1
An Introduction to
Anatomy and
Physiology
Lecture Presentation by
Betsy C. Brantley
Valencia College
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.1: Focused Study
Focused study is important
• Basic approach in studying A&P:
• “What is the structure, and how does it work?”
• “Black Box”
• When you know what something does but not
how
• One of the most important concepts to learn:
• Homeostasis
• A relatively constant internal
environment
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.1: Focused Study
Tips on How to Succeed in Your A&P Course
• Approach the information in different ways.
• Set up a study schedule.
• Devote a block of time each day.
• Practice memorization.
• Avoid shortcuts.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.1: Focused Study
Tips on How to Succeed in Your A&P Course
(continued)
•
•
•
•
Attend all lectures.
Read your lecture assignments.
Do not procrastinate!
Seek assistance immediately if you have a
problem understanding the material.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.1: Review
a. Identify several strategies for success in this
course.
b. Explain the purpose of the learning outcomes.
c. What do scientists mean when they use the
term “Black Box”?
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.2: Biology Is the Study of Life
Biology – The study of life
All living things perform the same functions
1. Respond to changes in their immediate
environment
2. Show adaptability
3. Grow, develop, and reproduce
4. Are capable of some degree of movement
• If this movement is from one place to
another, it’s called locomotion
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.2: Biology Is the Study of Life
Life functions require energy
• Energy must be replaced when used
• For animals, energy is “captured” by:
• Absorption of oxygen from atmosphere
through respiration
• Absorption of various chemicals from
environment
Waste products are also discharged to the
environment through excretion
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.2: Biology Is the Study of Life
Small organisms
• Able to transfer energy and waste across exposed
surfaces
Larger organisms
• Must process complex foods to simpler
components (digestion)
• Perform absorption, respiration, and excretion in
different portions of the body
• Must then distribute materials around the body
(circulation)
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.2
Module 1.2 Review
a. Define biology.
b. List the basic functions shared by all living
things.
c. Explain why most animals have an internal
circulation system that transports materials from
place to place.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.3: The Study of Anatomy
(Structure) and Physiology (Function)
Anatomy
• Literally means “a cutting open”
• Study of the structures of the body
• Study of the physical relationships among
body parts
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.3: The Study of Anatomy
(Structure) and Physiology (Function)
Divisions of anatomical study
• Gross anatomy or macroscopic anatomy
• Study of large structures and features, that
is, usually visible with the unaided eye
• Example: structures of dissected heart
• Microscopic anatomy
• Study of structures that cannot be seen
without magnification
• Example: cellular structure of heart wall
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.3: The Study of Anatomy
(Structure) and Physiology (Function)
• Microscopic anatomy (continued)
• Limited by equipment
• Dissecting microscope – can see tissues
• Light microscope – can see basic cell
structure
• Electron microscope – can see individual
molecules
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Gross anatomy versus microscopic anatomy
Pulmonary
trunk
Superior
vena cava
Ascending
aorta
Right
atrium
Left
ventricle
Left
atrium
Endocardium
(inner lining of heart)
Myocardium
(heart muscle)
Epicardium
(outer surface
of heart)
Right
ventricle
Inferior
vena cava
Descending
aorta
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3
1
–
2
Module 1.3: The Study of Anatomy
(Structure) and Physiology (Function)
Specific functions are performed by specific
structures
• Link between structure and function not always
understood
• 200 years between description of heart
anatomy and demonstration of its function as a
pump
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.3: The Study of Anatomy
(Structure) and Physiology (Function)
Physiology
• Study of function
• Complex and more difficult to examine than
anatomical structures
• Focuses on functional properties
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.3: The Study of Anatomy
(Structure) and Physiology (Function)
Examples of physiology topics
• Electrical events within the heart coordinating
the heartbeat
• Measured by an electrocardiogram (ECG)
• Pressure changes within the heart and major
arteries
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Physiology is the study of function
Valve to
aorta closes
Valve to
aorta opens
Pressure in
left ventricle
Pressure in
left atrium
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Valve between
atrium and
ventricle closes
Time (msec)
Valve between
atrium and
ventricle opens
Figure 1.3
3
–
4
Module 1.3 Review
a. Define anatomy and physiology.
