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STANDARD HIGH SCHOOL ZZANA
S.5 HISTORY ONE NOTES
Instructions
- Attempt all questions after every topic
- Forward scanned answers to stahiza2020@gmail.com
THE1941ATLANTICCHARTERANDAFRICANNATIONALISM
By1941,WorldWarIhadbecomefierce.ItledtothefinancialdeclineoftheAliedforces,
whosoughtforhelpfromtheUSA.LedbytheBritishPrimeMinisterChurchil,Aliedaliance
mettheUSpresidentFranklinRooseveltatabatleshipoftheAtlanticOcean.Theresultof
theirmeetingwastheUSsupporttotheAliedpowers:RooseveltandChurchilhencesigned
theAtlanticcharterinAugust1941withRussianleader,Stalinastheobserver.Thecharterdid
notonlyinfluenceUSAtointerveneinWorldWarIbutthedocumenthadprofoundeffecton
colonialteritoriesespecialyinAfrica;
Referencequestions:
a)ExplaintheinfluenceoftheAtlanticCharteronAfricannationalism
b)Examinetheimpactofthe1941AtlanticCharteronthegrowthofAfricannationalism
1. ThesigningoftheAtlanticcharterincreasedAfricanpoliticalawareness.Africansunder
colonialdominationcametorealisethatindependencewasarightbutnotafavourfrom
thecolonialist;TheawarenessofAfricanswascausedbythearticlesofthecharterwhich
statedthatattheendof(WorldWarI)alnationsshouldbegivenarighttochoosetheir
owngovernmentandpoliticsfreedomstoberestoredtothosewhohavebeenforcibly
deprivedofthem.ThisgavetheAfricanpeoplesomethingtolookforwardto.Theycame
tobelievethatattheendofthewar,freedomfromtheimperial(colonial)ruleinwouldbe
giventoAfricaandjustliketherestoftheworld.
2. TheAtlanticcharterconfirmedthelegitimacyofAfricanaspirationforindependence.It
madetheAfricanstruggleforindependencetobeinternationalyrecognised.Alalong,the
African Agitation (demand) for their politicalrights had been considered as
unconstitutionalandrebeliousbythecolonialpowers.ManyAfricansweretherefore
scaredofjoiningthepoliticalstrugglebecausetheyneverwantedtoberegardedrebels
andtoputtheirlivesandprofessionstorisk.Hence,thesigningoftheAtlanticcharter
definedthedesireforAfricanindependence.
3. TheAtlanticcharterproclaimed(declared)therestorationofthesovereignrightandselfgovernmenttostates,whichhadbeendeprivedofthembyforce.Thiswasapromiseof
independencetomanycolonialterritoriesbutAfricansinparticular.TheAtlanticCharter
showedAfricansthattheentireworldwasnotagainstthem.Theycametorealisethat
nationslikeAmericawereagainstwhatwasbeingdoneuntothembycolonialrulers.This
thereforeincreasedtheirsenseofnationalism
tofightfortheirindependenceafterthe
SecondWorldWar.
4. TheAtlanticcharteralsodemandedfortherespectoftherightofalpeoplesoftheworld
tochooseaformofgovernmentthattheywantedtoliveunder.ManyeducatedAfricans
interpretedthisarticleasanopportunitythatwouldleadthemtofulyparticipateinthe
politicalaffairsoftheirstates;thusinfluencingthedesireofAfricansforpoliticalfreedom.
5. ThesigningoftheAtlanticchartermadeBritaintodeclarehercommitmenttorespect
democracyandtherightofthecolonialpeopletoself-government.WhentheBritishPrime
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MinisterWinstonChurchilsignedtheagreement,itwasmadecleartothepeopleofAfrica
andtheworldatlargethatGreatBritainwantedaworldofpiece,ofsovereignty,of
independence.ThisincreasedAfricanhopeforindependenceacrossBritishcolonies.
6. ItalsoinfluencedAmericancommitmenttosupportingthedecolonisationprocessin
Africa.AmericaknewwheretheAfricanswerecomingfrom;duetothefactthatthey,
werebothcoIonisedandruledbyaBritainformanyyears,Americangovernmentof
RooseveltfeltAfrica'spainandwantedtodosomethingaboutit.Aftersigningthecharter,
RooseveltsetouttoencourageAfricanleaderstoactivelyleadanti-colonialstruggles.In
1943,theUS-presidentmettheMoroccansultan-Muhammadandmotivatedhim
to
engageintheanti-colonialcrusadeagainsttheFrench.Theresultwaswitnessedwhenthe
sultanimmediatelyspearheadedthestruggleforMoroccanindependence.
7. ThesigningoftheAtlanticcharterexposedtheWhiteman'sconspiracy:whileaddressing
thehouseofcommoners;WinstonclaimedthecharterappliedtoEuropeannationsunder
NazismGermanyinfluence)includingFrancethathadbeenoccupiedbyGermanyinthe
earlyyearsofWorldWarI.ThiscausedcolonialresentmentamongAfricans.TheAfrican
questionwas,"IfitwasnotrightforGermanstogovernFrenchmen,thenhowcoulditbe
rightforEuropeanstogovernAfricans?"ItisonsuchbasisthatAfricansbecamestrongly
firmonagitatingforself-rulefromEuropeancolonialism.
8. TheAtlanticcharteropenedupthegatesfortheUSAandtheSovietUnion(Russia)to
interveneinWorldWarIin1941.ThedecisionofthesetwopowerstojointheAlied
powersledbyBritainandFrancewastohelpendthewarandensurethecommitmentof
BritainandothercolonialmastersinimplementingtheAtlanticCharter.Theendofthe
SecondWorldWarledtotheriseoftheUSAandtheUSSRasnewsuperpowers,replacing
BritainandFrancethathadcolonialempiresinAfrica.Theiranti-colonialatitude
influencedthedecolonisationprocessinAfrica.AmericanandRussiangovernments
becameclosealiesofAfricansinpressurisingfortheimplementationofthe1941
Charter,whichfastenedthedecolonisationprocessinAfrica,
9. TheAtlanticcharterledtotheformationoftheUnitedNationsOrganisation(UNO)in1945.
TheUNObecamethenewcustodian(keeper)ofworldpeaceandrightsofman.Africans
petitionedtheircolonialmasterstotheUNOfortheirfailuretograntthempoliticalrights.
Therefore,thenewworldpeacekeepingbodybecameaplatformforAfricanstrugglefor
independence.UNOestablisheda"DecolonisationCommitee"anda"TrusteeshipCouncil"
thatbecameinstrumentsofencouragingthedecolonisationofAfrica.
10.TheAtlanticcharterinfluencedtheadoptionoftheuniversaldeclarationofhumanrights
(UDHR)in1948.ThisnewcharterforHumanRightsadoptedmanyofthearticlesofthe
AtlanticCharteronindependenceandpoliticalfreedoms.TheUDHRre-affirmedtheright
ofthecolonialpeopletoself-determinationandrightofalpeopletohavethefreedomto
decidetheirownpoliticaldestiny.TheUDHRthereforebecameaninspirationtoAfricans
todemandfortheirindependence.
11.ThecharterinfluencedtheactivitiesoftheManchesterConference.DuringthefifthPan
AfricanConferenceinManchester,thedelegatespassedaresolutiondemandingforthe
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implementationoftheAtlanticCharterandcautionedthereluctanceofEuropeanpowers
toimplementthe1941Charterthathadbeenpublicizedacrosstheworld.PanAfricanists
quotedthesovereignrighttoself-governmentofstatesunderforeigndomination,as
declaredintheAtlanticCharter.ItthereforeinfluencedtheactivitiesofthepanAfricanists
inthestruggleagainstforeigndomination.
12.Consequently,duringtheBandungconferenceof1955inIndonesia,theAfro-Asian
delegateswereinfluencedbytheAtlanticchartertodeclaretheirsupporttoselfdeterminationandequalydemandedfortherespectofthesovereignrightofthecolonial
peopletobefreefromcolonialdomination.LedbyIndianPrimeMinisterJawaharlalNehru,
thedelegatesatBandungadoptedthepolicyofnon-alignmentaspartoftheirisolationist
strategyagainstEuropeanpowersthatstilmaintainedcolonialterritoriesinAsiaand
Africa.
13.TheAtlanticcharterinfluencedtheactivitiesofWestAfricanStudentsUnion(WASU)led
byNnamdiAzikiweofNigeria.WASUwasanassociationofalAfricanstudentspursuing
furthereducationinGreatBritain.ImmediatelyaftertheendofWorldWarI,Membersof WASU
visited the "British House ofCommons"and presented to the British
Parliamentariansamemorandum
(document)entitled"THEATLANTICCHARTERAND
BRITISHWESTAFRICA".TheseWASUmemberswantedsubstantialpoliticalreforms,
whichwouldleadtoindependenceinBritishWestAfrica,asproclaimedinthecharter.
TheseAfricanstudentscontinuedorganisingdemonstrations,politicaldebatesandwriting
newspaperarticlesthroughwhichtheycondemnedtheBritishpolicyofrefusingto
implementtheAtlanticChartertowhichtheywereasignatory.
14.ThefailureoftheEuropeancolonialmasterstoimplementtheresolutionsoftheAtlantic
charterinfluenced Africans to resortto militarymeans ofdemanding fortheir
independence.AfricansinKenyaorganisedtheMairMauuprisingin1952.InAlgeria,
politicalmovementsliketheFLNwerefounded,whichdeclaredanarmedstruggleagainst
theFrenchcolonialadministration.
THEUNITEDNATIONSORGANSATION(UNO)ANDTHEDECOLONISATIONOFAFRICA
TheUnitedNationsOrganization(UNO)wasformedinOctober1945inSanFrancisco,USA.Its
formationoriginatedfromtheprinciplesoftheAtlanticcharterof1941.TheUNOwasformed
toreplacethedefunctLeagueofNationswhichfailedtopreserveworldpeaceandrespectfor
therightsofman.UnliketheLeague,theUNOwascommitedtosolvingtheconcernofbig
powersdominatingweakerstatesinthenameofimperialism.
TheUNOthereforegotdeterminedtodoawaywithimperialism(foreigndomination),which
hadgreatlypromotedgrossviolationofhumanrightsandhencecontributedtotheoutbreak
ofWorldWarI.TheroleoftheUNOinthegrowthofAfricannationalismwashenceasfolows:
ImpactoftheUNOonAfricanNationalism
ReferenceQuestions:
a)HowdidtheformationofUNOinspireAfricanstruggleforindependence?
b) ExplainthecontributionsoftheUnitedNationsOrganisationtothedecolonisationof
Africa c)AssesstheroleoftheUNOinthegrowthofAfricannationalism
1.TheUnitedNationsOrganisationimmediatelyadoptedtheresolutionsofthe1941Atlantic
charterandthisinfluencedthegrowthofAfricannationalism.TheCharteroftheUNO
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uncorporatedmostofthearticlesoftheAtlanticcharteronindependenceandsovereign
rights.Notableoftheresolutionswas"RestorationoftheSovereignRightsandSelfgovernmenttothosewhoweredeprivedofthem."MajorPowersoftheUNOcaledupon
foreigngovernmentstogivethecolonialpeopleinAfricaanopportunitytoclaimfortheir
sovereignequalityandindependentexistencewithoutforeignmanipulations.Thishence
legtimisedandformalisedAfricanaspirationsforself-rule.
2. TheUNOsetupa"DecolonisationCommitee"toensurethatalcolonisedpeopleofthe
worldwerefreefromalformsofforeigndomination.Themajorroleofthiscommitee
wastoatendtogrievancesofpeopleandstatesthatwereunderdomination,andmonitor
politicaldevelopmentsaimedatpreparingthesecoloniesforself-rule.TheDecolonisation
CommiteesentvisitingmissionstoAfricancolonieslikeNyasaland,NorthernRhodesia,
Somaliland and Libyato superviseindependencearrangementsand constitutional
progress.ThecommiteemountedpressureagainstEuropeanpowerstodismantletheir
colonialempiresinAfricaandAsia
3. Consequently,theUnitedNationsOrganisationestablishedthe"TrusteeshipCouncil"with
theresponsibilityofpreparingthemandatedterritoriesforindependence.Mandated
territoriesweretheformerGermanandItaliancolonies,andalterritorieswhichhadbeen
putunderthedefunctLeagueofNations."ChapterXIoftheUNO-Charterobligedthe Trusteepowerstoputintoaccountthepoliticalinterestsofthepeoplesandtoassist
themintheprogressivedevelopmentoftheirfreepoliticalinstitutions."TheCouncilwas
therefore,taskedtosupervisepoliticalandconstitutionalreformsinthemandatedstates
aspartoftransformationtowardsself-rule.HenceAfricanstateslikeTanganyika,Rwanda,
Togo,Libya,SomalilandandCameroonimmediatelyindependent.Thecouncilsent
commissionerPeltAdriantopreparetheLibyanindependenceconstitutionandin1954,it
atendedtotheTANUproposalsforself-ruleinTanganyika.Thusindependencewasgiven
toLibya(1951),SomalilandandTogo(1960),CameroonandTanganyika(1961),and
Rwanda(1962).
