of the relationships among trust, openness, and communication is descriptive and qualitative, and limited research illustrates their multilateral 04017061-1 J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 2017, 143(9): 04017061 J. Constr. Eng. Manage. Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by University of California, San Diego on 06/21/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved. relationships using quantitative approaches. To address this gap, a conceptual model is established and empirically tested to reveal the cause-effect relationships among trust, openness, communication, and their effect on interface management performance in EPC projects in a systematic manner. By drawing a holistic picture, understanding of the in-depth underlying interrelations of trust, openness, and communication can contribute to fully maximizing the potential benefits of interface management and to appropriately apply interface management in practice. Fig. 1. Conceptual model for interface management in EPC projects Conceptual Model of Interface Management Literature Review An interface is formed in the course of interrelation and interaction among different organizations and stakeholders. An organizational interface is a reciprocal relation between interdependent entities (Brown 1983). Interfaces have been classified into different categories such as internal, external, physical, contractual, organizational, static, and dynamic (Chen et al. 2007; Pavitt and Gibb 2003; Morris 1983). The focus in this research will be on interorganizational interfaces in EPC projects. Previous studies have identified inaccurate and inefficient information exchange as the main reason for interface issues (Huang et al. 2008; Miles and Ballard 2002; Al-Hammad 2000). Insufficient and inefficient communication hinders interface information from effectively flowing and being exchanged across organizational boundaries, which can result in poor interface management performance (Chen et al. 2008). Network theory is another way to consider interface management in EPC projects. Diverse project stakeholders, such as owners, contractors, designers, engineers, suppliers, local government, financial organizations, and local residents (Wang et al. 2013; Tang et al. 2008), with their complicated interfaces are fundamentally a social network. In this network, members’ close interactions can enhance free flow and exchange of resources (such as information, knowledge, technologies, money, and materials). This entails the establishment of links that are not constrained by organizational boundaries to ensure the efficient transmission of the required resources among organizations (Nadler and Tushman 1997). The networks of construction projects, however, tend to be less cohesive and unstable because they are mainly one-off and temporary, being disbanded at the end of a project (Kadefors 2004). It is therefore a challenge to increase the cohesion of an EPC project’s social network. To deal with the complex interface issue, it is essential to improve interorganizational activities and govern the relationships and interactions between parties, which can be promoted by partnering (Tang et al. 2006). With the core concept of win-win, partnering allows the active and effective exchange of resources through diverse channels (Hong et al. 2012). By establishing a long-term commitment among project participants, partnering creates the potential for development of a shared culture and a cooperative atmosphere that disregards organizational boundaries. Developing partnering relationships should be based on trust, openness, communication, common interests, and a mutual understanding of the individual expectations of project participants (CII 1991). Nevertheless, the specific aspects of partnering that directly improve interface management have not been comprehensively studied. There is a need to better understand how trust, openness, and communication are interrelated to improve interface management performance in EPC projects. Thus, a conceptual model has been © ASCE developed to investigate the cause-effect relationships among these ideals on the theoretical basis of previous studies (Ceric 2016, 2015; Manu et al. 2015; Brewer and Strahorn 2012; Jäger 2008; Tang et al. 2006; Kadefors 2004; Crowley and Karim 1995; Williamson 1979), as shown in Fig. 1. The objective of this model is to improve interface management by achieving a greater level of trust, openness, and communication among stakeholders. Trust In the construction industry, the ideal of trust between stakeholders is receiving more and more attention (Ceric 2015; Manu et al. 2015; Kadefors 2004; Bonet et al. 2000; Sarker et al. 1998). Trust, communication, and commitment are of great importance in developing a collaborative culture in construction (Gorse and Emmitt 2003). Trust can even be thought of as a route to successful project management (Brewer and Strahorn 2012). One important objective of interface management is to reduce risks and transaction costs caused by information asymmetry between parties in business interactions (Jäger 2008). Specifically, EPC project contracts are normally signed on the basis of conceptual design, leaving high uncertainties, and EPC activities in project implementation are reciprocally interdependent. In this circumstance, in which uncertainty and interdependency coexist, a critical driver for project participants to effectively interact is trust (Schoorman et al. 2007). Thus, trust is one of the most important strategies for addressing information asymmetry existing between parties (Ceric 2016), and can be considered an essential component in managing interorganizational relationships and developing satisfactory working boundaries among interdependent project parties (Rousseau et al. 1998). From the perspective of the principal-agent theory, dealing with information asymmetry is closely related to aligning the interests of both agents and principals (Akerlof 1970; Stiglitz and Weiss 1981; Eisenhardt 1989). Trust among owners, contractors, designers, and suppliers in construction projects can be explained by this theory (Turner and Müller 2004; Jäger 2008). The establishment of trust can help develop confidence among parties and encourage them to exchange ideas and resources. A climate of trust enables project actors to make their organizational boundaries more flexible and permeable, which allows active interorganizational exchange and communication (Crowley and Karim 1995). Within an environment of trust, project participants can spontaneously engage in sharing useful information and working cooperatively to realize their common goals, which can considerably reduce transaction costs and avoid opportunistic behavior during the process of interaction (Williamson 1979). The benefits of trust can be achieved through promoting communication among stakeholders and thus improving project performance—for example, saving construction costs and reducing project risks (Cheung et al. 2013; Tang et al. 2007). Trust is also the base for project participants to form long-term partnering 04017061-2 J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 2017, 143(9): 04017061 J. Constr. Eng. Manage. relationships for achieving strategic benefits, such as reducing owners’ transaction costs when selecting competent contractors, and expanding the market share for contractors to win more jobs (Morgan and Hunt 1994; Wang et al. 2016). Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by University of California, San Diego on 06/21/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved. Openness Openness is the extent to which project participants share their ideas with other stakeholders without suspecting hidden motives that other stakeholders might have and without hiding key information (Suprapto et al. 2014; Tang et al. 2006). It is widely acknowledged that openness between project participants is based on trust, mutual commitment, and shared vision (Anvuur and Kumaraswamy 2007; Bresnen and Marshall 2000). Different from trust, which is attitudinal in nature (Cheung et al. 2003), openness focuses on unrestricted and transparent access to information and knowledge (Peter and Deimann 2013). Tightly organized interfaces with closed external boundaries not only limit project participants from interacting with each other freely and openly; they also prevent information from being transmitted accurately and in a timely way, which is detrimental to smooth implementation of projects (Crowley and Karim 1995). An open climate makes organizational boundaries more permeable and flexible. Openness is an ideal condition for efficient communication and for sharing information and resources, thereby encouraging project participants to cooperatively deal with interface-related issues (Amabile et al. 2004). Openness gives people from different organizations access to the necessary resources and information to execute the project, thus preventing interface issues from arising. As one of the benefits of openness, exchange of integration information across organizational boundaries can contribute to saving time and money (Back and Moreau 2000). The open sharing of information also discourages people from behaving opportunistically (Hargadon and Sutton 1997), resulting in reduced project risk and uncertainty projects (Wong and Cheung 2005). Project definition in EPC contracts is normally unclear because such contracts are prepared on the basis of conceptual design and incomplete information, leaving many internal uncertainties (Love et al. 2011). Open sharing of information between contractors and designers is essential to keeping design documents accurate and uniform. This mutual information feedback between contractors and designers can help optimize design, minimize rework, and improve constructability (Wang et al. 2016). Information sharing among project participants leads to substantial transaction cost reduction because less money is spent to obtain necessary information for decision making. Communication Communication refers to the flow of data, information, knowledge, experience, and ideas between project participants, which requires management of various interfaces and interconnections (Tang et al. 2006). Communication is considered to be vital for delivering projects successfully and has a great impact on the performance of construction projects (Bakens et al. 2005). Because valued information and resources exist in different organizations involving project delivery, establishing links across organizational boundaries to ensure that they flow efficiently between organizations is essential (Nadler and Tushman 1997). Efficient communication promotes cooperation and collaboration among project participants on the basis of trust (Sarker et al. 1998), which is critical to interface management (Shokri et al. 2012). Sound communication assists in preventing interface © ASCE issues and, should problems arise, is also a key element of conflict resolution (Crowley and Karim 1995). Consistent, cross-functional communication assists in interface conflicts being identified and tracked early (Wright 1997). When interface problems occur, effective and direct communication can help project participants analyze the causes and jointly seek solutions (Dettman and Bayer 2012). Effective information flow, relying on high communication quality between project stakeholders, can play a mediating role in the relationship between trust and project performance (Cheung et al. 2013). Interface Management Performance Compared with the traditional method of design-bid-build (DBB), more uncertainties and complexities remain in the EPC approach, which may make it riskier, especially for contractors (Öztaş and Ökmen 2004). Interface management is a proven approach employed to respond to dynamic changes, reduce risks (Chen et al. 2007), and mitigate the adverse influence of project complexity in EPC projects (Ahn et al. 2016). Good interface management performance not only aids uncertainty reduction by standardizing handling processes and workflows for diverse interfaces but also enhances complex relationships in the social network by improving coordination and cooperation of project stakeholders. Poor interface management performance and interface mismatches are often responsible for delays and excessive rework (Chen et al. 2007). It is expected that trust, openness, and communication will assist in achieving good interface management performance in terms of quality, time, and cost. Trust between parties is the cornerstone of interface management. Based on trust and mutual commitment, project participants are more likely to be open to sharing their valued resources, enabling more permeable and flexible organizational boundaries. But having the willingness to be open is not sufficient to realize good interface management performance. Actions such as establishing effective communication channels that adapt to organizational structure and characteristics are required to convey accurate and comprehensive interface information and to facilitate efficient information exchange. Designing moderate interface mechanisms for multidisciplinary and multiorganizational communication among parities is essential to achieving timely communication, coordination, and cooperation. Empirical Research Questions Exploring factors that have an impact on interorganization interface management, and how they interact to promote high interface management performance, is the central aspect of the model concept. Specifically, this study aims to examine the following research questions: • What is the level of trust between contractors and the interfacerelated stakeholders in EPC projects? • What is the degree of openness between contractors and the interface-related stakeholders in EPC projects? • What is the level of communication efficiency between contractors and the interface-related stakeholders in EPC projects? • What is the level of interface management performance in EPC projects? • What are the interrelations among these themes? Answering these questions can broaden existing, currently limited, understanding of how these factors interrelate with the interorganizational interfaces in EPC projects. 04017061-3 J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 2017, 143(9): 04017061 J. Constr. Eng. Manage. Research Methodology interaction and flow of information among project participants, using the data collected from the second part of the questionnaire regarding the degree of interface management and trust between contractors and different stakeholders. Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by University of California, San Diego on 06/21/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved. Triangulated Approach for Data Collection A questionnaire survey was selected as the principal method for collecting quantitative data. It was complemented by interviews for further learning the views of the selected respondents (Love et al. 2002). The questionnaire (see Appendix S1) was developed from the conceptual model and included two parts. The first part was to extract general information about respondents such as positions, involved projects, and working experience. In the second part, respondents were required to evaluate the following status on a five-point Likert scale based on their experience in delivering EPC projects: (1) level of trust with stakeholders, (2) degree of openness with stakeholders, (3) level of communication with stakeholders, and (4) performance of interface management with stakeholders. Because Chinese contractors are becoming more and more active in the international market [65 were listed as among the top 250 international contractors in 2015 (ENR 2015)], they were chosen as questionnaire respondents. A total of 165 questionnaires were sent out to international EPC contractors in China either by mail or delivered in hand. After excluding two invalid questionnaires, 107 effective questionnaires were returned with an acceptable response rate of 64.8%. On average, the respondents had 13 years of work experience in the construction industry, with rich knowledge and skills in executing international EPC projects. After completion of the questionnaires, semistructured interviews were conducted to obtain more detailed information about interface management in practice. Forty-two respondents with more than 10 years of experience in construction and holding senior company positions such as project manager were selected to interview. Questions from the questionnaire were used as the interview framework, and the respondents further explained their views on specific questions based on their experience. The outcomes of the face-to-face interviews were used to interpret the survey results for a deeper understanding of interface management in EPC projects. Data Analysis Techniques The collected data were analyzed employing Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS 19.0) and UCINET. The data analysis techniques adopted in this study included (1) ranking cases, (2) reliability test, (3) Pearson correlation, (4) path analysis, and (5) social network analysis. Means of samples and ranking cases were applied to reveal the level of trust, openness, communication, and interface management in delivering EPC projects. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was used to assess the reliability and validity of the data, with the hurdles 0.7 ≤ α < 0.8 (acceptable), 0.8 ≤ α < 0.9 (good), and α ≥ 0.9 (excellent) (Sharma 1996). Pearson correlation analysis was employed for measuring the strength of association between interface management performance of different stakeholders. Path analysis was applied to validate the relationships in the conceptual model. Social network analysis (SNA) is regarded as a powerful way to exhibit interrelationships between individuals or organizations by capturing and visualizing the social network structure and interactions among multiple stakeholders (Bourne and Walker 2006; Cova and Salle 2006; Rowley 1997). It can be used to compresence and analyze interface management in construction projects viathe sociogram, which is a mathematical technique to formulate interactions between actors (Shokri et al. 2015a, b). Because interface issues are fundamentally related to social networks, SNA was applied in this research as a quantitative method to reflect the dynamic © ASCE Survey Results Trust To understand the level of trust between project stakeholders in EPC projects, the respondents were required to rate the level of trust by responding on a five-point Likert scale (1 ¼ very low and 5 ¼ very high). The results are given in Table 1. Referring to the table, Cronbach’s alpha value for the level of trust is 0.868, which indicates that the internal consistency reliability of the data is good (Sharma 1996). The top three scores are given to trust between contractors and owners, trust between contractors and suppliers, and trust between contractors and designers, which demonstrates that international EPC contractors have confidence in suppliers, owners, and designers. The score of trust between contractors and local residents is the lowest, indicating that contractors’ relations with stakeholders indirectly involved in projects is relatively weak. Openness Table 2 summarizes the degree of openness between stakeholders evaluated by respondents on a Likert scale of 1 (very low) to 5 (very high). Cronbach’s alpha value for the degree of openness is 0.887 (Table 2), which indicates that the internal consistency reliability of the data is good (Sharma 1996). The degree of openness between contractors and designers receives the highest, followed by openness between contractors and suppliers, which demonstrates that contractors, designers, and suppliers in international EPC projects have a high degree of openness with each other. This is because designers, suppliers, and contractors are the key members of the project team and are reciprocally interdependent in the business chain. Dealing with multiple interface issues requires project participants to be open to sharing information and resources, which can merge their organizational boundaries and, consequently, Table 1. Level of Trust between Contractors and Project Stakeholders Trust Contractors–owners Contractors–suppliers Contractors–designers Contractors–local government Contractors–consultants Contractors–financial organizations Contractors–subcontractors Contractors–local residents Rating Rank Cronbach’s α 4.02 4.02 4.00 3.74 3.71 3.71 3.60 3.52 1 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 0.868 Table 2. Degree of Openness between Contractors and Stakeholders Openness Contractors–designers Contractors–suppliers Contractors–owners Contractors–consultants Contractors–financial organizations Contractors–local residents Contractors–local government Contractors–subcontractors 04017061-4 J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 2017, 143(9): 04017061 Rating Rank Cronbach’s α 3.94 3.83 3.77 3.69 3.67 3.61 3.58 3.52 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0.887 J. Constr. Eng. Manage. Table 3. Efficiency of Communication between Contractors and Stakeholders Communication Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by University of California, San Diego on 06/21/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved. Contractors–designers Contractors–suppliers Contractors–owners Contractors–consultants Contractors–financial organizations Contractors–local residents Contractors–subcontractors Contractors–local government Rating Rank Cronbach’s α 3.99 3.83 3.74 3.74 3.70 3.61 3.54 3.52 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0.884 as the best (4.00), and the performance of interface management between contractors and suppliers (3.95) and between contractors and subcontractors (3.85) rank second and third, respectively, demonstrating that interface management performance among contractors, designers, suppliers, and subcontractors is high. Interface management performance between contractors and local residents scores the lowest (3.25), indicating much room for improvement. Pearson correlation was performed to understand the relationships between contractors and interface-related stakeholders, with the results presented in Table 4. The interface management performance correlation between contractors and stakeholders is statistically significant (p < 0.05). However, the correlations for “contractors–financial organizations” and “contractors–designers,” and “contractors–financial organizations” and “contractors– subcontractors” are not significant. These positive correlations show that the interface between contractors and individual stakeholders can affect interactions between contractors and other stakeholders. For example, the project managers interviewed indicated that good coordination with the Export-Import Bank of China allow them to efficiently assist owners in obtaining export credits, which not only give impetus to a project but also enhance relationships between contractors and owners. The results of the correlations also reveal that project stakeholders interweave with each other and that networking exists in all project delivery processes. significantly enhance work efficiency. The score of openness between contractors and subcontractors is the lowest (3.52), indicating that there is still much room for contractors to improve openness with subcontractors. Communication Table 3 summarizes the efficiency of communication between stakeholders, rated by respondents on a Likert five-point scale ranging from 1 (low) to 5 (high). According to the table, Cronbach’s alpha value of the efficiency of communication is 0.884, indicating that there is a good level of internal data consistency (Sharma 1996). Communication between contractors and designers (3.99) receives the highest score, followed by contractors and suppliers (3.83); communication between contractors and local government scores the lowest (3.52). These results indicate contractors’ emphasis on communicating efficiently with their main partners—namely, designers and suppliers. It is not surprising that contractors have the lowest communication efficiency with local government. In some circumstances, in dealing with issues such as permitting and land use, the contractor needs the help of local government. However, because of the long approval process and bureaucracy, the efficiency of local government is usually low, which is a potential political risk for international projects (Du et al. 2016). Testing the Model Path Analysis To test the relationships among trust, openness, communication, and interface management performance as developed in the model (Fig. 1), path analysis was applied with the results shown in Table 5. First, openness is highly correlated with trust [β ¼ 0.900 (p < 0.01)]. Second, trust and openness are positively related to communication [β ¼ 0.303 (p < 0.01) and β ¼ 0.663 (p < 0.01), respectively], with trust, openness, and communication collectively predicting interface management performance [β ¼ 0.314 (p < 0.05), β ¼ −0.058 (p > 0.05), and β ¼ 0.542 (p < 0.01), respectively]. Third, the effect that openness exerts on interface management performance has decreased from the original β ¼ 0.732 to β ¼ 0.058, demonstrating that openness between stakeholders influences interface management performance by enhancing communication. Fourth, the effect that trust exerts on interface management performance has decreased from the original β ¼ 0.749 to β ¼ 0.314, demonstrating the partial mediation effect of communication between trust and interface management performance. Interface Management Performance The performance of interface management in EPC projects is rated on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (poor) to 5 (good) and is tabulated in the second column of Table 4. Cronbach’s alpha value for the performance of interface management between stakeholders is 0.881 (Table 4), indicating good internal consistency reliability (Sharma 1996). The performance of interface management between contractors and designers is ranked Table 4. Performance and Correlations of Interface