b. What are the differences between gross
anatomy and microscopic anatomy?
c. Explain the link between anatomy and
physiology.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.4: Structure and Function Are
Interrelated
Physiology and anatomy are closely
interrelated in theory and in practice
• One cannot be fully understood without the
other
• Anatomical details have an effect on
function
• Physiological mechanisms are understood
in terms of underlying structural
relationships
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.4: Structure and Function Are
Interrelated
Examples
• The elbow joint is an example of
interrelationship between structure and
function at the gross anatomy level
• Functions like a hinge
• Allows movement in one plane
• Forearm moves toward or away from
shoulder, but does not twist
• Anatomical structures impose functional
limits
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Interrelation between structure and function
The elbow is
a hinge joint
Radius
Humerus
Ulna
Cylindrical
surface on
humerus
Interlocking
arrangement
permits hinge-like
movements
Depression in the ulna
holds the humerus
in position
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.4
1
Module 1.4: Structure and Function Are
Interrelated
Examples (continued)
• Chemical messengers and cellular receptors
are examples of relationship between structure
and function at the microscopic/chemical level
• Cells communicate using specifically
shaped molecules called chemical
messengers
• Receptors on target cells receive the
message only if the messenger molecule
fits the shape of receptor
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Relationship between structure and function at the chemical level
Chemical messengers
with specific size and
shape
Receptor molecules
Plasma
membrane
Plasma
membrane
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Chemical messenger
bound to receptor
with matching shape
Figure 1.4
2
Module 1.4: Structure and Function Are
Interrelated
Living systems are subject to laws of physics
and chemistry
• Many advances in understanding the human
body came after advances in physical or
applied sciences
• William Harvey
• Demonstrated that heart valves worked
on same principles as valves in coal
mine water pumps
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.4: Review
a. Describe how structure and function are
interrelated.
b. Compare the functioning of the elbow joint with
a door on a hinge.
c. Predict what would happen to the function of a
structure if its anatomy were altered.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.5: Interdependent Levels of
Organization
Levels of Organization
• The human body is complex, representing
multiple levels of organization
• Each level more complex than underlying
one
• All can be broken down to similar chemical
and cellular components
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.5: Interdependent Levels of
Organization
Chemical level (Chapter 2)
• Atoms, the smallest stable units of matter,
combine to form molecules
• Functional properties of molecule determined
by its:
• Unique three-dimensional shape
• Atomic components
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.5: Interdependent Levels of
Organization
Cellular level (Chapter 3)
• Cells are the smallest living units in the
body
• Functions depend on organelles (composed of
molecules)
• Each organelle has a specific function
• Example: a mitochondrion provides energy
for heart muscle cell contraction
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.5: Interdependent Levels of
Organization
Tissue level (Chapter 4)
• A tissue is a group of cells working
together to perform specific functions
• Example: heart muscle cells form cardiac
muscle tissue
Organ level
• An organ is composed of two or more
tissues working together to perform
specific functions
• Example: layers of cardiac muscle tissue
along with connective tissue form the heart
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.5: Interdependent Levels of
Organization
Organ system level (Chapters 5–27)
• Organ systems consist of interacting
organs
• Example: the heart works with blood
vessels and blood to form the
cardiovascular system
Organism level
• Highest level of organization
• Collection of organ systems working
together to maintain life and health
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Levels of organization
Slide 1
Organism level
Organ system level
Organ level
Tissue level
Cellular level
Chemical (or Molecular) level
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Atoms in
Complex
combination protein
molecules
Protein
filaments
Figure 1.5
1
Module 1.5: Review
a. Define organ.
b. Name the lowest level of organization that
includes the smallest living units in the body.