4. TheUNOissuedthe"UniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsCharter"(UDHR)in1948,
whichinspiredAfricanagitationforindependence.TheHumanRightsDeclarationspelt
outfundamentalrightsandfreedomsofalpeoplesoftheworld.Therightsandfreedoms
presentedinthearticlesoftheUDHRincludedfreedomsofspeech,association,assembly,
press,fairrepresentationandthesovereignrighttoindependentexistence,amongothers.
AfricanfreedomfightersusedtheUDHRchartertoriseupandagitatefortheirrightsand
freedomsdeprivedofthembyEuropeancolonialmasters.
5. TheUNOdeclaredtheyearsfrom1950to1960asadecade(tenyears)ofdecolonisation.
OneoftheobjectivesoftheUNOwastotaldecolonisationandgrantingofsovereigntyand
independentexistencetoalpeoplesandstatesunderforeigndomination.Thebodyhence
gave dominating governments a timeline bywhich theyhad to initiate political
developmentswhichwouldprepareAfricansforself-determination.Therefore,African
agitationforpoliticalfreedomswasinfluencedbytheactivitiesoftheUnitedNations.
6. TheUnitedNationsOrganisationprovidedAfricannationalistswithapoliticalplatformto
addresstheiranti-colonialgrievances;seekforpoliticalguidanceandpressurizeimperial
powerstoendtheircolonialdomination.In1955,JuliusNyerereofTanganyikawasgiven
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anopportunitytoaddresstheUNGeneralAssemblyandconsequentlydemandedfor
immediatedecolonisationofTanganyika,whichwasrealisedlaterin1961.In1966,the
SWAPOwasalocatedapermanentseatintheGeneralAssemblyoftheUNOtorepresent
theNamibianpeople,henceKerinaoneoftheNamibiannationaliststookuptheseat.
SuchUNeffortsencourageddecolonisationofAfrica.
7. TheInternationalPeacekeepingBodypassedstrongcondemnatoryresolutionsand
imposedstrictembargoesandsanctionsagainststubbornforeignregimeswhodelayedto
withdrawfrom
theircolonialteritories.TheregimestargetedbytheUNOincludedthe
PortuguesecolonialregimesinAngola,GuineaBissauandMozambique,theapartheid
regimeinSouthAfricaandNamibia,andtheUDI-regimeofIanSmithinSouthernRhodesia
(Zimbabwe).Thecondemnatoryresolutionsthreatenedthepoliticalimageofforeign
regimesinAfricawhilethesanctionsandembargoescauseddiplomatic,tradeand
economicsetbacks(disadvantages).WhereasstrongUN-condemnationsencouraged
nationalistuprisingsinAfrica,thediplomaticandeconomicsanctionshumbledtheforeign
governmentstoinitiatepoliticalandadministrativereformswhichledtoself-ruleintheir
colonialteritories,
8. Consequently,theUnitedNationsOrganisationpassedandemphasisedtheobservationof
Resolution1515onindependencewhichhadanimpactofthegrowthofAfrican
nationalism.Theresolutionlegtimisedtherighttoindependentexistenceofalpeoplesof
theworldanddenouncedalcasesofforeigndominationexercisedagainstthecolonial
people.TheprovisionsofResolution1515wereadoptedbytheliberationcommiteeof
theOAUandusedthemtocondemnBritainforlookingonastheminoritywhitesdeclared
themselves independentin Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe)atthe expense of
independenceformajorityAfricans.
9. TheUNOdirectlyparticipatedinthedecolonisationprocessofAfricathroughinfluencing
andobservingindependencediscussionsbetweenforeigngovernmentsandAfrican
nationalistorganisations.TheUnitedNationsinitiatedsuchroundtablediscussionsto
ensureapeacefultransitionfromimperialismtomajorityrule.In1974,theUNOsentits
delegationtopresideovertheAlvorPeaceTalksbetweenthePortuguesegovernmentand
Angolan,nationalists,whichledtothedecolonisationofAngolain1975.TheUNOwas
alsoinstrumentalinindependencediscussionsinRwanda,Eritrea,andmultiracialPeace
TalksinSouthernRhodesia(1978-80)SouthAfrica(1990-94)andSudan(2005-2011),
whichresultedintoliberationofmajorityblacksfromracism.
10.TheUnitednationsGeneralAssemblyprovidedaplatformfortheconsolidationofAfroAsiansolidarity.AfricanandAsiandelegatesalwaysfoundtheopportunitytostand
togetheranduseonevoiceduringthesessionsoftheGeneralAssembly,asthey
condemneddominationbywesternpowers.Africannationalistsinteractedwithother
nationalistsfromAsiaandtheArabworld.Outofthisinteraction,therewastheformation
oftheAfro-Asian-Arabsolidarity.ThissolidarityorunityenabledtheAfricanstoget
supportfrommemberstateslikeIndiaandChinawhichhelpedtheminthestrugglefor
independence.
11.TheUnitedNationsworkedcloselywithandthroughtheOAUtoensuretotalindependence
forAfrica.MostoftheUNsupporttotheAfricandecolonisationprocesswentthroughthe
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OAU.TheUNOandtheOAUcolectivelyputpressureonforeigngovernmentsinAfricato
initiatepoliticalreformsintheirteritories.TheOAUusedtheUN-GeneralAssemblyto
promotetheAfricancauseforcompleteindependence.AnAfricandelegationconsisting
offoreignministersofLiberia,Tunisia,MadagascarandSierraLeonewascommissioned
bytheOAUtospeakatthemeetingsoftheUNSecurityCouncil(UNSC),addressingthe
issueofgenocide(masskiling)inPortuguesecolonies,'which,atractedinternational
atentionagainsttheatrocitiesofPortuguesecolonialistsinAfrica,andpavedwayforselfruleinAngola,GuineaBissauandMozambique.
12.TheUnitedNationsOrganisationinfluencedAfricannationalism
anddecolonisation
processthroughsendingobservermissionstomonitorelectionsindifferentAfrican
colonies.MostoftheindependenceelectionsinAfricawereinfluencedbypressurefrom
theUNOinitsatempttocompletelyliquidateimperialismandbringanendtocolonial
dominationintheworld.UNObservermissionswerewitnessedtoAlgeriain1962,in
SouthWestAfrica(Namibia)in1990,inEritreain1993andSouthAfricaduringtheirfirst
historicalmulti-racialelectionin1994,amongothers.ThesupervisiongivenbytheUnited
Nationsensuredpeacefultransferofinstrumentsofpowerfromforeigngovernmentsto
natives,henceinspiringAfricanindependence.
13.TheUnitedNationOrganisationrecognisedAfricannationalistorganisations(political
partiesandliberationmovements),thusinspiringindependenceatainment.In1966the
UNGeneralAssenblyagreedtorecognisetheSouthWestAfricanPeoplesOrganization
(SWAPO)astherightfulrepresentativeofNamibiannationalinterests.Manynationalist
organisationsconsequentlypetitionedfortheinterventionoftheUNOinfavouroftheir
nationalistagitationsasastrategytoseektheinternationalbody'srecognition.Inthedue
course,theUNOmoraleboostedthestruggleforAfricanindependence.
14.TheUNOextendeddirectsupporttotheAfricanstatesstrugglingforindependence.
Financialmilitaryandlogisticalsupportwasextendedtoliberationmovementsthrough
the
UN-Commitee
to
spearhead
nationalistagitationsagainstforeign
domination
especialyinSouthernAfrica.BeneficialorganisationsincludedtheSouthWestAfrican
PeoplesOrgasnisation(SWAPO)ofNamibiaandtheAfricanNationalCongress(ANC)of
SouthAfricanconsequently,theMozambicanLiberationFront(FRELIMO),theZimbabwe
AfricanNationalUnion(ZANU)soughtforassistancefromtheUN-SecurityCouncilduring
theirquestforself-rule.
TheUNOhencebecameanalyoftheAfricanliberation
movement,whichspedtheColonisationprocess.
15.TheorganisationpromotedAfricannationalism bysupportingconsolidationofAfrican
independence.ItcondemnedandintervenedincivilwarswhichbrokeoutinAfrica.In1960,
theUNOworkedtopreservetheindependenceofaveryyoungstateofCongoLeopoldvile
(Zaire)bycondemmingtheKatangasecessionistatempt,andwentaheadtodeploy
peacekeepersinthecountry.TheUN-missionintervenedintheSudanesecivilwar(19552005),Nigeriancivilwarof1967-70inAngola(1975-2000)andMozambique(1977-1992)
THE1944BRAZZAVILLEFRENCHAFRICANCONFERENCE:
ThiswasameetingofseniorFrenchcolonialofficials.GovernorsGeneralandmilitaryofficers
ofFrenchEquatorialAfrica(FrenchCongo);Madagascar(Malagasy)andFrenchWestAfrican
colonies.ItwasheldbetweenJanuaryandFebruary1944inBrazzaviletheCapitalofFrench
EquatorialAfrica.TheconferencewasorganisedbyGeneralCharlesdeGauletheFrench
leaderandpresidedover(chaired)byMr.Pleventhecommissionerofcolonies.Africanshad
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nodelegatestorepresentthemattheconference,butoneblackman,FelixEbouefromFrench
Guyanaatended.
TheBrazzavileconferencewasaimedatthefalowing:
a.ThankAfricanFrenchcoloniesforsupportingFranceagainstGermanoccupationduringWorldWarI
b.LaystrategiesofdivertingAfricansunderFrenchrulefromtheideaofself-rule.TheSecond
WorldWarhadcreatedpoliticalconsciousnessorwindofchangeprompting-Africansto
demandforindependence
c.FrancewasthreatenedbyAmericananti-colonialactivitiesintheMaghrebregion(North
Africa)especialyinMorocco,hencetheneedtodealwithAmericananti-colonialpolicy
d.LaystrategiesoforientingAfricansintomanagingtheirownaffairs
e.ItwastosafeguardFrenchinterestsinAfricaandpreserveFrenchcoloniesfromoutside
influence
f.ToplanforeconomicdevelopmentofFrenchcolonies
g.DeGaulealsotargetedaskingAfricansformorewarcontribution^sinceWorldWarIwas
notyetover,(ThiswasonlybypromisingAfricanspoliticalchanges) ,
NOTE:
TheconferencewasnotaimedatpreparingAfricansfordecolonisationhenceitspositive
impactonAfricawasbyaccident.ThefinalresolutionatBrazzavileclearlystatedthat,"The
worksofFranceinherAfricancolonieshavenoconsiderationofautonomy(independence)
andself-governmentinnearfuture."
ImpactoftheBrazzavileConferenceonthedecolonisationofAfrica
ReferenceQuestions
a)HowdidthecalingoftheBrazzavileConferencein1944influencethecolapseofFrench
ruleinAfrica?
b)Assesstheimpactofthe1944BrazzavileConferenceonthedelonisationofAfrica
c)OfwhatimpactwasBrazzavileConferenceonAfricannationalism?
1. TheBrazzavileConferenceincreasedAfricanrepresentationintheFrenchParliament
(NationalAssembly)inParis.Delegatesattheconferenceresolvedthatalcolonial
peoplesdeservedtorepresentthemselvesintheParisAssemblyhencefrom1945,French
AfricanteritorieswereeachrequiredtosendtworepresentativestotheFrenchNational
Assembly.TheresolutionofAfricansrepresentingthemselvesintheFrenchAssembly
waslaterincludedintheconstitutionoftheFrenchFourthRepublic.Africanopportunityto
representthemselvesintheFrenchParliamentgavethem
aplatform
forpolitical
agitationsgearedtowardsself-determination.
2. TheconferenceledtotheenfranchisingofAfricansinFrenchcolonialteritories.The
FrenchcolonialadministratorsagreedtograntAfricanstherighttovotefortheir
representativestotheFrenchAssemblyandlocalparliamentswithlesscolonialinfluence.
Asaresult,onemilionAfricansintheFrenchcoloniesgotempoweredtoparticipateinthe
electionofrepresentativesoftheirchoicelikeFelixHouphouetBoignyofIvoryCoastand
LeopoldSedarSengholofSenegal.TherewardingofAfricanswithvotingrightsprompted
them
to
demandformorepoliticalrightsincludingtheirsovereignrightto
selfdetermination.
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3. The conference provided forthe establishmentofnative assemblies (territorial
parliaments)intheFrenchAfricancolonies.Thesenativeorlocalparliamentsempowered
Africanstoplaylocalpoliticsthroughelectinglocalrepresentativestodiscusssolutionsto
problemscreatedbytheFrenchcolonialsystem.Inthesameway,Frenchcolonies
witnessedpoliticalgrowthasmanypoliticalorganisationswerecreatedtocompetefor
politicalparticipationandrepresentationintheFrenchAssemblyandlocalparliaments.