Management between Contractors and Stakeholders Interface C-D C-S C-SU C-C C-O C-FO C-LG C-LR Rating Rank C–D C–S C–SU C–C C–O C–FO C–LG C–LR 4.00 3.95 3.85 3.78 3.68 3.41 3.36 3.25 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 0.597a 0.585a 0.318a 0.476a 0.158 0.422a 0.446a — 1 0.511a 0.475a 0.353a 0.345a 0.346a 0.347a — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 1 0.214b 0.530a 0.144 0.529a 0.333a 1 0.473a 0.647a 0.459a 0.253a 1 0.319a 0.610a 0.287a 1 0.396a 0.468a 1 0.540a Note: C–C = contractors–consultants; C–D = contractors–designers; C–FO = contractors–financial organizations; C–LG = contractors–local government; C–LR = contractors–local residents; C–O = contractors–owners; C–SU = contractors–subcontractors; C–S = contractors–suppliers. a Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed). b Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two-tailed). © ASCE 04017061-5 J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 2017, 143(9): 04017061 J. Constr. Eng. Manage. Table 5. Test of Relationships among Trust, Openness, Communication, and Interface Management (IM) Independent variable Dependent variable Trust Trust Openness Trust Openness Trust Openness Communication Trust Openness Communication Openness Communication Communication Communication — IM performance IM performance IM performance IM performance — — Step 1 2 3 Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by University of California, San Diego on 06/21/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved. 4 5 R2a β 0.808 0.900a 0.808 0.899a 0.873 0.935a 0.890 0.303a — 0.663a 0.557 0.749a 0.531 0.732a 0.589 0.770a 0.369 0.314b — −0.058 — 0.542a Centrality Degree t 21.169 21.044 27.032 4.085 8.950 11.590 10.994 12.373 2.064 −0.309 2.901 Closeness Betweenness Network type Trust Interface Trust Interface Trust Interface Owners Suppliers Designers Consultants Local government Financial organizations Subcontractors Local residents 0.746 0.746 0.728 0.588 0.561 0.553 0.491 0.482 0.553 0.746 0.737 0.614 0.412 0.439 0.658 0.325 0.644 0.644 0.630 0.535 0.521 0.516 0.485 0.481 0.498 0.616 0.610 0.530 0.437 0.447 0.556 0.406 0.154 0.183 0.161 0.072 0.084 0.087 0.053 0.056 0.099 0.186 0.169 0.122 0.033 0.041 0.120 0.021 way to reveal the complex interactions among project participants and pinpoint the key network players. Compared with a one-mode network that studies same sets of entities, such as person by person and organization by organization, the two-mode network aims to explore the relations between different sets of entities, such as persons and organizations (Borgatti 2009). This study adopted the two-mode network to analyze relations between questionnaire respondents and project stakeholders using measures of centrality and network visualization. Note: R2a = adjust R2 ; β = standardized regression coefficient. a p < 0.01. b p < 0.05. Fig. 2. Final model for interface management in international EPC projects; *Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed); ** Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two-tailed) As shown in Fig. 2, trust influences interface management performance by driving openness and effective communication. The path analysis results validate the paths shown in Fig. 1. Path 1: trust → interface management performance; Path 2: trust → communication → interface management performance; and Path 3: trust → openness → communication → interface management performance. The first and second paths indicate that trust not only is directly conducive to good interface management performance but also has a positive impact on interface management performance through enhanced communication. The third path shows that trust has a significant impact on openness and that openness exerts its influence on interface management performance through improved communication. These paths demonstrate that communication plays a partial mediation role in the relationship between trust and interface management performance, but plays a full mediation role between openness and interface management performance. The results indicate that establishing effective communication channels that adapt to a project’s characteristics and delivery processes is essential for trust and openness to facilitate interface management performance. Social Network Analysis Construction projects are multidisciplinary and multiorganizational. As the results in Table 4 reveal, the interwoven relationships among stakeholders fundamentally represent a social network. Because of the dynamic and one-off nature of construction projects, the networks in the construction industry are normally less cohesive and unstable than those in the manufacturing industry (Chinowsky et al. 2008), and the interactions among project stakeholders in these networks are complicated. Social network analysis is an ideal © ASCE Table 6. Centralities of the Interface and Trust Networks Measures of Centrality Centrality is a concept used to measure the prominence of an actor in a network (Freeman 1978). If an actor’s centrality is high, he or she has strong influence or power in the network. The three most common measures of centrality are (1) degree, indicating the number of direct connections to an actor; (2) closeness, capturing how independent an actor is from the communications flow and measured by the number of an actor’s indirect connections; and (3) betweeness, assessing the power or capability of an actor by calculating how often he or she travels a path between two nonconnected nodes” (Freeman 1978). A person with high betweeness centrality occupies a brokerage position and can be considered a gatekeeper or broker who has the power of to control the resources and information flowing through the network (Krackhardt 1992). Table 6 scores the three centralities s of the trust and interface networks of EPC contractors and project stakeholders. It shows that, in a trust network, owners, suppliers, and designers are the top three in all three types of centrality, demonstrating that they are highly reliable from the perspective of international EPC contractors. This also suggests that EPC contractors have high confidence that owners will meet their commitments and that designers and suppliers can competently carry out their assigned project tasks. Comparatively, in an interface network, suppliers, designers, and subcontractors are the top three in the three types of centrality, although subcontractors rank fourth in betweenness centrality. This is quite reasonable because international EPC contractors, designers, suppliers, and subcontractors are team members and have high connectivity with each other in project-implementing processes. Notably, suppliers play significant roles in EPC contractors’ trust and interface networks. Good relationships with key suppliers can help contractors obtain cost-effective materials and equipment in global markets. This is is particularly important when considering that a large proportion of EPC projects’ costs are related to material and equipment, especially in large-scale and technically complex projects such as hydropower (Azambuja et al. 2014; Du et al. 2016). As shown in Table 6, suppliers are first in both trust and interface networks regarding degree, closeness, and betweeness centralities, indicating that EPC contractors have established high levels of trust-based cooperation with suppliers to improve international EPC project performance. 04017061-6 J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 2017, 143(9): 04017061 J. Constr. Eng. Manage. Table 7. Spearman Correlations among Stakeholder Rankings in Centralities Trust network Degree Closeness Betweeness Degree Closeness Betweeness Degree Closeness Betweeness 1.000 1.000a 0.838a — 1.000 0.838a — — 1.000 1.000 1.000a 0.976a — 1.000 0.976a — — 1.000 a Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by University of California, San Diego on 06/21/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved. Interface network Centrality Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed). To explore whether there is consensus among the stakeholders’ rankings in different centralities, Spearman rank correlation coefficients were calculated and are summarized in Table 7. The results show that in both networks, the correlation coefficients among degree, closeness, and betweenness centralities are higher than 0.8 (at p < 0.01), indicating that they are significantly correlated with each other. Sociograms of International EPC Contractor Trust and Interface Networks Based on degree centralities, this study used two-mode network analysis for visualizing the relations between international EPC contractors and project stakeholders to further understand trust and interface networks. The results