c. List the levels of organization between cells and
an organism.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.6: Cells
Free-living cells
• Smallest living structures
Most plants and animals are multicellular
• Containing thousands to billions of cells
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.6: Cells
Cells in the human body
• Contains trillions of cells
• Only an estimated 200 different types of
cells
• Dimensions measured in micrometers (µm)
• One micrometer = one millionth of a
meter
• One micrometer = 1/25,000 of an inch
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.6: Cells
Cell function is related to its structure
• Smooth muscle cells – long and slender for
contraction
• Red blood cells – flattened discs to slip
through capillaries
• Fat cells – spherical for fat storage
• Cells lining digestive tract – shaped for
absorption
• Sperm (reproductive) – flagella for swimming
• Nerve cells – some have extensive branching
providing huge surface area for
communication
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The diversity of cells, the smallest units of life
Cells lining
the digestive
tract
Oocyte
Sperm
Smooth Blood
muscle cells
cells
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Bone
cells
Fat cells
Reproductive
cells (sex
cells)
Nerve cells
(neurons)
Figure 1.6
1
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.6
2
Module 1.6: Cells
Cells work together
• Human life depends on cells working together
• Each cell responds to its local environment
independently
• Cells in different parts of the body are coordinated
and controlled
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.6: Review
a. Name and define the unit used to measure cell
size.
b. List the three basic principles of the cell theory.
c. Relate the functions of a fat cell and a neuron to
their shapes.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.7: Tissues
Tissues and histology
• Tissues are specialized groups of cells and cell
products.
• Histology (histos, tissue) is the study of tissues.
• Four primary tissue types
1.
2.
3.
4.
Epithelial tissue
Connective tissue
Muscle tissue
Neural tissue
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Tissue types
EXTRACELLULAR
MATERIAL
AND FLUIDS
combine
to form
TISSUES
combine
to form
ORGANS
interact
in
ORGAN
SYSTEMS
CELLS
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
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CONNECTIVE TISSUE
MUSCLE TISSUE
NEURAL TISSUE
Figure 1.7
0
Module 1.7: Tissues
Epithelial tissue
• Forms a barrier with specific properties
• Covers every exposed body surface
• Lines digestive, respiratory, reproductive,
and urinary tracts
• Surrounds internal cavities
• Lines inner surfaces of blood vessels and
heart
• Produces glandular secretions
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Epithelial tissue
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
• Covers and protects exposed surfaces
• Lines internal passageways and chambers
• Produces glandular secretions
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.7
1
Module 1.7: Tissues
Connective tissue
• Diverse in appearance but all forms contain cells
surrounded by extracellular matrix
• Matrix composed of:
• Protein fibers
• Ground substance (liquid)
• Amount and consistency of matrix varies by the
particular connective tissue type
• Blood – watery matrix
• Bone – crystallized matrix with little ground
substance
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Connective tissue
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• Fills internal spaces
• Provides structural support
Matrix
• Stores energy
Fibers Ground substance
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.7
2
Module 1.7: Tissues
Muscle tissue
• Has the ability to contract forcefully
• Major functions
• Skeletal movement
• Soft tissue support
• Maintenance of blood flow
• Movement of materials internally
• Stabilization of body temperature
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.7: Tissues
Muscle tissue (continued)
• Three types
1. Skeletal
• Usually attached to the skeleton
• Moves or stabilizes position of skeleton or
internal organs
2. Cardiac
• Found only in the heart
• Propels blood through blood vessels
3. Smooth
• Found in blood vessel walls, within glands,
along respiratory, circulatory, digestive, and
reproductive tracts
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Muscle tissue
MUSCLE TISSUE
• Contracts to produce active movement
Nuclei
Skeletal muscle tissue
Nucleus Muscle cell
Cardiac muscle tissue
Smooth muscle tissue
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Figure 1.7
3
Module 1.7: Tissues
Neural tissue
• Specialized to carry information or
instructions within the body
• Two basic types of cells
1. Neurons (nerve cells)
• Transmit information in form of electrical
impulses
2. Neuroglia (supporting cells)
• Isolate and support neurons
• Form supporting framework
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.7: Tissues
Neural tissue (continued)
• Two locations within the body
1. Central nervous system
• Brain and spinal cord
2. Peripheral nervous system
• Nerves connecting central nervous
system with other tissues and organs
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Neural tissue
NEURAL TISSUE
• Conducts electrical impulses
• Carries information
Neurons
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Neuroglia
Figure 1.7
4
Module 1.7: Review
a. Define histology.