4. Consequently,Africansweregivencivilrightslikefreedomofassociationwhichenabled them
toform
masspoliticalassociationsthatactivelyinvolvedinthedecolonisation
process.Thesemodernpoliticalassociationswereformedeitheratregionalorcountry
level.Theyincludedthe"Independentsd'outreMer"IOM)andtheRessemblement
DemocratiqueAfrican(RDA).TheRDAwasformedin1946withrepresentativebranchesin
EquatorialandFrenchWestAfricaandwasveryinstrumentalininfluencingpolitical
concessions(changes).OtherpartiesincludedBlocDemocratiqueSenegalaisXBDS)
formedin1948,UnionSoudanais(US),PartiDemocratiquedelaGuinea(PDG)foundedin
1947.
5. TheBrazzavileconferenceelevated(promoted)thestatusofAfricansinFrenchterritories
whichinspiredAfricannationalism.TheFrenchauthoritiesagreedtoaccord(grant)
AfricansinFrenchcoloniesequalstatusasFrenchmenandalsorecognisethemasequals
toFrenchcitizens.TheabolitionofFrenchharshcolonialpoliciesandthegrantingof
AfricansvotingrightsandrepresentationintheFrenchparliament,aswelasspreading
FrenchcivilisationinAfrica,werealstepstowardsgrantingAfricansequalstatusas
Frenchmen.Theintentionofgranting.AfricansequalstatusasFrenchmenwasaimedat
divertingtheiratentionfromdemandingself-rulebutinstead,itexposedtheweaknesses
ofFrenchrule,causingAfricanresistance.Outof16milionAfricansinFrenchWestAfrica,
only1milioncouldvoteandofthe622seatinFrenchParliament,Africansweregiven
only13seats.
6. TheBrazzavileconferencedenounced(caledtoanend)Frenchatrocities(badcolonial
policies)whichtheFrenchgovernmentclaimedhadtarnishedtheimageofFrance.The
conferencecautionedthecolonialauthoritiesin,French,EquatorialandWestAfricato
reversetheharshpoliciesinordertowinbackAfricantrust.Consequently,thepoliciesof
forcedlabourandarbitrary(arest)withouttrialwhichcharacterisedFrenchcolonialismin
Africawereofficialyabolished.TheAfricanshadsufferedbecauseofthesebadpolicies
andtherefore,whentheywereabolished,itbecameamajorsteptowardsrestoringAfrican
freedomsandlaterinfluencingAfricanstoagitateforindependence.
7. Theconferencepassedafinancialresolutiontopromoteinvestmentandsocio-economic
developmentofFrenchWestAfricancolonies.Consequently,in1946,theFrench
governmentformedthe"FundforInvestmentandsocio-economicDevelopmentof
OverseasTerritories"(FIDES)tospearheadinvestmentprojectsinhercolonies.Between
1946and1957,Francehadinvestedabout425milionpoundsinWestAfricaintransport
(roads),educationandhealth.Suchdevelopmentsfacilitatedtheroadtoindependencein
FrenchcoloniesofGuinea,Senegal,andIvoryCoastamongothers.
8.TheBrazzavileconferencerecommendedtheextensionofFrenchcivilisationtoFrench
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AfricathroughwesterneducationandFrenchlanguage.TheFrenchgovernmentinstructed
thecolonialofficetoestablisheducationalinstitutions:inFrenchcoloniesthroughwhich
freeeducationwouldbeextendedtoAfricans.TheFrenchcivilisationprogramme
facilitatedtheriseofAfricaneliteswholaterengagedinpoliticalactivitiesaimedat
achievingself-government.
9. TheFrenchdelegatesattheconferenceresolvedtochangethestatusoftheFrench
territoriesinAfricafrom
provincestocolonies.Theconferenceabolishedtheuseof
"overseasteritories"inregardtoFrenchcolonies.ThestatusofAfricancoloniesas
overseasterritoriesorprovinceshaddestroyedalAfricanhopesofregainingtheirlost
freedomsthroughconstitutionalmeans,referringtoFrenchterritoriesascoloniesrestored
arayofhopeofAfricansfinalybecomingfreeindependentfromFrenchdomination.
10.DeGaule'sspeechinBrazzavilewasofpoliticalinfluencetoFrenchAfricahesaid,Itis
France'sdutytoraisetheAfricanstoalevelwheretheywilbecapableofparticipatingin
theirram
country."HethereforecommendedGovernorsGeneralinFrenchcoloniesto
recruitAfricansinthedifferentadministrativedepartmentsaswelasthecivilservice.
ManyAfricansgotappointedtoadministrativeofficesasclerksandadministrators,while
othersservedinthecivilservice.ThiscolonialarrangementexposedAfricansto
leadershipandservicewhichbecameasteppingstonetoagitateforbiggerpoliticalroles
intheirrespectivestates,thusshakingthepilarsofFrenchrule.
11.ItlaidthefoundationforthefortheDeGaulereferendumof1958,whichincreasedhope
forindependenceinFrenchWestAfrica.AwareofthepoliticalagitationsacrossAfrica,
GeneraldeGauledecidedtodeterminethefateofFrenchruleinAfrica.Hebeganby
influencingtheformationoftheFederationofFrenchcoloniesofWestEquatorialAfrica.In
1958,deGauleorganisedaplebiscite(referendum)inwhichFrenchcoloniesofWest
AfricawoulddecidetobelecolonisedandloseFrenchsupport,orremainundertheFrench
FederationandcontinuereceivingFrenchmoral,financialandtechnicalsupport.Sekou
ToureledtheGuineanstovoteinfavourofindependenceandonOctober2,1958,Guinea's
wasindependencedeclared.Guinea'sbrevityinspiredtheindependenceofotherFrench
coloniesofWestAfrica.
12.TheunfulfiledpromisesmadeattheconferenceinspiredradicalactivitiesofAfricans
towardsdemandingforindependence.TheFrenchcolonialunrestscontinuedevenafter
theresolutionsatBrazzavile.Frenchcolonialauthoritiescontinuedharassingand
persecutingAfricanpoliticiansthrougharestsandshootingmassesatendingpolitical
ralies.ForcedlabourwasonlyabolishedonpaperbutmistreatmentofAfricanlabour
continuedespecialyinthearmyandonplantations.Africanswerehenceconvincedthat
Frenchrulewasdictatorialwhichincreasedtheirdeterminationtodemandforpolitical
freedoms.
THECONTRIBUTIONOFINDIATOTHEDECOLONISATIONOFAFRICA
TheconnectionbetweenAfricaandIndiasetsfromsimilarcolonialbackgrounds,especialy
withtheAfricanBritishcolonies:IndiaandBritishAfricaformedthebiggestpartoftheBritish
colonialempirethatexisteduntilthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury.India'sstruggle
againstcolonialism oftheBritishtookalmostacentury(aboutninetyyears,from 1857to
1947).TheinfluenceofIndiaonAfricannationalism andthedecolonisationprocesswas
determinedbytwogreatnationalists-,firstMahatma:GandhiandlaterJawaharlalNehru,
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ReferenceQuestionsa)ExaminetheimpactofIndia’sindependenceonthedevelopmentofAfricannationalism
b)DiscussthecontributionofIndiatothedecolonisationofAfrica,
c)AssesstheroleofJawaharlalNehruinthegrowthofAfricannationalism
1. Theanti-colonialtacticsusedbyMahatmaGandhihelpedtoshapethestrategyofanticolonialstruggleinAfrica.DuringtheperiodofIndianindependencestruggle,Gandhiused
theprinciplesofSatyagraha(orpassiveresistance)throughnon-violentmethods.African
nationalistsand(freedom
fighters)likeKwameNkrumahofTheGoldCoast,Julius
NyerereofTanganyika,AlbertLuthuliofSouthAfricaandObafemiAwolowoofNigeria
adoptedthepolicyofnon-violenceduringthestruggleagainstforeigndomination.Thenon
-violentmethods
alsoknownasGandhism
involvedboycotsontradeandcolonial
products,strikes,demonstrationsandsometimesdisruptionoftrafficflowintownsby
sitinginthemiddleoftheroads.GandhihimselfencouragedAfricanstoadoptthenonviolencespiritiftheireffortsofstrugglingforindependenceweretoberewarding.
2. TheactivitiesoftheIndianCongressParty(ICP)influencedAfricannationaliststoform
politicalmovements.Manyeducated
Africansespecialyfrom
WestAfrica
began
mobilizingthemselvesintoassociationstostruggleforpoliticalfreedoms.In1920,during
aconferenceofnationalistsofBritishWestAfricainAccra,JosephCaselyHayford,ofthe
GoldCoastledothernationalistsfromGambia,NigeriaandSierraLeoneto.establishthe
NationalCongressofBritishWestAfrica,Thecongresswasformedasapressuregroup
fordemandingpoliticalreformsfrom
theBritishcolonialists,'itdemandedformore
AfricanrepresentativesintheLegcovotedbyAfricansthemselves.Politicalorganisations
liketheTANUofTanganyika,theGPPofGoldCoast,theNCNCofNigeriaandtheUNCof
UgandawerealestablishedduetoinspirationoftheICPNkrumahhimselfadmiredthe
ICPtotheextentthatheadoptedtheICPcapasthesymbolofhisparty,theCPP.
3. IndiannationalistleaderMahatmaGandhiinspiredthestruggleagainstracisminSouth
Africa.TheprinciplesofSatyagraha(passiveresistance)werebegunbyMahatmaGandhi
inSouthAfricawherehelivedbeforehewasdeportedbacktoIndiabytheAfrikaner
leaders.GandhifoughtagainstracialinjusticesinSouthAfricaanddenialofequal
opportunitiestoAfricansIndiansandcoloureds.Gandhibeganthestrategyofstrikes,
protestmarching,civilbreachofunfairlawsanddemonstrations,asameansofataining
racialjusticesuchmethodswerefurtherpromotedbyXuma,AlbertLuthuliandcontinued
byNelsonMandela;WalterSisuluSteveBikoandMbeki.Hewrotehispopularpublication
"TheGreenPamphlet"in1896whileinSouthAfrica.Throughthisbook,Gandhiatacked
racismandoppressionofnon-EuropeansProminentPanAfricanistslikeKwameNkrumah
andDuBoispaidtributetoMahatmaGandhiforstartingthefightagainstracisminSouth
Africathroughnonviolenceandnoncooperation.
4. IndependentIndiaprovidedmassivemoralandfinancialassistancetoAfricannationalists
whichbecameusefulinthecourseofthestruggleforfreedominAfrica.TheIndianPrime
MinisterJawaharlalNehrucommitedhimselftothe'Africancausebypromisingthat,he
wilassistAfricantoachievetheirindependence.Heestablishedan"AfricanFund"through
whichmoneygrantswereextendedtofreedomfightersthroughtheIndiancommunityin
therespectiveAfricanstates.ImmediatebeneficiariesweretheEastAfricancolonieslike
Kenya.TheIndianfinancialaidtoAfricannationalistmovementsaddedabricktothe
successstoryofAfricandecolonizationprocess.
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5. IndependentIndiaofferededucationscholarshipstoAfricanstudents,whichincreasedon
thenumberofAfricanelitesthatstruggledforAfricanindependence.India'sNehruopened
IndianDiversitiesandotherinstitutionsofhigherlearningtoAfricanstudents.EastAfrica
wasmostblessedwithanumberofKenyansandUgandansatendingIndianeducation.
AfricanstudentsinteractedwithIndianstudentswhichshapedtheirpoliticaldevelopment.
TheyalsogotexposedtoGandhi'snationalistactivities.KirundaKivejinjaandJohn
KakongeofUgandastudiedfromIndia.OnhisreturntoUganda,JohnKakongebecamea
foundingnationalistoftheUgandapeople’sCongressandthefirstSecretaryGeneralof
theparty.
6. Indiahaddirectimpactonnationalism
intheGoldCoast.Inthelate1940's,Nkrumah
encouragedhispeopletoembracetheIndianindependencemovementwhichhadenabled
IndianstodefeatBritishcolonialrule.NkrumahcustomisedGandhism
as"Positive
action."HeadoptedtheuseofnewspapersbyestablishingtheAccraEveningNewsand
theCapeCoastNewsDaily,throughwhichthepeopleoftheGoldCoastde-campaigned
theexploitativeBritishrule,Nkrumahalsoborrowedtheusedofeducationcampaignsand
constitutionalmeanslikenoncoperationwithcolonialgovernment.
7. ThedecolonisationofIndialaidthefoundationforthecolapseofBritishcolonialEmpire.
IndiaandPakistanformedthelargestsingleBritishEmpireandthemostimportantofal
Britishcolonialteritories,'hencegrantingherindependencein1947wasashocktothe
wholeworld.ItshowedBritishcommitmenttodecolonisationinbothAsiaandAfrica.
"IndiaandtheBritishcoloniesinAfricasharedanti-colonialsentimentsofracialinequality,
landgrabbingandeconomicexploitationofnativeresources."India'sindependence
thereforegavearayofhopetoAfricansthatdecolonisationwasinevitable.Itwasthus
veryimpossiblefortheBritishcolonialofficetodenyAfricansindependenceafterserving
India.