are shown in Figs. 3 and 4, which represent the multidimensional scaling of the trust and interface networks of EPC contractors, respectively. The 107 questionnaire respondents are represented by round nodes, and 8 stakeholders in EPC projects are represented by square nodes. The relations between actors (the respondents and the stakeholders) are represented by links (Wasserman and Faust 1994; Pryke 2004). Each node is sized according to the actor’s betweenness centrality, which is a measure of the extent to which the actor controls the interaction of others. In the trust network (Fig. 3), (1) the nodes representing the stakeholders are close to each other if they have trust relationships with almost the same respondents; (2) the nodes representing the respondents are located close to each other if they have trust relationships with almost the same stakeholders; and (3) the stakeholder nodes are close to the respondent nodes if those respondents have trust relationships with those stakeholders (Borgatti and Everett 1997). The rules of interpreting the interface network (Fig. 4) are similar to those for the trust network. The positions of actors indicate the number of their linkages to others: the actors with more ties to others are located in the center, whereas those with fewer ties are scattered around the periphery. As shown in Fig. 3, in the trust network the owners, designers, and suppliers are located in the center of the sociogram, suggesting that EPC contractors’ trust relationships with these three stakeholders are most influential. This is in tune with the survey results in Table 1, where trust between EPC contractors and these three stakeholders is ranked at the top. The interviewed project managers confirmed the significant impacts of building trust relationship with these stakeholders, saying, for example, “In the bidding stage, many of our jobs were largely attributed to owners’ trust based on our good industry reputation or our past successful cooperation experiences, and in the implementing stage, we highly relied on trust-worthy designers and suppliers to help us fulfill the EPC project tasks.” Other stakeholders such as local residents are located relatively far from the center of the interface network, indicating that EPC contractors’ trust relationships with these stakeholders need to be gradually developed. In Fig. 4, it is observed that the eight stakeholders can be grouped into four clusters. The first cluster, consisting of designers, suppliers, and subcontractors, is located in the core of the sociogram, illustrating that EPC contractors interact most frequently with these stakeholders. This makes intuitive sense because EPC contractors take total responsibility for carrying out engineering, Fig. 3. Sociogram of trust network of international EPC contractors and stakeholders © ASCE 04017061-7 J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 2017, 143(9): 04017061 J. Constr. Eng. Manage. Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by University of California, San Diego on 06/21/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved. Fig. 4. Sociogram of interface network of international EPC contractors and stakeholders procurement, and construction, and designers, suppliers, and subcontractors are the essential upstream and downstream partners in the business chain. This is in line with the survey results in Table 4, where the performance of interface management between EPC contractors and these three stakeholders is ranked at the top. The second cluster includes two nodes representing owners and consultants. As the owner’s agents, consultants represent the owners by sending orders to contractors and approving design, equipment manufacture, and construction options (Tang et al. 2009). Therefore, in many circumstances consultants’ behaviors are considered the owners’ organizational behavior from the perspective of EPC contractors. This explains why the two nodes are near each other in the interface network (Fig. 4). The third cluster in Fig. 4 includes local governments and financial organizations. Local government exercises permitting power over a project by evaluating its influence on the economy, society, and the environment. Financial organizations, such as the ExportImport Bank of China, normally require local governments’ security for loans to develop a project. From the perspective of international EPC contractors, interactions with these two stakeholders are less frequent than they are for the first and the second clusters. However, local governments and financial organizations can largely decide whether or not a project will proceed. Local residents are located peripherally with the lowest centrality in the network of EPC contractors (Fig. 4), indicating that contractors’ ties with local residents are relatively weak. Local residents’ low participation can be attributed to the lack of a mechanism to incorporate community needs into the project development process. Besides, local governments and owners are more critical in dealing with the issues such as land acquisition and resident resettlement, whereas EPC contractors mainly focus on building local infrastructure and protecting the environment. Discussion The results of this research have confirmed and advanced the conclusions of previous studies and have broad theoretical and practical implications. Testing the model of interface management in EPC projects supports the belief in trust’s prominent role in © ASCE dealing with transaction costs arising from uncertainty and opportunism (Williamson 1979; Zaheer et al. 1998; Cheung and Pang 2013). Fig. 2 shows that trust can both directly enhance openness and influence communication to improve interface management performance, showing that it can reduce information asymmetry and lower monitoring costs by promoting openness and effective communication among stakeholders. It is notable that trust, openness, communication, and interface management performance of “contractors–designers” and “contractors–suppliers” are all ranked in the top three in Tables 1–4, demonstrating that EPC contractors perform well with designers and suppliers in terms of interface management. The results of social network analysis can explain the critical roles of designers and suppliers in the networks of international EPC contractors. As shown in Table 6 and Figs. 3 and 4, suppliers have the highest centralities and are located in the center of the trust and interface networks, showing that their ties spread out among various international EPC contractors. The results support the proposition that procurement risk management is critical in delivering international large-scale, technically complex EPC projects because procurement costs account for a large share of total project investment (Azambuja et al. 2014; Du et al. 2016). By establishing long-term trust-based cooperative relationships with suppliers worldwide, contractors can use their global channels to reduce logistical uncertainties caused by long-distance transportation and thereby reduce equipment and materials delivery time and cost. The interviewed project managers indicated that they prefer major equipment suppliers from the home country based on their successful cooperative experiences with them. Choosing these suppliers lowers the costs stable and cost-effective equipment and materials and reduces problems associated with the equipment design– manufacturing–installation interface. Designers also have high centralities and are located in the center of the networks (Table 6 and Fig. 4), demonstrating their strong role in delivering EPC projects. EPC contracts signed between contractors and owners are normally based on conceptual design, leaving high uncertainties in the early stages of project implementation. Interviewed project managers confirmed that it is critical for contractors to create interface conversations between 04017061-8 J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 2017, 143(9): 04017061 J. Constr. Eng. Manage. Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by University of California, San Diego on 06/21/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved. designers and involved participants such as owners, consultants, suppliers, and local residents in order to clearly interpret the owners’ requirements, consider social and environmental issues, specify technical standards, and choose feasible design options through multiple communication channels. This study shows that the more project participants communicate, the more they understand each other’s needs and potential problems, which can prevent issues arising from incomplete information (Gainey and Klass 2003). For example, a contractor in Indonesia discovered that a preliminary design might lead to much higher construction costs than represented by the bidding price. Open communication between the designer and the contractor enabled them to integrate each other’s design and construction expertise to jointly achieve an optimum and cost-effective design option that saved approximately US $50 million. This case is in line with the finding that effective communication has a strong influence on the optimization of design options and design change management (Wang et al. 2016). It is also notable that owners’ positions in the trust network differ from their positions in the interface network. Whereas designers and suppliers occupy central positions in both networks, owners are in the core of the trust network (Fig. 3) but are relatively far from the center of the interface network (Fig. 4). This discrepancy can be explained by the final model (Fig. 2), in which interface management performance is influenced not only by trust but also by openness and communication. Because EPC contractors take sole responsibility for carrying out EPC tasks, owners are not actively involved in routine jobs. This is different from DBB projects, in which contractors need to interact with owners frequently in dealing with design errors and omissions, unforeseen site conditions, equipment and materials quality problems, and other relevant issues (Pishdad-Bozorgi and Garza 2012; Tang et al. 2013). The findings from this study have broad practical implications for improving the management of complicated interorganizational interfaces in international EPC projects. They can be translated into the practical strategies discussed next. First, the interface management model (Fig. 2) shows that building trust is fundamental to openness, communication, and interface management performance. This means that contractors should establish trust-based partnering relationships with stakeholders by creating a cooperative climate, allocating risks/rewards equitably, and enhancing team building in project implementation. Second, the study reveals communication’s direct mediational effects on interface management performance. This suggests that building formal and informal communication channels that adapt to EPC project characteristics and delivery processes should be emphasized to create trust and good interface management performance. Third, because openness is a significant element in improving interface management, measures should be taken to increase information sharing and traceabilityto reduce information asymmetry and conflicts arising from opportunistic behavior. Forth, the results of social network analysis highlight that contractors’ ties with local residents are relatively weak. Measures should be adopted to enhance local participation in dealing with social and environmental issues related to EPC projects, thereby incorporating community needs into project development. Conclusions Findings The engineering-procurement-construction (EPC) method is gaining acceptance worldwide because of its high efficiency and integrative solutions (Hale et al. 2009). A key challenge in delivering © ASCE international EPC projects is that various stakeholders and concurrent design, procurement, and construction processes increase complexities and difficulties in management interface. However, current studies lack a systematic way to identify the underlying factors in interface management performance or to analyze how these factors are interrelated. In this study, a conceptual model was established on the basis of a literature review and empirically tested with data collected from questionnaires and interviews. This research reveals that trust, openness, and communication play a critical role in improving interface management in EPC projects, and it depicts their multilateral relationships. The main findings of this research are discussed next. The survey outcomes outline the status of EPC contractors’ interface management regarding trust, openness and communication. The results demonstrate that, on the basis of trust and openness, EPC contractors have developed good relationships with the main project stakeholders such as owners, and are able to communicate efficiently with key EPC team members such as designers and suppliers. Path analysis of the conceptual model reveals three critical paths from trust to interface management performance: (1) trust → interface management performance; (2) trust → communication → interface management performance; and (3) trust → openness → communication → interface management performance (Fig. 2). These paths demonstrate that communication plays a partial mediation role in the relationship between trust and interface management performance but a full mediation role between openness and interface management performance. Social network analysis allows visualization of relations between international EPC contractors and project stakeholders to further understand trust and interface networks. In the trust network (Fig. 3), owners, designers, and suppliers are located in the center of the sociogram, suggesting that EPC contractors’ trust relationships with these three stakeholders are the most influential. In the interface network (Fig. 4), from the perspective of international EPC contractors, project stakeholders are grouped into four clusters. The first cluster, consisting of designers, suppliers, and subcontractors, is located in the core of the sociogram, illustrating that EPC contractors interact most frequently with these stakeholders, who are essential upstream and downstream partners in the business chain. The second cluster includes owners and consultants; in many circumstances, consultants represent owners in orders to contractors and design, equipment manufacture, and construction option approval. The third cluster includes local governments and financial organizations, which, in controlling project permission and financial support, largely decide whether or not a project will proceed. Local residents are at the periphery of the sociogram with the lowest centrality in the EPC contractor network (Fig. 4), indicating that international EPC contractors’ ties with local residents are relatively weak. It is noteworthy that owners’ positions differ between the trust network and the interface network. Owners locate in the core of the trust network, whereas they are relatively far from the center of the interface network. This can be explained by the difference between EPC projects and DBB projects: in EPC projects contractors take sole responsibility for tasks, in which owners are not actively involved. The findings suggest broad practical strategies to improve management of complicated interorganizational interfaces in international EPC projects. These include (1) building close interorganizational links and social networks with various project stakeholders to resolve problems of resource restriction; (2) promoting partnering among participants on the basis of trust and equitable risk/reward allocation to facilitate information sharing, mitigate 04017061-9 J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 2017, 143(9): 04017061 J. Constr. Eng. Manage. the impacts of uncertainty, and reduce conflicts caused by opportunistic behaviors; (3) establishing effective communication channels congruent with the project characteristics and EPC processes to bridge trust and good interface management performance; and (4) enhancing local residents’ participation in dealing with social and environmental issues related to EPC projects, thereby incorporating local community needs into project development. Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by University of California, San Diego on 06/21/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved. Contributions to the Body of Knowledge This study provides evidence of interdisciplinary connections among knowledge areas of trust, openness, communication, and interface management, thus contributing to the body of knowledge in both theory and practice. First, this study advances previous research on interface management (Shokri et al. 2015a, b, 2012; Chen et al. 2007; Pavitt and Gibb 2003) by developing a systematic framework based on trust for understanding and promoting interface management. Second, by drawing a holistic picture, this research reveals that trust not only directly promotes interface management but also exerts an influence on communication through enhanced openness, thereby improving interface management performance. By achieving a greater level of trust, a project team will be able to enhance openness and communication within the network, which in turn will lead to higher interface management performance. Third, this research provides valuable insights into relationships between stakeholders by combining interface management with social network theory. The results reveal the different impacts of stakeholders in the trust and interface networks of international EPC contractors, which can help contractors optimally allocate resources in interactions with high-impact stakeholders, such as designers, suppliers, and owners. Fourth, comprehensively understanding in-depth underlying interrelations can contribute to improving alignment between stakeholders and to appropriately applying interface management in practice. Specifically, the insights from this study can help contractors strategically develop their industrial relationships and handle complex interface issues to improve international EPC project outcomes. Limitations and Future Research Directions The main research limitation of this study is its use of data collected only from Chinese EPC contractors. Nevertheless, because the conceptual model is developed based on theories derived from worldwide experience, it appears that the insights it offers are transferable to interface management in different project delivery systems, such as design-bid-build (DBB) and build-operation-transfer (BOT)/ private-public-partnership (PPP). Future studies could be conducted to (1) validate the model by collecting data worldwide from different project delivery approaches and different perspectives of project participants such as clients, designers, and consultants; (2) identify more factors impacting the performance of interface management from a boarder view, considering the dynamic features of project execution; and (3) studying how to enhance efficient information circulation and reduce conflicts among interface-related stakeholders by developing appropriate industrial networks. Data Availability Statement Data analyzed during this study are available from the corresponding author by request. Information about the Journal’s data-sharing policy can be found here: http://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/%28 ASCE%29CO.1943-7862.0001263. © ASCE Acknowledgments Many thanks are offered to the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 51379104, 51579135, 51079070, 50539130, and 70671058), the State Key Laboratory of Hydroscience and Engineering (Grant Nos. 2013-KY-5, 2015-KY-5, and 2009-ZY-7), and the Major Science and Technology Research Project of Power China (Grant Nos. DJ-ZDZX-2015-01-02, DJ-ZDZX-2015-01-07). Special thanks are also given to the respondents for their generous contributions during the survey. Supplemental Data Appendix S1, the survey questionnaire, is available online in the ASCE Library (www.ascelibrary.org). References Ahn, S., Shokri, S., Lee, S., Haas, C., and Haas, R. (2016). “Exploratory study on the effectiveness of interface-management practices in dealing with project complexity in large-scale engineering and construction projects.” J. Manage. Eng., 10.1061/(ASCE)ME.1943-5479.0000488, 04016039. Akerlof, G. (1970). “The market for ‘lemons’: Quality uncertainty and the market mechanism.” Q. J. Econ., 84(3), 488–500. Al-Hammad, A. M. (2000). “Common interface problems among various construction parties.” J. Perform. Constr. Facil., 14(2), 71–74. Amabile, T. M., Schatzel, E. A., Moneta, G. B., and Kramer, S. J. (2004). “Leader behaviors and the work environment for creativity: Perceived leader support.” Leadersh. Q., 15(1), 5–32. Anvuur, A. M., and Kumaraswamy, M. M. (2007). “Conceptual model of partnering and alliancing.” J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 10.1061/(ASCE) 0733-9364(2007)133:3(225), 225–234. Azambuja, M., Ponticelli, S., and O’Brien, W. (2014). “Strategic procurement practices for the industrial supply chain.” J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0000851, 06014005. Back, W. E., and Moreau, K. A. (2000). “Cost and schedule impacts of information management on EPC process.” J. Manage. Eng., 10.1061 /(ASCE)0742-597X(2000)16:2(59), 59–70. Bakens, W., Foliente, G., and Jasuja, M. (2005). “Engaging stakeholders in performance-based building: Lessons from the Performance-Based Building (PeBBu) network.” Build. Res. Inf., 33(2), 149–158. Bonet, I., Frey, B. S., and Huck, S. (2000). More order and less law: On contract enforcement, trust and crowding (RWP00-009), John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard Univ., Cambridge, MA. Borgatti, S. P. (2009). “2-Mode concepts in social network analysis.” Encyclopedia of complexity and system science, Springer, New York. Borgatti, S. P., and Everett, M. G. (1997). “Network analysis of 2-mode data.” Social Networks, 19(3), 243–269. Bourne, L., and Walker, D. H. (2006). “Using a visualising tool to study stakeholder influence—Two Australian examples.” J. Project Manage., 37(1), 5–21. Bresnen, M., and Marshall, N. (2000). “Motivation, commitment and the use of incentives in partnerships and alliances.” Constr. Manage. Econ., 18(5), 587–598. Brewer, G., and Strahorn, S. (2012). “Trust and the project management body of knowledge.” Eng. Constr. Archit. Manage., 19(3), 286–305. Brown, L. D. (1983). Managing conflict at organizational interfaces, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. Cerić, A. (2015). “Trust in construction projects: Literature analysis using keywords.” Organiz. Technol. Manage. Constr. Int. J., 7(1), 1179–1185. Cerić, A. (2016). Trust in construction projects, Routledge, Oxon, MD. Chen, Q., Reichard, G., and Beliveau, Y. (2007). “Interface management— A facilitator of lean construction and agile project management.” Proc., Int. Group for Lean Construction, East Lansing, MI, 57–66. Chen, Q., Reichard, G., and Beliveau, Y. (2008). “Multiperspective approach to exploring comprehensive cause factors for interface issues.” 04017061-10 J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 2017, 143(9): 04017061 J. Constr. Eng. Manage. Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by University of California, San Diego on 06/21/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved. J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9364(2008)134:6(432), 432–441. Chen, Q., Reichard, G., and Beliveau, Y. (2010). “Object model framework for interface modeling and IT-oriented interface management.” J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0000120, 187–198. Cheung, S. O., Ng, T. S. T., Wong, S., and Suen, H. C. H. (2003). “Behavioral aspects in construction partnering.” Int. J. Project Manage., 21(5), 333–343. Cheung, S. O., and Pang, K. H. Y. (2013). “Anatomy of construction disputes.” J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862 .0000532, 15–23. Cheung, S. O., Yiu, T. W., and Lam, M. C. (2013). “Interweaving trust and communication with project performance.” J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0000681, 941–950. Chinowsky, P., Diekmann, J., and Galotti, V. (2008). “Social network model of construction.” J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 10.1061/(ASCE) 0733-9364(2008)134:10(804), 804–812. CII (Construction Industry Institute). (1991). In search of partnering excellence, Construction Industry Development Agency, Sydney, NSW, Australia. CII (Construction Industry Institute). (2014). Interface management implementation guideline (IMIGe), IR Interface Management, Univ. of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX. Cova, B., and Salle, R. (2006). “Communications and stakeholders.” The management of complex projects: A relationship approach, S. Pryke and H. Smyth, eds., Blackwell, Oxford, U.K., 131–146. Crowley, L. G., and Karim, M. A. (1995). “Conceptual model of partnering.” J. Manage. Eng., 10.1061/(ASCE)0742-597X(1995)11:5(33), 33–39. Dettman, K., and Bayer, D. (2012). “Alignment partnering: A bridge to ADR processes?” J. Legal Affairs Dispute Resolut. Eng. Constr., 5(2), 60–66. Du, L., et al. (2016). “Enhancing engineer-procure-construct project performance by partnering in international markets: Perspective from Chinese construction companies.” Int. J. Project Manage., 34(1), 30–43. Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). “Agency theory: An assessment and review.” Acad. Manage. Rev., 14(1), 57–74. ENR (Engineering News-Record). (2015). Top 250 international contractors, McGraw-Hill, New York. Freeman, L. C. (1978). “Centrality in social networks conceptual clarification.” Social Netw., 1(3), 215–239. Gainey, T. W., and Klaas, B. S. (2003). “The outsourcing of training and development: Factors impacting client satisfaction.” J. Manage. 