b. Identify the four primary tissue types.
c. Explain the functions of each of the primary
tissue types.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.8: Organs and Organ Systems
Organ
• Functional unit composed of more than one
tissue type
• Organ’s function determined and limited by
specific combination and organization of tissues
within it
• For example:
• Organ with flattened shape could function
well in protection (skin)
• Organ with three-dimensional shape could
house other structures (liver)
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.8: Organs and Organ Systems
The heart as an example of an organ
• Contains all four major tissue types
• Cardiac muscle (contracts to form
heartbeat)
• Epithelial tissue (lines inner and outer
surfaces)
• Connective tissue (attaches other tissues)
• Neural tissue (adjusts and coordinates
activities)
• All work together to function as a pump
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Organ systems overview
Organism
level
The heart is an
organ containing
multiple tissue types.
Organ
level
Cardiovascular
System
Endocrine
Nervous
Organ
system
level
Lymphatic
Muscular
Respiratory
Skeletal
Digestive
Urinary
Integumentary
Reproductive
The cardiovascular
system includes the
heart and other
organs.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.8
1
Module 1.8: Organs and Organ Systems
Organ system
• Organs that interact to perform a specific
range of functions, often coordinated
• Eleven organ systems in the human body
• None of these systems function in isolation
• All are interdependent on each other
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.8
2
Module 1.8: Review
a. List the 11 organ systems of the body.
b. Explain the relationship between the skeletal
system and the digestive system.
c. Using the table as a reference, describe how
falling down a flight of stairs could affect at least
six of the organ systems.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.9: Organ Systems (part 1)
Integumentary system
• Protects the body from environmental hazards
• Helps control body temperature
Skeletal system
• Provides support
• Protects tissues
• Stores minerals
• Forms blood cells
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Integumentary system overview
Integumentary System
Protects against environmental
hazards; helps control body
temperature
Hair
Epidermis and
associated
glands
Nails
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Figure 1.9
Integumentary system function table
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.9
2
Skeletal system overview
Skeletal System
Provides support; protects tissues;
stores minerals; forms blood cells
Axial Skeleton
Skull
Sternum
Ribs
Appendicular
Skeleton
Supporting
bones
Upper limb
bones
Vertebrae
Sacrum
Supporting bones
Lower limb
bones
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Figure 1.9
Skeletal system function table
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.9
Module 1.9: Organ Systems (part 1)
Muscular system
• Produces movement
• Provides support
• Generates heat
Nervous system
• Provides rapid control and regulation
• Coordinates activities of other organ systems
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Muscular system overview
Muscular System
Produces movement; provides
support; generates heat
Axial
muscles
Appendicular
muscles
Tendons
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Figure 1.9
Muscular system function table
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.9
2
Nervous system overview
Nervous System
Directs immediate
responses to
stimuli, usually by
coordinating the
activities of other
organ systems
Central
Nervous System
Brain
Spinal cord
Peripheral
nerves
Peripheral
Nervous System
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.9
1
Nervous system function table
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.9
2
Module 1.9: Review
a. Identify the major organs of the integumentary,
skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems.
b. Explain the functions of each of these systems.
c. How would a nervous system disorder affect the
muscular system?
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.10: Organ Systems (part 2)
Endocrine system
• Secretes chemical messengers
• Directs long-term changes in other systems
Cardiovascular system
• Carries chemicals, cells, dissolved materials to
all parts of the body
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Endocrine system overview
Endocrine System
Directs long-term
changes in other
organ systems
Pineal gland
Pituitary gland
Parathyroid
gland
Thymus
Adrenal
gland
Ovary in
female
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Thyroid gland
Pancreas
Testis
in male
Figure 1.10
1
Endocrine system function table
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Figure 1.10
Cardiovascular system overview
Cardiovascular System
Transports cells and dissolved
materials, including
nutrients, wastes,
and gases
Heart
Artery
Vein
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Capillaries
Figure 1.10
Cardiovascular system function table
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Figure 1.10
2
Module 1.10: Organ Systems (part 2)
Lymphatic system
• Defends the body against infection and
disease
• Returns tissue fluid to bloodstream
Respiratory system
• Delivers air to gas exchange sites in lungs
• Produces sound
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Lymphatic system overview
Lymphatic System
Defends against infection
and disease; returns
tissue fluid to the
bloodstream
Thymus
Lymph nodes
Spleen
Lymphatic
vessel
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Figure 1.10
1
Lymphatic system function table
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Figure 1.10
Respiratory system overview
Respiratory System
Delivers air to sites where gas exchange
occurs between the air and circulating
blood; produces
Nasal cavity
sound
Sinus
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Lung
Diaphragm
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Figure 1.10
Respiratory system function table
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Figure 1.10
Module 1.10: Review
a. Identify the major organs of the endocrine,
cardiovascular, lymphatic, and respiratory
systems.