8. India'sJawaharlalNehruservedasapoliticalcounselortoAfricanfreedomfighters.Many
AfricannationalistssoughtforpoliticalguidancefromIndiaafterherindependence.Upon
grantingindependencetoIndia,theBritishclaimedthatAfricanswerepoliticalyimmature
toreceiveindependence.ThisforcedKwameNkrumahoftheGoldCoast,AbdelNasserof
Egypt,andJomoKenyataofKenya,toconsultwithJawaharlalNehrutoenhancetheir
politicaldevelopment.In1960,theIndianPrimeMinisterinvitedUganda'sApoloMilton
ObotetoBangaloreIndiaandcoachedhim
onpoliticalleadership.Nehrumaintained
contactwithKenyataandthroughexchangingletersandin1948heappointedApaB.
PantasIndianHighCommissionertoNairobiwhosedutiesincludedprovidinglegaladvice
tonationalistsinKenya.
9. Consequently,IndiamilitarisedAfricannationalism.First,Indiaprovidedmilitaryweapons
toKenyaduringtheMau-Mauuprising,andlaterprovidedamilitarysolutionagainst
Portuguesecolonialism.In1962,IndianPrimeMinisterJawaharlalNehrudeclareda
militaryatackonthePortuguesepresencebydrivingthemoutofGoausingIndiantanks
andartilery.AfricansinGuineaBissauandMozambiquewereinspiredtodeclarewar
againstPortuguesecolonialrulein1963and1964respectively,justlikeAngolahaddone
earlieronin1961.Africanfreedom
fightersinSouthAfricaandSouthernRhodesia
combinedGandhism
withNehru'smilitaryapproachduringtheirstruggleagainstwhite
domination.
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10.IndependentIndiausedherpositionintheUN-GeneralAssemblytodemandforimmediate
Africandecolonisation.Indialedagroupofmembercountrieswhovotedforanendto
colonialism
throughouttheworld.ThesemembersoftheUnitedNationscametobe
knownasNon-alignedcountries.SincejoiningtheUnitedNationsOrganisation,India
directedpressureondifferentdepartmentsofthebodyliketheDecolonisationandthe
CommiteeTrusteeshipCouncil.India'spressuretotheDecolonisationCommiteeledto
independenceofGhanawhileherinfluenceontheTrusteeshipCouncilenabledthetimely
decolonisationofTanganyikaandItalianSomaliland.India'svoiceintheUnitedNations
therefore,becameanimportantinstrumentagainstcolonialismandracism.
11.In1956,thegovernmentofJawaharlalNehruencouragedthecensorship(banning)of
racistfilmsagainsttheAfricanrace.ThegovernmentorderedtheIndianCentralFilm
Boardtodenylicensetoalfilmswhichdespised(abused)theimageoftheAfricanperson
orraceasprimitive.Nehru'sgesture(policy)wasaimedatmaintaininggoodrelationswith
thepeopleofAfricancontinent,andidentifyingwiththemintheirtryingmomentsasthey
struggledforindependence.SomeofthefilmsbannedorcensoredinIndiaincluded,
AfricanAdventure,SnowsofKilimanjaro,BelowtheSaharaandTheAfricanQueen,among
others.
12.IndependentIndiaalsoinfluencedAfricannationalismthroughencouragingtheprinciple
ofNon-Alignmentorpositiveneutrality.OneoftheaimsofNon-Alignmentwas-the
immediatedecolonisationofthecontinentsofAsiaandAfrica.JawaharlalNehru
advocatedforpositiveneutralityofweakernationsmostlyfromAsiaandAfricaasastep
towardspoliticalfreedom
andeconomicstrength.Non-AlignmentemphasisednoncooperationofitsmemberswitheithertheWesternCapitalistorEasternCommunist
powers.Italsoencouragedawidedistancebetweenindependentstatesandtheirformer
colonialmasters.IndiamastermindedthefirstconferenceofNon-Alignedstatesinthe
IndonesiancityofBandung.Thisconferenceheldin1955assuredAfricansofAsian
supportandlaidthefoundationfortheAfro-Asiansolidarity(cooperation).TheBandung
conferencethereforerepresentedthebeginningofthefinalphaseofAfrica'sprogress
towardsindependence.
13.IndiatookadvantageofherpositionintheCommonwealthofNationsOrganisationtoput
pressureonBritainandcausehertoenforcetotaldecolonisationinAfrica.Soonafterher
independence,JawaharlalNehru the Indian Prime Ministerinfluenced the British
governmenttowithdrawfromtherestofBritishcolonialteritoriesofAsiaandAfrica.This
eventualyledtotheindependenceoftheBritishcoloniesinAfricaliketheGoldCoast
(Ghana),Nigeria,Uganda,Tanganyika,KenyaandNyasaland(Malawi).
14.IndiasoldtoAfricaGandhi'spolicyofusingChristianityagainstcolonialexploitation.
DuringtheindependencestruggleofIndia,MahatmaGandhiusedChristianityandthe
Biblicalteachingstocondemncolonialismandagitateforequalityandlibertywhichthe
BritishcolonialistshaddeniedtotheIndians.ThesuccessofthisstrategyinIndiainspired
Africanfreedom
fighterslikeKennethKaundaofNorthernRhodesia(Zambia),Bishop
SitholeNdabaningiofSouthernRhodesiaandArch-bishopDesmondTutuofSouthAfrica
intheircampaignsagainstwhiteracismandcolonialism.
15.Gandhi'spersonalityalsosetagoodexampletotheAfricannationalists.Hewasavery
goodleaderandwilingtosacrificehimselfonbehalfofhispeople,andforthesakeof
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independence.AstheleaderoftheindependencemovementinIndia,heinspiredmany
Africannationaliststoborowhistrendofleadershipagainstcolonialrule.Examplesof
AfricanleadersinspiredbyGandhi'scharacterincludedKwameNkrumahoftheGold
Coast,JuliusNyerereofTanganyikaandNelsonMandelaofSouthAfricaamongothers.
Mandela'srefusaloffreedomofferedtohimbyapartheiddictatorP.W.Bothain1985was
intruesenseofanationalistshapedbyGandhi'sdedicationtothenationalcauseofhis
people.
THEITALIANINVASIONANDOCCUPATIONOFETHIOPIA(1935-41)
TheItalo-Ethiopianconflictof1936-41wasawarbetweenBenitoMussolini'sItalyand
EthiopialedbyEmperorHaileSelassie.ThewarbrokeoutonOctober3,1935whenItaly
atackedEthiopia.AtthetimeofItalianaggression,EthiopiaandLiberiawere'-'theonlytwo
statesinAfricathathadsurvivedEuropeanimperialism.TheinvasionofEthiopiabyItalywas
anextensionofthescrambleandepilogue(conclusion)tothepartitionofAfrica.
EthiopiahaddefeatedanearlierItalianaggressionatAdowain1896duringthereignof
EmperorMenelikI.TheEthiopianefforttoholdontoher2000yearsindependencewas
stoppedin1936whenshesuccumbed(gavein)toItaliandefeatandeventualoccupationon
May6,1936.
ItalythereforeviolatedthepoliticalvirginityofEthiopiabycontrolingthe
Abyssiniancountryforaperiodoffiveyears.
TheriseofFascistMussolinithroughthe"famousmarchtoRomeofSeptember27-30,1922
andlaterestablishingadictatorialregimein1923createdaplatform
forItaliandesireto
revengetheAdowahumiliation,andconsequentlyre-establishanew
RussianEmpireby
controlingEthiopia.
Theopportunitycamein1935andwasprovokedbythefolowingfactors:
Referencequestions:
a)AccountfortheItalianinvasionofEthiopiain1935
b)"Mussoliniwasprimarilyresponsibleforthe1935-41Italo-Ethiopiancrisis."Discuss
c)HowfarwastheWhiteman'sconspiracyresponsiblefortheItalianoccupationonEthiopia
between1935and1941?
1.
Mussolini'sdesiretoreviveItalianimperialism(colonialdomination)
TheinvasionofEthiopiawasduetoMussolini'sdesiretorestoreItaliandomination.The
emergenceofBenitoMussolinicamewithhisincreasedambitionofrestoringItalianpast
glorythathadbeenbuiltontheaggressiveactivitiesofthedefunct(former)RomanEmpire.
"MussoliniadmiredandpraisedthesuccessoftheItalianpastduringtheRomanEmpireand
hencewantedtorevivesuchgloriesoftheRomanEmpire."TheItalianDictatortherefore
wantedtore¬establishamodernRomanEmpirebyextendingRomaninfluenceoutsideItaly,
beginningwithEthiopia.HegavethepeopleofItalyaveryambitiousplanwhichincluded
worshippingtheItalianstateandacquisitionofnew
territoriesthroughaforcefuland
aggressiveforeignpolicy.
2. Theanti-ItalianpolicyofHaileSelassie
BenitoMussoliniatackedtheEthiopianmonarchytorevengeagainstHaileSelassie'santiItalianpolicy.SincehisrisetopowerastheMilitaryGovernorofHararProvince,RasTafari
adoptedadiplomaticpolicywhichisolatedItaly.HecompletelyignoredItalyinEthiopian
foreignrelations.Evenaftersigningthe1928Italo-EthiopianTreatyofFriendship,RasTafari
continuedisolatingItaly,whichfrustratedMussoliniIn1932,EmperorSelassierecruited
foreignadvisersfromotherEuropeanpowersexceptItaly.Healsoappointedeconomicand
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militaryexpertsfromSweden,France,Switzerland,BelgiumaswelastheUSA.Mussolinitook
itpersonalhencethe1935atackonEthiopiawastoenableItalyhaveinfluenceinEthiopia.
3. ItalianambitiontorevengeagainsttheirhumiliatingdefeatatAdowa
ThedesirebyBenitoMussolinitoavengethehumiliationsufferedbyItalyattheBatleof
AdowaAdwa)causedthewaragainstEthiopia.TheItalianKingdomhadwishedtocapture
andaddAbyssiniatoherAfricancolonialempirewhichledtotheoutbreakofthefirstItaloAbyssinianwarbetween1894and1896.TheItalianforcecommandedbyGeneralOreste
BaratieriwasdefeatedbyEthiopiaattheBatleofAdowaonMarch1,1896.Thepeopleof
ItalyhadnotforgotensuchhumiliatingdefeatthatdidnotonlyleaveAbyssiniaindependent
butalsokepthauntingthemforyears;MussoliniresurrectedtheItalianambitionofrevenging
againstAbyssiniawithenoughconfidencethatanatackagainstEthiopiacouldarousethe
patrioticofItalianstowardsremovingtheshamefulscarofAdowa.
4.NeedtoformtheUnitedItalianEastAfricanEmpire
MussoliniatackedEthiopiain1935withhopeofestablishingaunitedItalianEastAfrican
Empire.DuringthescrambleandpartitionofAfrica,ItalyacquiredEritreaandSomaliland,
whichshewantedtolinkupbyestablishingarailwayline.BothItaliancolonieswerenear
EthiopiaintheHornofAfricaandwereatthesametimeveryimpoverishedcomparedto
Ethiopia,henceoflessimportancetoItaly.MussoliniwishedtoimproveonItalianpositionin
AfricabyconqueringEthiopiaandjoiningitwithEritreaandItalianSomaliland.EmperorHaile
SelassiecametobeanobstacletoMussolini'sdreamempireasheopposedtherailwayline
passingthroughEthiopia.MussolinithereforefounditnecessarytoannexEthiopia,addherto
EritreaandSomaliland,soastoeffectivelyestablishtheUnitedItalianEastAfricanEmpire.
5.Mussolini'sdeterminationtodisgraceEthiopiaandendherpride
TheprideoftheEthiopianstateof2000yearsofself-rulepromptedItalytoatackEthiopia.By
the20th Century,mostofAfricancontinenthadbeensharedandcontroledbyEuropean powers.ThetwoindependentexceptionsthesurvivedcolonialismweretheyoungRepublicof
LiberiaontheWestAfricanAtlanticCoast,createdandsupervisedbytheUS-government
since1822,andtheAbyssinian(Ethiopian)EmpireintheHornofAfrica,whosesovereignty
wasconfirmedafterherdefeatofItalyinthe1896AdowaBatle.SincetheruleofEmperor
MenelikI,theEthiopianEmpirewasproudlyisolatingItalyinitsrelationswithEurope
especialyonmatersofdiplomacyandmilitaryaliances.Mussolini'sdesiretoendthe
aroganceoftheEthiopiangovernmentanddisgracetheindependentEthiopianEmpiremade
theItalo-Ethiopianwarinevitable.