29(2), 207–229. Galbraith, J. (1973). Designing complex organizations, Addison- Wesley, Boston. Gorse, C. A., and Emmitt, S. (2003). “Investigating interpersonal communication during construction progress meetings: Challenges and opportunities.” Eng. Constr. Archit. Manage., 10(4), 234–244. Hale, D. R., Shrestha, P. P., Gibson, G. E., Jr., and Migliaccio, G. C. (2009). “Empirical comparison of design/build and design/bid/build project delivery methods.” J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 10.1061/(ASCE)CO .1943-7862.0000017, 579–587. Hargadon, A., and Sutton, R. I. (1997). “Technology brokering and innovation in a product development firm.” Administrative Sci. Q., 42(4), 716–749. Hong, Y., Chan, D. W. M., Chan, A. P. C., and Yeung, J. F. Y. (2012). “Critical analysis of partnering trend in construction journals.” J. Manage. Eng., 10.1061/(ASCE)ME.1943-5479.0000084, 82–95. Huang, R. Y., Huang, C. T., Lin, H., and Ku, W. H. (2008). “Factor analysis of interface problems among construction parties-A case study of MRT.” J. Mar. Sci. Technol., 16(1), 52–63. Jäger, C. (2008). The principal-agent theory within the context of economic sciences, Herstellung und Verlag, Books on Demand, Norderstadt, Germany. Kadefors, A. (2004). “Trust in project relationships—Inside the black box.” Int. J. Project Manage., 22(3), 175–182. Krackhardt, D. (1992). “The strength of strong ties: The importance of philos in organizations.” Organizations and networks: Structure, form, © ASCE and action, N. Nohria and R. Eccles, eds., Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA, 216–239. Lee, S., Peña-Mora, F., and Park, M. (2006). “Reliability and stability buffering approach: Focusing on the issues of errors and changes in concurrent design and construction projects.” J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9364(2006)132:5(452), 452–464. Lin, Y. (2013). “Construction network-based interface management system.” Autom. Constr., 30, 228–241 . Love, P. E., Edwards, D. J., Irani, Z., and Goh, Y. M. (2011). “Dynamics of rework in complex offshore hydrocarbon projects.” J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0000377, 1060–1070. Love, P. E. D., Holt, G. D., and Li, H. (2002). “Triangulation in construction management research.” Eng. Constr. Archit. Manage., 9(4), 294–303. Manu, E., Ankrah, N., Chinyio, E., and Proverbs, D. (2015). “Trust influencing factors in main contractor and subcontractor relationships during projects.” Int. J. Project Manage., 33(7), 1495–1508. Miles, R. S., and Ballard, G. (2002). “Problems in the interfaces between mechanical design and construction: A research proposal.” J. Constr. Res., 3(1), 83–95. Morgan, R. M., and Hunt, S. D. (1994). “The commitment-trust theory of relationship marketing.” J. Marketing, 58(3), 20–38. Morris, P. W. G. (1983). “Managing project interfaces—Key points for project success.” Project management handbook, D. I. Cleland and W. R. Kings, eds., Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. Nadler, D. A., and Tushman, M. L. (1997). Competing by design: The power of organizational architecture, Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K. Nooteboom, U. (2004). “Interface, management improves on-time, on-budget delivery of megaprojects.” J. Pet. Technol., 56(8), 32–34. Öztaş, A., and Ökmen, Ö. (2004). “Risk analysis in fixed-price designbuild construction projects.” Build. Environ., 39(2), 229–237. Pavitt, T. C., and Gibb, A. G. F. (2003). “Interface management within construction: In particular, building façade.” J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9364(2003)129:1(8), 8–15. Peter, S., and Deimann, M. (2013). “On the role of openness in education: A historical reconstruction.” Open Prax., 5(1), 7–14. Pishdad-Bozorgi, P., and Garza, J. M. (2012). “Comparative analysis of design-bid-build and design-build from the standpoint of claims.” Proc., Construction Research Congress 2012, ASCE, Reston, VA, 21–30. Pryke, S. D. (2004). “Analysing construction project coalitions: Exploring the application of social network analysis.” Constr. Manage. Econ., 22(8), 787–797. Rousseau, D. M., Sitkin, S. B., Burt, R. S., and Camerer, C. (1988). “Not so different after all: A cross-discipline view on trust.” Acad. Manage. Rev., 23(3), 393–404. Rowley, T. J. (1997). “Moving beyond dyadic ties: A network theory of stakeholder influences.” Acad. Manage. Rev., 22(4), 887–910. Sarkar, M. B., Aulakh, P. S., and Cavusgil, S. T. (1998). “The strategic role of relational bonding in interorganizational collaborations: An empirical study of the global construction industry.” J. Int. Manage., 4(2), 85–107. Schoorman, F. D., Mayer, R. C., and Davis, J. H. (2007). “An integrative model of organizational trust: Past, present, and future.” Acad. Manage. Rev., 32(2), 344–354. Sharma, S., (1996). Applied multivariate techniques, Wiley, New York, 116–123. Shokri, S., Ahn, S., Czerniawski, T., Haas, C. T., and Lee, S. H. (2014). “Current state of interface management in mega-construction projects.” Proc., Construction Research Congress 2014, ASCE, Reston, VA, 2266–2275. Shokri, S., Ahn, S., Lee, S., Haas, C. T., and Haas, R. C. G. (2015a). “Current status of interface management in construction: Drivers and effects of systematic interface management.” J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 23(2), 04015070. Shokri, S., Haas, C. T., Haas, R. C. G., and Lee, S. H. (2015b). “Interfacemanagement process for managing risks in complex capital projects.” J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0000990, 04015069. Shokri, S., Safa, M., Haas, C. T., Haas, R. C., Maloney, K., and MacGillivray, S. (2012). “Interface management model for mega capital 04017061-11 J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 2017, 143(9): 04017061 J. Constr. Eng. Manage. Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by University of California, San Diego on 06/21/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved. projects.” Construction Research Congress 2012, ASCE, Reston, VA, 447–456. SPSS version 19.0 [Computer software]. IBM, Chicago. Stiglitz, J. E., and Weiss, A. (1981). “Credit rationing in markets with imperfect information.” Am. Econ. Rev., 71(3), 393–410. Suprapto, M., Bakker, H. L. M., and Mooi, H. G. (2014). “Relational factors in owner-contractor collaboration: The mediating role of teamworking.” Int. J. Project Manage., 33(6), 1347–1363. Tang, W., Duffield, C. F., and Young, D. M. (2006). “Partnering mechanism in construction: An empirical study on the Chinese construction industry.” J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9364(2006)132:3(217), 217–229. Tang, W., Li, Z., Qiang, M., Wang, S., and Lu, Y. (2013). “Risk management of hydropower development in China.” Energy, 60, 316–324. Tang, W., Qiang, M., Duffield, C. F., Young, D. M., and Lu, Y. (2007). “Risk management in the Chinese construction industry.” J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9364(2007)133:12(944), 944–956. Tang, W., Qiang, M., Duffield, C. F., Young, D. M., and Lu, Y. (2008). “Incentives in the Chinese construction industry.” J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9364(2008)134:7(457), 457–467. Tang, W., Qiang, M., Duffield, C. F., Young, D. M., and Lu, Y. (2009). “Enhancing total quality management by partnering in construction.” J. Prof. Issues Eng. Educ. Pract., 135(4), 129–141. © ASCE Turner, J. R., and Müller, R. (2004). “Communication and co-operation on projects between the project owner as principal and the project manager as agent.” Eur. Manage. J., 22(3), 327–336. UCINET [Computer software]. Analytic Technologies, Harvard, MA. Wang, S., Tang, W., and Li, Y. (2013). “Relationship between owners’ capabilities and project performance on development of hydropower projects in China.” J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 10.1061/(ASCE)CO .1943-7862.0000694, 1168–1178. Wang, T., Tang, W., Qi, D., Shen, W., and Huang, M. (2016). “Enhancing design management by partnering in delivery of international EPC projects: Evidences from Chinese construction companies.” J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0001082, 04015099. Wasserman, S., and Faust, K. (1994). Social network analysis, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA. Williamson, O. E. (1979). “Transaction-cost economics: The governance of contractual relations.” J. Law Econ., 22(2), 233–261. Wong, P. S. P., and Cheung, S. O. (2005). “Structural equation model of trust and partnering success.” J. Manage. Eng., 10.1061/(ASCE)0742 -597X(2005)21:2(70), 70–80. Wright, J. N. (1997). “Time and budget: The twin imperatives of a project sponsor.” Int. J. Project Manage., 15(3), 181–186. Zaheer, A., McEvily, B., and Perrone, V. (1998). “Does trust matter? Exploring the effects of interorganizational and interpersonal trust on performance.” Organiz. Sci., 9(2), 141–159. 04017061-12 J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 2017, 143(9): 04017061 J. Constr. Eng. Manage.