b. Explain the functions of each of these systems.
c. How would a lymphatic system disorder affect
the cardiovascular system?
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.11: Organ Systems (part 3)
Digestive system
• Processes food and absorbs nutrients
• Excretes waste
Urinary system
• Eliminates excess water, salts, and wastes
Reproductive system
• Provides for the continuity of life
• Produces sex cells and hormones
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Digestive system overview
Digestive System
Processes food and
absorbs nutrients
Oral cavity
Pharynx
Salivary gland
Esophagus
Liver
Gallbladder
Pancreas
Small
intestine
Stomach
Large
intestine
Anus
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Figure 1.11
Digestive system function table
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Figure 1.11
Urinary system overview
Urinary System
Eliminates excess water,
r,
salts, and wastes
Kidney
Urinary
bladder
Ureter
Urethra
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Figure 1.11
Urinary system function table
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Figure 1.11
Female Reproductive system overview
Female Reproductive System
Produces sex cells and hormones;
supports embryonic development
from fertilization
to birth
Mammary
gland
Uterine tube
Ovary
Uterus
Vagina
External
genitalia
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Figure 1.11
Female Reproductive system function table
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.11
Male Reproductive system overview
Male Reproductive System
Produces sex cells
and hormones
Prostate gland
Seminal gland
Ductus deferens
Urethra
Epididymis
Testis
Penis
Scrotum
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.11
Male Reproductive system function table
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.11
Module 1.11: Review
a. Identify the major organs of the digestive,
urinary, and reproductive systems.
b. Explain the functions of each of these systems.
c. How would a reproductive system disorder
affect the urinary system?
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.12: Homeostatic Regulation
Homeostasis (homeo, unchanging + stasis,
standing)
• Presence of stable internal environment
• Failure to maintain homeostasis leads to
illness or even death
Homeostatic regulation
• Physiological adjustment to preserve
homeostasis in variable environments
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.12: Homeostatic Regulation
Components of a homeostatic regulatory
mechanism
• Receptor (sensor)
• Sensitive to environmental change
• Control center (integration center)
• Processes information from the receptor
and sends out commands
• Effector
• Responds to commands opposing stimulus
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Process of homeostasis
HOMEOSTASIS
Normal
condition
restored
STIMULUS:
Room temperature
rises
RESPONSE:
Room temperature
drops
3
Normal
condition
disturbed
Normal room
temperature
1
EFFECTOR
Air conditioner
turns on
RECEPTOR
Thermometer
2
Sends
commands
to
CONTROL CENTER
(Thermostat)
Information
affects
Set point
20° 30° 40° (°C)
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.12
1
Module 1.12: Homeostatic Regulation
Homeostatic control is not precise
• Maintains a normal range around the set point
• Actual value oscillates
• For example:
• House thermostat set at 72F
• Actual temperature in the house ranges
a few degrees above and below that set
point
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Module 1.12: Review
a. Define homeostasis.
b. Why is homeostatic regulation important to an
organism?
c. Describe the three parts necessary for
homeostatic regulation.