6.TheriseoffascistMussoliniandhisdesiretospreadfascism
TheemergenceofItaliandictatorBenitoMussoliniandhisfascistideologyledtotheItalian
invasionofEthiopia.BenitoMussolinidevelopedthepoliticalideologyoffascismasmeansto
helprestorethesocial,economic,andculturallifeofhiscountry.HeformedtheNational
FascistParty(PNF)withanaimofpromotingmilitarydictatorship,andthisshapedhisrigid
militarycharacter.Hiscomingtopowerledtotheaccelerationoffascismthatpromotedthe
ideologyofsurvivalofthefitestandthedominationofweakernationsbypowerfulones.The
desiretospreadfascismbeyondItalianboundariesmadeMussolinitolookatEthiopiaasa
possiblevenue.
7.Mussolini'sambitiontohavefulcontroloverportMassawaandAssab
TheneedtohavefulcontroloverMassawaandAssabcausedtheItalianatackonEthiopia.
PortMassawawasunderjointcontroloftheBritishandItalians,whomostofthetimesfailed
toagreeonpatentissuesregardingtradeontheport.Theportcombinedtradeactivities
amongthecontinentsofAfrica,AsiaandEurope.Itexportedagriculturalproducts,especialy
nuts,coffeeandhides.TheBritishaccessedPortMassawaandAssabfrom Sudanand
throughEthiopia.Mussolini'sinvasionofEthiopiawasthereforetoclaim fulcontrolof
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Ethiopia,denytheBritishaccesstoportstherebyeliminatingtheirinterestsintheseports.
8.Theroleofthe1934Walwalincident
TheimmediatecauseoftheSecondItakrAbyssinianwarwasthe1934Walwalincident.This
incidentresultedfromtheongoingconflictbetweentheKingdomofItalyandtheEmpireof
Ethiopia.In1930,ItalycreatedamilitaryfortofItalianandSomaliofficersattheWalwal
(Welwel)oasisintheEthiopianterritoryofOgadenborderingItalianterritoryofSomaliland.
FightingoccuredatWalwalinDecemberinvolvingSomaliofficersintheItalianforcesand
Ethiopianarmyofabout6000men.TwoItalianfighterplanesbombedanddestroyedthe
EthiopiancampleadingtothefinalconquestofWalwal.Mussoliniusedtheincidenttomake
unrealistic demands to Selassie which included a writen apology,an indemnity
(compensation)ofabout20000USdolarsandadelegationofEthiopianofficialstosalutethe
ItalianflagatWalwal.HaileSelassierejectedthedemandsofMussolini,whohence,useditas
anexcusetoatackEthiopiathefolowingyear,
9.NeedtocivilizeEthiopia
ItalyclaimedsheatackedEthiopiaduetoacivilisationmission.Mussoliniclaimedthatthe
invasionofEthiopiawasnotanaggressionbutratheritwasaimedatpromotingEuropean
civilizationinaprimitiveandbarbaricEthiopianstate.HewentaheadtoatacktheLeagueof
NationsforassertingthathehadagreedyheartwhichmadehimtoinvadeEthiopiaamember
ofinternationalPeaceKeepingbody.MussoliniquestionedhowtheLeaguetribunalcould
condemnhim forcivilisingEthiopiaabackwardandunculturednationthatdeservedtobe
civilized.
10.TheunfairnessoftheVersailesPeaceSetlement
Theoutcomesofthe1919VersailespeacesetlementinfluencedItalytoatackEthiopiain
1935.ThesetlementwasmadeataconferenceconvenedbythevictorpowersofWorldWarI
ledbyBritainandFrance.TheVersailessetlementwasaimedatfindingmeansofpunishing
Germanyandheraliesandtorewardthealiesofvictorpowers.Germanwashencemadeto
losehercolonialpossessionsincludingtheAfricanterritoryofSouthWestAfrica(Namibia),
Rwanda–Urundi.Togoland,CameroonandTanganyika.TheseweresharedamongtheVictor
alies.Italy'shopeofgetingmoreteritoriesunderhercontrolmetadeadendasshecameout
oftheconferenceemptyhanded.ThislatercompeledMussolinitoatackEthiopiaasa
meansofcompensatingforthelossatVersailes.
11.Mussolini'sambitiontodemonstrateItalianmilitarystrength
ThedesirebyItalytoexhibithermilitarystrengthmade1935ItakoEthiopianwarinevitable.
Italywasregardedamilitarypowersinceherwarsofunificationbuttheshamefuldefeatat
thehandsofEthiopiaduringtheBatleofAdowain1896andthepoorperformanceofthe
ItalianarmyduringWorldWarIgreatlyaffectedhermilitaryprestige.Italyhencewantedher
military-strengthtobefeltonceagain.ThechancecamewiththeriseofMussolinitopower.
"MussolinilidthedeterminationtoraisethemilitaryprestigeofItalyintheeyesofother
powersandthatpossibleonlyifhewasabletoshowthathisarmywasnotonlystrong
enoughtoprotect'Italianboundariesbutalsotoconquerotherterritories."Heembarkedon
modifyingthemilitarysectorbymanufacturingsophisticatedarmsandammunitionsaswel
astrainingtheItaliantroopsinmodernwarfareandmilitarytactics.HenceMussoliniinvaded
EthiopiainordertoremonstrateItalianmilitarymighttothewholeworld.
12.MossolinisalegationofEthiopianPlanningtoattackEritreaandSomaliland
ThealegedintentionofEthiopiatoexpelItalyfromhercoloniesofEritreaandSomali-land
InfluencedItalytoinvadeEthiopia.SoonafterhiscoronationastheemperorofEthiopia,Haile
SelasseembarkedonmodernisingtheEthiopianforcesasfastastheEmpire'sresources
couldalow.Mussolinisuspectedthere-organisationoftheEthiopianarmyasaplanby
SelassietoatacktheItaliancoloniesintheHornofAfrica.TheItalianspokespersonhadto
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commentthatEthiopiawasarminghertroopsinanupdatedEuropeanmanner.Thisfear
madetheItalianstoappealtotheItaliangovernmentandMussolinirespondedbyatacking
Ethiopia.
13.ImpactofeconomiccrisisinItaly
EuropeafterWorldWarIinfluencedMussolinitoatackEthiopia.TheafterreflectsofWorld
WarIwereamultipleofeconomicproblemsinEuropebetween1929and1932,andthis
situationcametobeknownastheeconomiccrisis.Thiseconomicsituationseverelyaffected
everystateinEuropebuttheconditionofItalywastheunhappy.Thewarif:ahighcostof
livinginItalywithabudgetdeficitofover12,000milionLire($228000milion)whichmadeit
impossibleforthegovernmenttoensurepropereconomicplanning.TheItaliancurrency(Lire)
wasdepreciated,unemploymenthadgreatlyincreasedduetocolapseofindustries,andmany
Italianswereretrenchedfromtheirjobswhilewagesofthosewhoemployedwerecutdown.
Italyhadanadversebalanceoftradeasherimportvolumescomparedtotheexports.Such
pooreconomicatmospheremadeMussolinitolookatthevirginresourcesofEthiopiaasthe
onlyhopethatwouldstabiliseItaly'scolapsingeconomyhencetheItalianinvasionofEthiopia.
14.TheunfairItalianshareatBerlin
TheBerlinConferenceof1884-85hadaneffectontheoutbreakofItalyEthiopianconflict.The
ConferencewasconvenedinGermany,organisedbyBismarcktheGermanChancelor.At
Berlin,AfricawaspartitionedlikeapieceofcakeamongtheEuropeancolonialpowers.Italy
paidthepriceofenteringthecolonialracemuchlaterthanotherpowersbyacquiringthesemi aridteritoriesofLibya,EritreaandSomaliland.Herjoiningthecolonialbusinesslatewasdue
tolackofmilitaryandindustrialresourceslikeotherpowers.TheItaliandissatisfactionat
BerlininfluencedheratempttoconquerAbyssiniawhichfailedby1896.Withsuchunfair
shareatBerlin,ItalykeptaliveherdreamofcontrolingEthiopia,andtheopportunitycamein
1934-35duringthetimeofDictatorMussol
15.TheweaknessoftheLeagueofNa
TheweaknessoftheLeagueofNationscontributedtotheoutbreakoftheItalo-Ethiopianwas
of1935.TheLeaguewasformedon1920asaninternationalpeacekeepingbody.Themajor
aimwastodiscouragefurtheraggressionsofonestateovertheother.Inthecharterofthe
League,itwasstatedthatnocountrywastoatackanothermemberwithoutastrongreason
andifso,theissuewouldbeamicablysetled.TheLeaguehoweverprovidedforfreeentryand
exithencegivingItalyanopportunitytowithdrawfrom theleague.BythetimeofItalian
aggressiononEthiopia,ItalywasnolongeramemberoftheLeague.
16.JapaneseoccupationofManchuria
InfluenceofJapaneseinvasionoftheChineseindustrialprovinceofManchuriamadeItalyto
atackEthiopiain1935.InSeptember1931,theJapaneseKwantungarmyinvadedand
occupiedManchuria,whoselargeagriculturalsectorturnedherintothefoodbasketoftheFar
East.JapanwasheavilyaffectedbytheeconomiccrisishencelookedatManchuriaasa
teritorytoresetlepartofherunemployedpopulaceandinvesthercapital,asourceofraw
materialsforherindustries,anewmarkettoexpandherforeigntradeandasourceofwealth
duetoitstimberresourcesandminerals.ThemajorPowersoftheLeagueshowedanegative
reactionwhenChinacaledforsupportandinsteadagreedthatManchuriawasofmilitaryand
strategicimportancetoJapanthatalsohadaresponsibilitytoprotectthelivesandproperty
ofJapaneseintheprovince.MussolinifoundagreatexcusetoinvadeEthiopiawelknowing
thattheprincipleofcolectivesecuritywasneverupheldbytheleague.
17.Impactofthe1934StresaFront(Anglo-Frenchconspiracy)
TheStresaFrontandtheItalo-Anglo-FrenchaliancegaveMussolinimoraletoinvade
Ethiopia.TheStresaFrontwasanagreementmadeduringatripartiteconferenceinasmal
ItaliantownofStresa.ItwassignedonApril14,1934betweenFrenchPrimeMinisterPierre
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Laval,BritishPrimeMinisterRamsayMacDonald,andItalianPrimeMinisterBenitoMussolini.
ThethreestatesrepresentedatStresa,France,BritainandItalysignedthetreatyasanaliance
again?!Germanrearmamentplan,whichthreatenedpeaceandsecurityinEurope.Mussolini
discussedwithBritishdelegateshisplansofmakingItaly'great,respectedandfeared'
throughtheInvasionandconquestofAbyssiniaandultimatelycreateanal-powerfulItalian
EmpireinEastAfrica.BenitoMussolinibelievedthatthesigningofthe"StresaFront"would
meanBritainandFrancewouldnotinterfereintheItalo-Ethiopiancrisis.Thisencouragedhim
toorganiseamilitaryinvasiononEthiopiain1935.
18.TheweaknessofEthiopianarmy
TherefusaltoselmilitaryhardwaretoEthiopiaconvincedItalytoatackherin1935.Britain
andFrancerefusedtoselweaponstoEthiopiaatatimewhenItalywasdeployingtroops
alongtheEthiopianborderwithSomali-land.EventhoughSelassiehadembarkedon
modernisingtheEthiopianarmy,Ethiopiacouldnotbuildaformidableforcewithoutacquiring
modernweapons
Thearmsembargo(restrictiononthesaleofammunitions)toItalyandEthiopiafavouredthe
former(Italy)whomanufacturedherownarmsandammunitions.Thisbiaseddishonestyof
theEuropeanpowersgavecouragetoItalytoatackEthiopia,asshewasawareofEthiopian
militaryweakness.
1. NeedforterritoriestoresettleItaliandesperatepopulation
ThedesirebyItalytoacquirenewteritoriesforhersurpluspopulationledtotheinvasionof
Ethiopiain1935.Italywasinneedofcoloniestoresetlehundredsofthousandsofherpeople
whowerelackingworkintheirfatherland,MussoliniwasconcernedthatItalianswereno
longerabletomigrateabroadonaccountofthelimitationsimposedonimmigrationbyother
European countries.HeclaimedthatItalianswerehungryforlandbecausetheywere
abundant,productiveandcreative.TheEthiopianhighlandshadgoodandfavourableclimatic
conditionswithfertilearablesoilsconduciveforItaliansetlementandagriculture.Such
influencedItalytoinvadeinordertorealiseeconomicactivitiesandempowertheItalian economy.
2. DesiretoexploitEthiopia
TheconquestofAbyssiniawouldputthecountry'seconomicresourcesintoItalianhands.
Mussoliniwaseagertotakeupcontrolofthealmineralresourcesinthemountainous
countryofAbyssina.TheItaliandesireforrawmaterialsforherindustriesandmarketforher
finishedgoodalsomadeitnecessaryfortheinvasionandoccupationofEthiopia.Thehigh
Ethiopianplateauwasconduciveforcoffee,tea,nutsandtobaccogrowing.Ethiopiawasalso
famousforexportinganimalhidesduetoalargerpercentageofherpopulationengagingin
pastoralism.MussoliniconfirmedItaliandesiretoexploitEthiopiabyclaimingthatEritreaand
SomalilandlackedtheeconomicpotentialthatotherEuropeanpowersenjoyedintheir
colonies.