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Module 1.13: Negative versus Positive
Feedback
Feedback
• Stimulation of a receptor triggers response that
changes environment at that receptor
Negative feedback
• Effector opposes or negates the original
stimulus
• Minimizes change
• Primary mechanism of homeostatic regulation
in the body
• Dynamic process
• Set point varies with varying environments and
activity levels
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.13: Negative versus Positive
Feedback
Example of negative feedback in the body
• Body temperature rises above 37.2C (99F)
• Temperature receptors stimulated and send
signals to the homeostatic control center
• Control center responds with commands to
effectors
• Effectors respond to assist restoration of
temperature
• Smooth muscles in blood vessels relax, dilating
vessels and increasing blood flow to the body
surface
• Sweat glands increase secretion
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Homeostasis in the body
Slide 1
Start
Homeostasis
restored
3
EFFECTORS
Smooth muscle in
walls of blood
vessels and sweat
glands respond
1
Homeostasis and body temperature
2
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HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis
disturbed
RECEPTORS
Temperature
receptors in
skin and brain
stimulated
CONTROL CENTER
Temperature control
center receives
information and
sends commands
Figure 1.13
1
Graph of body temperature over time
Vessels
dilate,
sweating
increases
Vessels
constrict,
sweating
decreases
Normal
range
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.13
2
Module 1.13: Negative versus Positive
Feedback
Positive feedback
• Stimulus produces a response that
exaggerates or enhances the original
change (rather than opposing it)
• Tends to produce extreme responses
• Does not restore homeostasis
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.13: Negative versus Positive
Feedback
Positive feedback loop
• Escalating cycle
• Typically occurs when a potentially dangerous or
stressful process must be completed quickly
before the body can restore homeostasis
• Example: blood clotting mechanism
• Immediate danger to address – preventing
blood loss
• Stressful process must be completed
quickly
• After the process is complete, the stimulus
for the positive feedback loop stops
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Blood clotting as an example of positive feedback
A break in a
blood vessel
wall causes
bleeding
Clotting
accelerates
Positive
feedback
loop
Chemicals
Damage to cells in
the blood vessel wall
releases chemicals
that begin the process
of blood clotting.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Slide 1
The chemicals start
chain reactions in
which cells, cell
fragments, and soluble
proteins in the blood
begin to form a clot.
Chemicals
Blood clot
As clotting continues,
each step releases
chemicals that further
accelerate the
process.
This escalating process
is a positive feedback
loop that ends with the
formation of a blood
clot, which patches the
vessel wall and stops
the bleeding.
Figure 1.13
3
Module 1.13: Review
a. Provide an example of negative feedback
homeostatic regulation in the body.
b. Explain the function of negative feedback
systems.
c. Why is positive feedback helpful in blood
clotting but unsuitable for regulating body
temperature?
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Module 1.14: Anatomical Terms
Orientation to the body
• Landmarks around the body create a map for
orientation
• Anatomy uses a special language
• Many terms based on Latin or Greek words
used by ancient anatomists
• Vocabulary continues to expand
• Some eponyms (things named after the
discoverer or most famous victim of a disease)
persist; many replaced by more precise terms
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.14
1
Module 1.14: Anatomical Terms
History of anatomical studies
• Anatomical studies by medical professionals in
a European university can be traced to
University of Bologna in Italy
• Anatomia text written by Mondino dei Liuzzi
• Anatomical study improved at University of
Padua
• De humani Corporis Fabrica by Andreas
Vesalius published in 1543
• Served as early model for modern anatomy
education
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Module 1.14: Review
a. Which languages are the source of many
modern anatomical terms?
b. Define the word eponym.
c. In what country was anatomy established as a
discipline studied by medical professionals?
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Module 1.15: Superficial and Regional
Anatomy
Anatomical position is the body:
• Standing up
• Hands at the sides
• Palms facing forward
• Feet together and facing forward
• Eyes facing forward
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Module 1.15: Superficial and Regional
Anatomy
Anatomical position (continued)
• Lying down in anatomical position
• Supine when face up
• Prone when face down
• Anatomical terms and position important for
effective communication in a medical setting
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Anatomical terms for anterior body regions
Frontal or
forehead
Cephalic or head
Cranial
or skull
Facial
or face
Oral or mouth
Nasal or nose
Ocular, orbital
or eye
Otic or ear
Buccal or cheek
Cervical or neck
Thoracic or
thorax, chest
Mental or chin
Mammary
or breast
Axillary or armpit
Brachial or arm
Abdominal
(abdomen)
Antecubital
or front of elbow
Antebrachial
or forearm
Trunk
Umbilical
or navel
Pelvic
(pelvis)
Carpal or wrist
Palmar or palm
Manual
or hand
Pollex or
thumb
Inguinal or groin
Digits (phalanges)
or fingers (digital
or phalangeal)
Pubic (pubis)
Patellar or kneecap
Femoral or thigh
Crural or leg
Tarsal or ankle
Digits (phalanges) or toes
(digital or phalangeal)
Hallux or great toe
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Pedal or foot
Body regions:
Anterior view
Figure 1.15
1
Anatomical terms for posterior body regions
Cephalic
or head
Acromial or
shoulder
Cervical
or neck
Dorsal or
back
Olecranal
or back
of elbow
Upper
limb
Lumbar
or loin
Gluteal
or buttock
Popliteal or
back of knee
Lower
limb
Sural or calf
Calcaneal or
heel of foot
Plantar or
sole of foot
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Body regions:
Posterior view
Figure 1.15
1
Module 1.15: Superficial and Regional
Anatomy
There are four abdominopelvic quadrants
• Formed by pair of imaginary perpendicular
lines that intersect at navel
• Used by clinicians to describe locations of
patient pains, aches, or injuries
• Location can help physicians determine
possible cause of pain
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Abdominal quadrants
Quadrants
Right
Upper
Quadrant
(RUQ)
Right Lower
Quadrant
(RLQ)
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Left
Upper
Quadrant
(LUQ)
Left Lower
Quadrant
(LLQ)
Figure 1.15
3
Module 1.15: Superficial and Regional
Anatomy
There are nine abdominopelvic regions
• Used by anatomists to describe precise
location and orientation of internal organs
• More precise than abdominopelvic quadrants
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Abdominal regions
Regions
Right
hypochondriac
region
Epigastric
region
Left
hypochondriac
region
Right lumbar
region
Umbilical
region
Left lumbar
region
Right inguinal Hypogastric Left inguinal
region
region
(pubic)
region
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Figure 1.15
4
Relationships among quadrants, regions, and internal organs
Internal
organs
Stomach
Liver
Spleen
Gallbladder
Large intestine
Small intestine
Appendix
Urinary bladder
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Figure 1.15
5
Module 1.15: Review
a. Describe a person in the anatomical position.
b. Contrast the descriptions used by clinicians and
anatomists when referring to the positions of
injuries or internal organs of the abdomen and
pelvis.
c. A massage therapist often begins a massage by
asking clients to lie face down with their arms at
their sides. What anatomical term describes
that position?
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.16: Directional and Sectional
Terms
Directional terms
• Used to describe specific points of
reference
• All directions utilize anatomical position as
standard point of reference
• Many different terms, often interchangeable
• Anterior or ventral
• Posterior or dorsal
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Directional terms
Cranial or Cephalic
Superior
Proximal
Posterior
or Dorsal
Lateral
Anterior
or Ventral
Medial
Proximal
Distal
Right
Caudal
Left
Distal
Inferior
Anterior view
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Lateral view
Figure 1.16
1
Module 1.16: Directional and Sectional
Terms
Sectional views
• Sometimes the only way to show the
relationship between parts of a threedimensional body
• Medical imaging techniques utilize sectional
views
• Used for visualization purposes
• Important to consider when looking at
microscope slides and CT or MRI scans
• Views change throughout structure
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Sectional views through a bent tube
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Figure 1.16
3
Module 1.16: Directional and sectional terms
Sectional planes
• Frontal or coronal plane
• Oriented parallel to long axis
• Divides anterior from posterior
• Sagittal plane
• Oriented parallel to long axis
• Divides right from left
• Variations include midsagittal (passes
through midline) and parasagittal
(misses midline and divides unequally)
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Module 1.16: Directional and Sectional
Terms
Sectional planes (continued)
• Transverse or horizontal plane
• Oriented perpendicular to long axis
• Divides superior from inferior
• Also called cross section
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Anatomical planes
Sagittal
plane
Frontal, or
coronal,
plane
Midsagittal
plane
Transverse,
or horizontal,
plane
Frontal
plane
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Transverse
plane
(inferior view)
Figure 1.16
2
Module 1.16: Review
a. What is the purpose of directional and sectional
terms?
b. In the anatomical position, describe an anterior
view and a posterior view.
c. What type of section would separate the two
eyes?