3. SupportfromGerman'sHitler
GermansupporttoMussoliniinhisconquestofAbyssiniamadethewarbetweenItalyand
Ethiopianinevitable.In1934,MussoliniandthegreatpowersofFranceandBritainopposed
Hitler’sambitiousdesiretoviolatetheVersailessetlementandannexAustriatoGermany.
AustrianswerealsoGermansbutatVersailes,thevictorpowersofWorldWarIdecidedto
leaveAustriaindependentbecausethestatesmendidnotwanttocreateastrongand
powerfulGermany,whichwouldbeasourceofdangertopeaceandsecurityinEurope.
MussoliniwasdrawntoHitlerduringtheItalo-Ethiopianconflict,whichconvincedhimthat
GermanywasabeterfriendthanFranceandBritain.Whereasthebigpowersoftheworld
opposedMussoliniforplanninganatackonEthiopiaandimposedeconomicsanctionson
Italy,HitlerstoodwithMussoliniandsupportedhimtooccupyEthiopia.
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4. ImpactoftheHoare-LavalPact
TheHoare-LavalPactwasasecretproposalmadetoBenitoMussoliniinDecember1935by
BritishForeignSecretarySamuelHoareandFrenchPrimeMinisterPierreLavaltoendthe
SecondItalo-AbyssinianWar.HoareandLavalofferedtopartitionAbyssiniatoenablethe
ItaliandictatorachievehisgoalofturningAbyssiniaintoanItaliancolony.Thissupportto
MussoliniwasaimedatpreventinghimfromalyingwithHitler.Bythispact,Italywouldgain
thebestpartsoftheprovincesofOgadenandTigray,witheconomicinfluencealoverthe
southernregionofAbyssinia.EmperorSelassiewastoretaincontroloveronlythepartsof
thenorth.MussolinihadagreedtothepactbecausehewantedtoendtheAbyssinianwar
whichhadcontinuedduetodeterminednationalisticresistanceoftheEthiopians.Eventhough
theHoareLavalPlanwasnotsuccessful,itassuredMussoliniofAnglo-Frenchbacking,which
encouragedhimtohavefulcontrolofEthiopia(Abyssinia).
Pleasenote:
TheHoare-LavalPactonlyconfirmedItalianoccupationofEthiopia,butnottheoutbreakof
thewar.ItwassignedinDecember1935Jtwomonthsafterthewarhadbrokenout.
ImpactoftheItaloEthiopianwar
Referencequestionsa)AssesstheimpactoftheItalo-Ethiopianwarof1935-41
b)HowdidtheItalianinvasionofEthiopiain1935affectthepeopleofEthiopia?
Negativeeffects
1. EthiopianresistancewascrushedastheItaliantroopsfinalycapturedtheEthiopian
capitalwhichendedthe2000yearsofEthiopianindependence.ByJanuary1936,the
peopleofEthiopiahadbeendecisivelydefeated;however,theEthiopianarmymanagedto
resisttheItalianatackforaboutafewmoremonthsbutfinalygaveinbyMay1936when
theItalianarmycommandedmyGeneralPietroBadoglioenteredtheEthiopiancapital,
AddisAbaba.
2. Consequently,theadvancementofItaliantroopstoAddisAbabaledtotheabdicationand
flightofEmperorHaileSelassietoexileinLondonthroughDjibouti.EmperorHaile
SelassiehadreturnedtoAddisAbabainApril,thefirsttimesincetheoutbreakofthewar.
SelassiefledintoexileonMay2,1936toescapepossiblecapturebytheItalianinvading
troops,andtosolicitforexternalsupportandinternationalsympathythatwouldenable
him
regainhisEthiopianthrone.Hisfamilyandseveralofhisclosestassociates
accompaniedhim.ThelossoftheempiricalthronebyEmperorSelassieledtoa
leadershipvacuuminEthiopiathatdealtafinalblowtotheEthiopianforces.
3. TheItalianinvasionofEthiopiawasasignofhumiliationtotheEthiopianmonarch.Itwas
asignofnakedaggressiononaninternationalyrecognisedsovereignstate.Theonce
AfricansymbolofdignityandfreedomnowfeltotheItalianaggressors.Theoccupation
ofEthiopiaexposedthemilitaryweaknessoftheimperialregimeofHaileSelassie,whose
economicconstraintscouldnotsustaintheresistanceagainstItaly.TheEthiopian
reputationbuiltbyEmperorMenelikIdeclinedwithItaliansuccessoverItalyin1936.It
wasasoundingsuccesstoBenitoMussoliniwhoinspiredtheItalianrevengeoftheAdowa
(Adwa)defeatof1896.
4. Thewarledtolossoflivesandsubsequentdestructionofproperty.Theuseofpoisonous
gasandaerialbombingleftthevilagesablazewhereEthiopianssufferedheavycasualties.
Manyofthevictimswereinnocentwomenandchildren.Soldiers,elites,peasantsand
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priestsalsoperishedintheItalo-Ethiopianwar.
5. TheconflictcausedandexposeddivisionsamongEthiopians.Thegrievancesthatwere
heldagainsttheAmharictribe(Selassie'sorigin)byothertribesliketheGala,Sidonaand
SomaliduetothetribaltendenciesheldbytheEmperor'sgovernmentmadetheother
tribestosupportItalianforcesagainsttheEthiopiannationalarmy.Suchgrossdisunity
influencedtheGalatofighttheAmharic,andtheItalianstobribetheEthiopianstoidentify
theoperationareasoftheEthiopianarmy.TheEthiopianarmyofficialsofGalaorigin
alwaysledtheirforcesintoItalianambushes.
6. Theconflictusheredinapoliticalcrisisthatcontributedtotherefugeecrisisinthehornof
AfricaandtheemergenceofinternalydisplacedpeopleinEthiopia.Thisrefugeecrisis
explodedtotheneighbouringstatesofKenya,Sudan,SomaliaandEritreawheremany
EthiopianssoughtforasylumasItalyoccupiedEthiopia.
7. OndefeatingEthiopia,theItaliansestablishedtheirimperialrule.TheItalianoccupation
broughtEmperorHaileSelassieandtheRoyalImperialHouseofEthiopiatoexperience
directEuropeanrulewhichotherAfricaleadershadalreadyexperiencedaboutfiftyyears
before.TheEthiopiandefeatofItalyatAdwamadethecountrysurvivecolonialdomination
andexploitationwhichotherAfricancountrieshadfacedfromthesecondhalfofthe19 th
century.HerindependenceworkedtocreateasenseofpeaceandprosperityofEthiopian
peoplewithinthebordersoftheirowncountry.However,folowingtheItalianoccupation
(1936-41)Ethiopiansexperiencedlandgrabbing,forcedlabourandarbitraryruleofa
Europeancolonialmaster.
8. Theyintroduced harsh and exploitative administrative policies like forced labour,
excessiveCoition,arbitraryarestsandexecutionofEthiopiansopposedtoItalian
leadership.AlthesedeprivedAfricansinEthiopiaoftheirfreedom.
9. Consequently,theItalianinvasionofEthiopialedtotheintroductionoffascismforwhich
Ethiopiabecameavictim.Mussolini'sinvasionofEthiopiawasaimedatspreadinghis
fascistideologybeyondItalianboundaries.Theideologyemphasisedsurvivalofthefitest
andthedominanceofweakernationsbypowerfulones.Ethiopiathusexperiencedmilitary
dictatorshipandtheuncompromisingcharacteroffascistItalians.
10.TheItalo-EthiopiancrisisexposedtheweaknessanddoublestandardsoftheLeagueof
Nations,whichinevitablyledtoitscolapse.Lateron,theUnitedNationsOrganisation
emergedtoroltheboatofpeace,securityandjusticeintheworld.Ethiopiareceivedan
invitationtothenewinternationalworldpeacekeepingbody.
11.ThesuccessfuloccupationofEthiopiabyItalyin1936promptedHitlerofGermanyto
invadePolandwhichwasasparklingfactorintheoutbreakofWorldWarI.Thethreat
posedbytheaxisalianceandtherefusalofGermantowithdrawfromPolandmadethe
aliedalianceledbyFranceandBritaintodeclarewaronGermany,eventualymaking
WorldWarIinevitable.
Positive
12.ThebriefItaliancolonialoccupationofEthiopiawitnessedsocio-economicdevelopments
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inthecountry.Hospitals,schoolsandroadsweresetup!WhileItaliansetlementledto
growthoftowns,henceurbanisation.
13.TheItalo-Ethiopiancrisisledtotheformationofaguerrilamovementknownasthe"Black
Lions”undertheleadershipofRasImru(Immiru).ThisEthiopianliberationmovement
stoodagainstethnicdifferencesinEthiopiaandensuredasuccessfulstruggleagainst
Italy.The"BlackLions"movementmadeamajorcontributoryfactorthatledtothedefeat
ofItalyin1941.
14.ThewarinspiredtheformationofacommiteeofUnionin1937.Thiswasasteptowards
promotingunityamongover100tribesofEthiopia,aswelasendingthedivisionswithin
theEthiopianarmythatfoughtagainstItalianaggression.
15.TheItalianinvasionofEthiopialedtointernationalrecognitionofEmperorHaileSelassie
andEthiopiaagainstItaly.EthiopiaandHaileSelassiebecamepopularalovertheworld
astheinternationalcommunitycondemnedtheItaliannakedaggressionagainstan
internationalyrecognisedindependentstateofEthiopia.MajorPowersoftheLeaguelike
BritainchanneledtieirsupporttoenabletherestorationofEthiopiansovereignty.
16.Theendofwarin1941providedtheopportunityforthere-organisationoftheEthiopian
military.HaileSelassierealisedtheneedforastrongmodernmilitaryforcehence
encouraged training ofmanymilitaryofficers in modern warfare technology.In
colaborationwithcountriesin.Europe,Selassiesentmilitarycadrestomilitaryschoolsin
FranceandEngland,TheEmperoralsointroducedmodernmilitaryschoolsinEthiopiaso
thatmoremilitarygeneralscouldbetrained.Thisgreatmovetowardsthemilitarywas
motivatedbytheEthiopiandefeattoItalyin1936.
17.FolowingtheincreasedinternationalpopularityofEthiopia,theAfricanstategotthe
invitationasafoundermemberoftheUnitedNationsOrganisation(UNO).AfterWorldWar
I,in1945,EthiopiawasinvitedasoneofthefoundermembersoftheUnitedNations
organization.ThisdidnotonlymaketheEthiopianempiremorepopular,butalsoamajor
contributortointernationalpeaceandsecurity.
18.ItledtotheriseoftheEthiopianPatrioticChurchandtheincreaseinitsparticipationinthe
rationalaffairsofEthiopia.TheparticipationoftheEthiopianPatrioticChurchinthe
struggleagainsttheItalianaggressorswasparamountintherestorationofEthiopian
sovereignty'.TheChurchmobihzedtheEthiopianOrthodoxChristianstodiefortheir
country.In1938,BishopPedroswaspublicalyexecutedforrefusingtobroadcastagainst
thepatriots.TheItaliansalsokiled380monksintheancientmonasteryofDebraLimonas
afterarmswerediscoveredtherethisactofmurderontheChurchofficialswasa
motivationfactorintheEthiopianresistanceagainsttheItalianaggression.
19.TheItalo-EthiopiancrisiselevatedthepopularityofEthiopiaamongBlacksinAfricaand
theworldover.Thewarstrengthenedblackunityandco-operationtowardssupporting
EthiopiaagainstItalianoccupation.TheBlacksrecognizedEthiopiaasthelastcathedralof
Africanfreedomandthuswereprofoundlyshakenbythedestructionofacountrythathad
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beenaproudsymbolofAfricanindependenceandblackachievementamidsttheeraof
colonialism.Protestspreadfrom
LagosinNigeriatoNewYorkinUSAandLondonin
England.AlovertheworldblackswereprotestingagainstMussolini'snakedaggression
againstavirginEthiopiathathadstoodasasymbolofblackfreedomofdignity.
20.Thewarinfluencedtheco-operationofEthiopiawithEritreaagainstItalianimperialism.
ThesuccessfulItalianoccupationofEthiopiain1936waspartlyfavouredbysupportfrom
EritreaHowever,thegoodspiritoftheItaliancolonialgovernmentinEritreachangedsoon
afterItalianconquestofEthiopia.Mussolini'sadministrationstressedtheracialand
politicalsuperiorityoftheItalian peoplein theEritrea,Ethiopia and Somaliland.
Segregationbecamethehardandfastrule,andAfricansinthethreecountrieswere
reducedtothelowestclassofsocietyintheirownhomeland.TheEritreanshenceworked
closelywiththeEthiopianstoendItalianimperialism.