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Module 1.17: Body Cavities
Body cavities
• Interior of the body is subdivided into regions
established by the body wall
• Many organs within these regions suspended
in closed fluid-filled chambers called body
cavities
• Body cavities of the trunk contain organs
of respiratory, cardiovascular, digestive,
urinary, and reproductive systems
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Module 1.17: Body Cavities
True body cavities
• Lined by a serous membrane
• Share a common embryological origin
• Have two essential functions
1. Protect delicate organs from shocks and
impacts
2. Permit significant changes in size and
shape of internal organs
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Module 1.17: Body Cavities
Viscera
• Internal organs partially or totally enclosed by
body cavities
• Connected to rest of body
• For example: The heart is surrounded by the
pericardial cavity
• Pericardium (peri-, around + cardium, heart)
• Delicate serous membrane lining the
pericardial cavity
• Secretes watery fluid that keeps surfaces
moist and reduces friction
• Permits heart to change size and shape when
beating
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The pericardial cavity
An analogy for heart
and pericardial cavity
relationship
Pericardium lining
pericardial cavity
Pericardial cavity
permits changing heart
size with filling and
contraction, and lining
prevents friction
Cardiac muscle
of the heart wall
Serous membrane
Watery fluid
reduces friction
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.17
1
Module 1.17: Body Cavities
Body cavities of the trunk
• Subdivided into two major cavities
• Thoracic cavity
• Abdominopelvic cavity
• These two cavities are separated by the
diaphragm
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Ventral body cavities
BODY CAVITIES OF
THE TRUNK
THORACIC
CAVITY
Diaphragm
ABDOMINOPELVIC
CAVITY
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Figure 1.17
2
Module 1.17: Body Cavities
Thoracic cavity
• Everything deep to the chest wall
• Three subdivisions:
• Two pleural cavities
• Lined by pleura
• Contain the lungs
• Mediastinum
• Contains connective tissue and the
pericardial cavity containing the heart
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The thoracic cavity
THORACIC CAVITY
Pleural cavity around each lung,
lined by pleura
Heart
enclosed by
pericardial
Right
cavity
lung
Left
lung
Mediastinum
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.17
3
Module 1.17: Body cavities
Abdominopelvic cavity
• Everything deep to abdominal and pelvic
walls
• Divided into two portions
1. Abdominal cavity
• Contains many digestive glands and
organs
2. Pelvic cavity
• Contains urinary bladder, reproductive
organs, and last portion of the digestive
tract
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 1.17: Body Cavities
Abdominopelvic cavity (continued)
• Within the abdominal cavity is the peritoneal
cavity lined be a serous membrane called
peritoneum
• Some organs (e.g., kidneys) lie posterior to
the peritoneal membrane
• Position is called retroperitoneal
• Some organs (e.g., urinary bladder) extend
inferior to the peritoneal cavity
• Position is called infraperitoneal
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The abdominopelvic cavity
ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY
Diaphragm
Peritoneum
Abdominal cavity
Retroperitoneal
area
Pelvic cavity
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.17
4
Body cavities of the trunk
THORACIC CAVITY
Pleural cavity around each lung,
lined by pleura
BODY CAVITIES OF
THE TRUNK
Right
lung
Heart
enclosed by
pericardial
cavity
Left
lung
Mediastinum
THORACIC
CAVITY
ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY
Diaphragm
Peritoneum
Diaphragm
Abdominal cavity
ABDOMINOPELVIC
CAVITY
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Retroperitoneal
area
Pelvic cavity
Figure 1.17
2
–
4
Module 1.17 Review
a. Describe two essential functions of true body
cavities.
b. Identify the body cavities of the trunk.
c. If a surgeon makes an incision just inferior to
the diaphragm, what body cavity will be
opened?
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.