21.ThewarawakenedracialconsciousnessoftheEthiopianpeoplethattheyareAfricansand
thatEthiopiaispartoftheAfricancontinent.Forlongtime,Ethiopianrulerspreferred
seeingthemselvesaspartoftheMiddleEastratherthanAfrica.Thewidespreadsupport
givenbyAfricansandblackstoEmperorSelassieandtheEthiopianpeopleduringthe
ItalianoccupationmadethemtodevelopasenseofbelongingtoAfricaandnottheMiddle
East.AfterEthiopiaregaininghersovereignfreedom from Italianaggression,Emperor
HaileSelassiebecamestronglyactiveintheAfricanaffairsasoneofthegreatestPan
Africanistsandelderstatesmenofpost-colonialAfrica.NosurprisethatHaileSelassiegot
activelyinvolvedintheliberationofAfricaandestablishmentofunityonthecontinent.
REACTIONSOFTHEBLACKSTOTHEITALIANINVASIONOFETHIOPIA:
TheweaknessoftheLeagueofNationsexposedtheAfricanstotheWhiteman'sconspiracy
i.e.thattheEuropeanswerereadytoworktogetheranddominatetheblacks.Ethiopiabeing
oneoftheonlytwosurvivingAfricanstatestoretainherindependenceandinternational
equality,the ItalianinvasionwasdisrespectandbreakageoftheEthiopiansovereignty.This
influencedthe entireblackworldtocometogethertoopposeanddemonstratetheir
discontentmentagainstEuropeans.
TheblackshencereactedtotheItalianinvasionofEthiopiathroughthefolowing!
ReferenceQuestions:
a)HowdidtheBlackworldrespondtotheItalianinvasionofEthiopiain1935?
b)ExaminethereactionsofAfricanstotheoutbreakoftheItalo-Ethiopiawarof193541)
1. PanAfricanistslikeMarcusGarveyimmediatelyspokeouttocondemntheinvasionof
EthiopiabyItaliandictatorMussolini.AccordingtoMarcusGarvey,Ethiopiawaspartofthe
greatAfricanracethatwasgoingtohelpAfricansgetridofcolonialismthus,Italyhad
commitedanakedaggressionagainstaninternationalyrecognizedindependentcountry.
2. InWestAfrica,thenationalisticnewspaperscaledforthemassuprisingtoprotestagainst
theItalianinvasionofEthiopia.ThiswasmeanttoshowamassprotestbyAfricans
againstEuropeanhumiliation.
3. InNewYorkabout20,000blackswenttothestreetstodemonstrateagainsttheItalian
rapeofEthiopia.ThiswasanindicationthatblacksintheDiaspora(abroad)stilhada
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strongdevotiontowardstheirlandoforigin.
4. JomoKenyatainamonthlyLabourPublicationwroteanarticle"HandoffAbyssinia".His
articlewasasaimedatcondemningtheItalianinvasionofEthiopia,theonlysymboland
oasisofAfricanindependence.KenyatacommentedthathisweaponagainsttheItalian
nakedpracticeagainstEthiopiawasonlythepenandpaper.
5. Consequently,JomoKenyataalsovowednevertocutoffhisbearduntilAbyssiniawas
freeagain.ThiswasaimedatpersuadingotherAfricanstoinvolveinsupportingthe
EthiopiancauseforresistanceagainsttheItalianoccupation.
6. UponnewsoftheItalianinvasion,KwameNkrumah,walkedthestreetsofLondonwith
angrytearsrunningdownhischeeks.The"badnews"ofItaliannviaolationofEthiopian
sovereignindependencethereforestimulatedthePanAfricanidentityofNkrumah.
AccordingtoNkrumah,atthathecouldnoteventrustthespacearoundhim.Itfeltlikeas
ifthewholeofLondonhaddeclaredwaronhim.
7. WalaceJohnsonofSierraLeoneandNnamdiAzikiweofNamibiaproducedaverydynamic
andexplosivearticleinthepress,"HasAfricaaGod?"Withthispublication,thesetwo
devotedAfricansweretryingtoquestionthewisdomofItalianclaimtospreadChristianity
andwesterncivilizationinEthiopia,butbyuseofpoisonousgasandweaponsofhuman
destruction.
8. InWestAfricaandNigeriainparticular,theAbyssinianAssociationwasformedtosupport
theEthiopiacause.TheassociationworkedtocondemntheItalianaggressionagainst
EthiopiaandpressurizedBritaintofavourEthiopiansovereigntyagainsttheambitionsof
Mussolini.IttriedrecruitingvolunteerstogoandfightonEthiopianside
9. Consequently,theEthiopianDefenceFundwasputinplaceinNigeriatohelpraise
logistical,serialandfinancialassistancefortheliberationofEthiopia.Theseresources
wouldlaterbeinstrumentalinstrengtheningEthiopiancounterwaragainstMussolini's
men.
10.WestAfricansunderBritishruleheldameetinginLagostodebateBritishpositioninthe
ItaloEthiopianwar.DuringtheLagosmeetinginNigeria,aresolutionwaspassedasking
theBritishtostoppursuingherappeasementpolicytowardsMussoliniandcondemnItaly
foroccupyingEthiopia.
11.AfricansunderBritishcolonialismthreatenedtoboycotconsumptionofBritishandSyrian
goodsandtoabandonworkingingovernmentandBritishfirmsasawayofshowingtheir
discontenttoBritishsilenceduringtheItalianoccupationofEthiopia.Theyinterpreteditas
aquietmoveremoteEuropeanruleinEthiopia.
12.InBritain,GeorgePadmore,Danquah,RasmarkandJomoKenyataorganisedthe
InternationalAfricanFriendsofEthiopia(I.A.F.E)todemonstratetheirsupporttowards
HaileSelassieandthecommunityinatlarge.
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13.TheJamaica,aprotestwasorganisedbyculturalnationalistscalingthemselves
"Rastafarians"demonstratedinsupportoftheAfricanpersonalityandshowtheirconcern
forEthiopia,TheRastafarianssangpraisesofHaileSelassie"theBlackMessiah!"The
leaderoftheRastafariandemostratorswaslaterarrestedforselingHaileSelassie's
photographs.
14.In1937,anInternationalAfricanServiceBureauwasestablishedtoinitiateAfrican
commitmentagainstcolonialism.ThiswasnotonlytoresistItalianoccupationofEthiopia,
butatlargetoopposeEuropeanconquestofAfricawithanewdetermination.Jomo
KenyataofKenya,KwameNkrumahoftheGoldCoast,andHastingsBandaofNyasaland
wereamongthemembers.
15.OnreachingLondonafterfleeingEthiopia,AgroupofblacksgatheredtoreceiveHaile
SelassieatWaterloorailwaystation.Kenyata,oneofthisblackcontingentembraced
Selassie,whichwasasignofAfricanmoraleandunityoftheAfricanpeopleagainstthe
ItalianinvasionofEthiopia.
16.FromWestIndies,adescendantofaformerslaveknownasGriffinswasveryaggrieved
folowingtheItalianinvasionandoccupationofEthiopia.Griffinsreactedbydroppinghis
namewithimmediateeffect,andadoptedthenameof"HasMakonnen",toshowhis
atachmenttowardsEthiopiansduringtheirtrialmoments.
REASONSWIFYITALYDEFEATEDETHIOPIAIN1936
Referencequestions:
a)DiscussthefactorsthatledtotheEthiopiandefeatbyItalyin1936
b)AccountforthemilitarysuccessoftheItaliansagainsttheEthiopiansbetween1935and
1936
ManyfactorscontributedtotheEthiopianlossofher2000yearsofindependenceand
included
1. MussolinitookalotmoretimetomakepreparationsforanatackonAbyssinia.First,he
adoptedarearmamentpolicybyrecruitingandtrainingaverylargearmyofmorethan
500000men.Heestablishedamilitaryindustrytomanufacturemodernammunitions.In
1932,hesentahighrankingItalianofficialtospyonEthiopiaandreportonapossible
chanceofsuccessincaseofanItalianatack.ThereportgivenbytheItalianspying
officialindicatedthatthepoliticalsituationinAbyssiniawereappaling(terrible)henceit
wouldnotbeadifficulttaskifItalyorganizedamilitaryatackonthisstate.From1934,
Mussolini'sgovernmentspentareasonableamountofItalianmoneystocauseconflicts
andrebelionsamongtheEthiopianpeopleinpreparationforthewar.TheclashatWalwal
betweenthearmiesofAbyssiniaandItalywaspartofMussolini’splantoinvadeand
conquerEthiopia.
2. EthiopiansweregrosslydisunitedwhichenabledtheItalianstotakeadvantageofthem.
Thepeopleweremostlydividedalongtribalandreligiouslines.Ethiopiahasavarietyof
ethinicreligiousandlinguisticgroups.Thepopulationcomprisesmorethan100tribes
withtheAmharaTigre,Oromo(Gala)andSomaliasthemajority.Over70languagesare
spokeninEthiopia.Suidivisionswerealsoexperiencedwithinthearmy.Thearmyofficers
from theNorthernProvincelikeTigreanprovincelookedatofficersfrom theSouthern
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provincesofHararandWolowithsuspicion.TheGalawarriorsforexamplewantedthe
wartoendsofastthattheyalwaysledthemainEthiopianarmytowardsItalianambushes.
TheItalianshencegotabeteropportunityifacilitatemoredivisionsamongEthiopians,by
bribingmanynon-AmharasandinfluencingthemtodesertandjoinItalianarmy,justlike
Gus,whileothershelpedItaliantroopstoidentifytheoperationareasoftheEthiopian
army.
3. ThemilitarysuperiorityoftheItaliansoverEthiopiawasagreatassetinthedefeatand
occupationofEthiopia.TheItalianshadalsortsofmilitaryhardwarelikepowerfulbombs
aerialphotographsandawelorganisedandtrainedarmyofmorethan200000troops. The
peopleofAbyssiniacouldnotstandtheItalianforcewhowerethoroughly
mechanisedandfulyequippedineveryway.TheAbyssinianarmywasfulofvolunteer
fighters.Ithadveryfewprofessionalsoldierswhoeitherhadoutdatedtacticsorhad
forgotenthem
sincethereignofMenelikI.Abyssinianshadpracticalynomodern
weaponsofwarfare.Forthefewthatwereavailable,somewerefaulty.TheEthiopianshad
onlyeleven(IDfighterplanes,three(3)ofwhichcouldnotleavethegroundandone(1)of
themhadbeengiventotheEthiopianRedCrossSociety.Thenationalforceshadonly371
bombs,13anti-aircraftgunsandmostoftheirriflescouldnotfire.ThisenabledtheItalian
armiestoweakenEthiopiantroops,penetratefartherintothehilyEthiopiancountryand
occupythecapital,AddisAbaba.
4. Consequently,the generalweakness;ofthe Ethiopian forcesenabled the Italian
occupationEthiopia.TheEthiopianarmycomprisedatotalofabout1,000,000buta
maximumof100,000couldfighteffectivelyagainsttheinvadingItaliantroops.Majorityof
thefighterswerevolunteerswithtraditionalfightingskils.Someofthefighterswho
volunteeredtojointheforcesonlybecausetheywantedfoodandmoney.Mostofthe
EthiopiansoldiersthatfoughttheItalianwereeithersickorold.Atenthofthem
were
women,anotheratenthwerepriestswhohadnostrongcommitmenttothenational
causesagainstMussolini'smen.
5. TheweaknessoftheLeagueofNationswasadisadvantagetoEthiopia.TheLeaguecould
notcondemntheItalianactionnorcouldsheintervenebysendingforcestocheckthe
Italianaggression.ThislefttheEthiopiansatthemercyofItalians.TheLeaguefailedto
effectsanctionsonItalyasthebigpowers(BritainandFrance)usedtheorganisationto
achievetheirownneeds.TheyrecognizedtheItalianoccupationofEthiopiasimplyto
appeaseMussolini.
6. TheWhiteman'sconspiracyledtothedefeatofEthiopiasuchconspiracymadeBritainand
FrancenottorespectthesanctionsimposedonItalybytheLeague.Theywentaheadto
effectthearmsembargo,whichwasabanonsaleofmilitaryequipmenttoItalyand
EthiopiawhichsolelyaffectedEthiopiatotheadvantageofItalywhomanufacturedher
ownweapons.
7. ThepoorfinancialstatusofEthiopiaatthetimeofthewarmadethedefeatofthe
Ethiopianarmyinevitable.TheEthiopianimperialgovernmentofEmperorSelassiewasso
poorthatitcouldnotmaintainanarmyinthefightingfieldforlong.Itwasalsoexpensive
totransportfightingmenfromdistantpartsoftheempiretotheareaswherefightingtook
place.Thegovernmenthardlyprovidedlogisticalsupporttothesoldierstoensurethat
theyputupatoughresistanceagainsttheItalianinvaders.
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8. TheinvasioncameatatimewhenEmperorHaileSelassiewasunpopularathome.Hewas
alwaysfacedwithalotofoppositionespecialyfromtheGala.Therewereevenrebelions
insomeprovinceslikeintheNorth.ThismadetheresistanceagainsttheItalianinvasion
veryweak.
9. ThepoorlivingconditionsoftheEthiopianpeopleledtotheItalianvictory.Therewere
poorhousingfacilities,lowwagesforworkers,unemploymentandmalnutritionwhich
madetheresistanceevenweaker.ThisisoneofthereasonsthatmadetheEthiopiansto
losefaithintheEmperor’sgovernmentandthuscouldnotgivepopularsupporttothe
nationalcause
10.TheItaliansreceivedassistancefrom
SomaliaandEritrea,thetwoItaliancolonelsthat
neighboredEthiopia.ThisenforcedtheItalianfightersandgavethem
moralewhich
enabledthemtoovercometheEthiopianresistance.
11.ThefleeingofEmperorHaileSelassietoexileleftEthiopiawithoutaleadertodirectany
remainingmoraleoftheEthiopianfighters.Iftheemperorhadnotfled,maybethe
EthiopianscouldhaveputacommendableresistanceagainsttheItaliantroops.Instead
theEthiopianforceshadtofleethebatlefrontwhileotherssurrenderedtotheItalianarmy
whichgavewaytotheItaliansuccess.
12.LackofacommonstrategyamongstEthiopiansledtotheirfailure.TheEthiopiantop
leadersfailedtoagreeonaneffectivestrategyinorganizingacounterwaragainstthe
Italians.WhiletheEmperorpreferedtheuseofguerrilatacticsandtimelyretreats,the
provincialgovernorswantedamoreconventionalwarapproach.ThismadetheEthiopian
forcestolackproperdirection,makingtheirdefeatinevitable.
Duetotheabovefactors,theItalianscouldleavenostonesunturned.Theyturnedtheirtables
againstEthiopiansinrevengeoftheAdowahumiliationof1896andweredeterminedto
occupyEthiopia.ThedefeatofEthiopiahencebecameinevitablemainlyduetothedisunityof
Ethiopians,coupledwiththeWhiteman'sconspiracyandworstofaltheEthiopianmilitary
weakness.
THELEAGUEOFNATIONSANDITSFAILURETOPREVENTTHEITALIANINVASIONOF
ETHIOPIA
TheLeagueofNationswasaworldpeacekeepingbodyestablishedin1920folowingthe
proposalattheVersailespeacesetlementof1919.Itsformationfolowedthesuggestionby
thePresidentoftheUSA,WoodrowWilsonforaninternationalyrecognisedpeacekeeping
bodychargedwithoverseeinginternationalpeaceandsecurity,andtoensurethatresolution
ofmisunderstandingbetweenandamongstateswasthroughnegotiationandarbitrationthan
aggression.
EthiopiawasnotafoundermemberoftheLeagueofNationsbutregistereditsmembership
fouryearslater.UpontheItalianthreatofinvasion,Selassiecriedouttothepeacekeeping
bodytcintervenebeforethewarerupted;theLeaguehowevergaveadeafear,thusshowing
inefficiency
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ThefailureoftheLeaguetopreventtheItaloEthiopianwarwasduetothefolowing:
Referencequestions:
a)WhydidtheLeagueofNationalaltoavertthewarbetweenItalyandEthiopiabetween
1935and1941?
b)TowhatextentdidtheLeagueofNationscausetheItalianinvasionofEthiopiain1935?
1. Theleagueshowedanimpotentresponsetowardsthefirstinternationaltension.This
precedentoccurredwhenJapanatackedandoccupiedtheChineseindustrialized
provinceofManchuria.TheunrealisticweaknessesoftheLeaguetowardsanaggression
byanon-EuropeanpowerpromptedItalytoatackEthiopiaexpectingnoreactionfromthe
worldpeacekeepingbody.
2. TheLeaguefailedtoeffectresolutionsofthe1932Genevadisarmamentconference.The
resolutionswereaimedatdisarmingGermanyandItaly,thetwopowersthatthreatened
Europeanstability.Thetwopowerswerenottomanufactureorimportarms;however,the
verytwopowersfailedtomeetthedemandsoftheconferencebuttheLeaguelookedon
astheyaccumulatedarms,whichgaveItalymilitaryconfidencetoatackEthiopia.
3. TheLeagueofNationsalsoviolatedtheGenevaprotocol,whichhadbeenimposedonthe
twobeligerentcountries;EthiopiaandItaly.ThetwoNationswerenottoimportarmsand
nomemberstatewouldconnivewitheitherofthetwointradeitemsrelatedtoarmsand
ammunitions.However,thesanctionsonItalywereviolated;weeksafter,itemslikeoil,
steelandcoalfoundtheirwaytoItalyfrom
BritainandFrance.Theseitemswere
importantforItalianarmsmanufacturingindustry.
4. ThedeathofMr.BriandtheFrenchforeignministerin1932robbedtheLeagueofa
resolutepolicymaker.Briandwasamajorpoliticalactorwhoadvocatedforapolicyof
setlementofalconflictsbetweenmemberstatesoftheLeagueonlybypeacefulmeans.
Thusafterhisdeath
universalpeaceremainedonlyadream
asmenlikeMussolini
suddenlywokeuptothecruderealitiesofaggressionlikethecaseoftheItalianinvasion
ofEthiopiain1935.
5. TheweaknessoftheLeagueofNationswasfurtherwitnessedwhenshefailedtorestrain
aggressivenationsfromre-arming.Italyspentyearsreorganizingandrearminghermilitary
inpreparationforaninvasiononItaly.HadtheLeagueimplementedheraimsof
disarmament,maybetheItalianaggressiononEthiopiacouldhavebeenaverted.
6. ThemilitarystrengthofItalyalsoscaredtheLeagueofNationsfrominterveningtoprevent
thecrisis.Italyhadmanufacturedandboughtadvancedandsophisticatedmilitary
hardwaresuchasplanes,machinesgunsandbombs.TosaythatItalywasmilitarily
strongerisnottosuggestthattheLeagueofNationswasmilitarilyweak;buttheLeague
fearedmilitaryinterventionbecausethecostintermsofbloodandresourceswouldhave
drainedtheinternationalbody.
7. TheLeaguealsofailedtoavertthewarbecauseItalywasexpandinghercolonial
possessionjustasothermembershaddone.BritainandFrancetheMajorPowersofthe
Leaguehadacquired,coloniesinasimilarmanner.Theythereforelackedthemoral
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obligationtostopItalyfrom acquiringmoreteritoriesinAfricamoreso-toinvadean
internationalyrecognisedsovereignofEthiopia.
8. ThenegligenceonthepartoftheMajorPowersoftheLeaguealsorenderedthebody
incapableofstoppingtheinvasiononEthiopia,BritainandFranceneglectedEthiopiaasa
weakpoorthirdworldcountrywithoutinternationalsignificance.Theythoughtthatthe
invasionwouldtakeamaterofdays.Theyalsodidnotanticipateinternational
condemnationofItaly.TotheirsurprisetheentireBlackWorldcondemnedthenaked
aggressiononthefreeland(Ethiopia)lefttoAfricaamidstaseaofcolonialism.
9. RacismintheLeagueledtotheEthiopianoccupationbyItalybetween1935and1941.
EuropeanmembersoftheLeagueshowedveryhighlevelsofracism
infavourofItaly
againstEthiopia.TheytooseemedtohavesharedMussolini'sargumentagainstEthiopia
thatthepeopleofEthiopiawerebarbaric,backwardandpracticedslavery;andsothey
neededadoseofEuropeancivilization.
HencepromptingMussolinitogoaheadand
invadeEthiopia.
10.TheappeasementpolicyofthemajorpowersoftheLeagueofNationstowardsMussolini
i.e.FranceandBritainexpressedthewhiteman'sconspiracy,whichinsteadweakenedthe
effectivenessoftheleague.TheyturnedablindeyetowardstheEthiopiancrisisinorderto
discourageMussolinitodisorganizeEurope.
11.TheLeagueofNationslackedtheservicesofbigpowersthatcouldhavestrengthenedher
standagainsttheItalianaggression.TheLeaguehadaprincipleoffreeentryandexit,
whichpromptedGermanyandItalytowithdrawfromthebodyin1934.Russiahadjoined
theLeaguein1934butleftin1939.TheUSAontheotherhandmaintainedherisolationso
shedidnotjoin.Thisdeniedtheleagueofideasandservicesofthesebigpowers,which
couldhaveavoidedthecrisis.
12.Memberstatesweredisunited,suspiciousandhadmistrustagainsteachotherafter
WorldWarI.ThismadetheLeaguetolackspiritualunityandcorporationthatwouldhave
promptedsuccessfulunityinthebody.Thus,whenItalyatackedEthiopia,nopowerwas
wilingtocalforintervention.
13.MembersoftheLeaguewereindeepeconomiccrisisafterthegreateconomicdepression
of1929andthereforecouldnotmeetthebudgetoftheLeagueeffectively.Hence,when
thewarstarted,theLeagueofNationsgotnomeaningfulassistancefrommemberstates
astheyworked-resolvingtheirowneconomies.
14.AnothercontributionoftheLeaguetowardsthedefeatofEthiopiabyItalywasthatalmost
almemberstatesincludingFranceandBritainrecognisedtheItaliangovernmentin
Ethiopia.TheBritishhadconfirmedtheItalianoccupationofEthiopiathroughtheHoareLavalpactof1935althoughtheycondemnedItalyatthebeginning.
REASONSWHYTHEETHIOPIANSDEFEATEDITALYIN1941
ThedefeatofEthiopiansbytheItaliansin1936didnotpushAfricanresistancetosilence.
AfricansinEthiopiare-organizedunderaprominentliberationmovementcaledthe"Black
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Lions”ledbyadevotedRasImru.TogetherwiththedefeatedEthiopianforces,theystaged
counteratacksagainstItaly.In1941,theEthiopianswereabletothrowouttheItaliansdueto
1folowingfactors:
Referencequestions:
a)AccountforthedefeatofItalybyEthiopiain1941
b)TowhatextentdidtheoutbreakofWorldWarIin1939influencethe1941Ethiopia
victoryoverItaly?
1. Theformationofaguerilagroup(theBlackLions)thatcomprisedgraduatesmainlywith
modernpoliticalanddemocraticconcepts:theleadersofthemovementheadedbyImru
wereintheEthiopianresistancetoItalianaggression.The"BlackLions"movement
mobilizedthemasses,providedpragmatic(strong)leadershipandensuredsolidarity
amongsttheEthiopians.Theguerrilatacticsemployedbythe"BlackLions"humbledthe
Italiansin1941.
2. TheEthiopiansthroughtirelesspatriotslikeRasImruforgedunityofpurposeagainstthe
Italians.Acommiteeofunionwassetupin1937toreconciletheantagonisticgroups.
TheEthiopianshenceforgottheirculturalandethnicdifferencesandfoughtundera
generalcause.ThismadetheresistancepopularamongstalgroupsofEthiopianmasses.
3. TheEthiopianPatrioticChurchplayedasignificantroleinthedefeatoftheItalians.The
ChurchmobilizedtheEthiopianOrthodoxChristianstodiefortheircountry.In1938,
BishopPedroswaspublicalyexecutedforrefusingtobroadcastagainstthepatriots.The
Italiansalsokiled38CmonksintheancientmonasteryofDebraLimonasafterarmswere
discoveredthere.Thisactc:murderontheChurchofficialswasamotivationfactorinthe
EthiopianresistanceagainsttheItalianaggression.
4. TheEthiopianswerehauntedandmotivatedbytheGrazianimassacreof1937.Marshal
Graziani,theItalianviceroy(Governor)hadannouncedthedistributionofessential
commoditiestothepoorEthiopiansinthecity.Unfortunately,someofthemembersofthe
"BlackLions"werehidinginthecrowdandthrewgrenadestoGraziani,whichinjuredhim
severely.TheItaliantroopsretaliatedbyfiringindiscriminatelyatthecrowdandcausing
chaosinthecity.Thechaosspreadinthecountrymakingtheincidentoneofthemajor
eventsincolonialhistorythattarnishedtheItalianimageontheinternationalscene.
5. TheItalianscariedoutoppressiveandexploitativepoliciesagainsttheEthiopians.They
force-Ethiopianstoofferlabouratpublicworkslikeroads,hospitals,andschools;forced
them
togrow
cashcropsandimposedheavytaxesinEthiopia.Altheseincreased
grievancesinEthiopiaandatractedmasssupporttotheanti-Italianuprising.
6. TheItalianarmywasbrutalandbarbaricwhichcostItalianadministrationdearly.Thearm;,
burntEthiopianhutsandhouses,rapedEthiopianwomenincludingthosewhosurrendered
executed,andburiedciviliansinmassgraves.ThismadetheItalianleadershipunpopular
everfromEthiopianswhohadsympathisedwiththeItalianadministration.
7. Theinvasionreceivedstrongcondemnationfrom
Africanstatesandpoliticalleaders.
NationalistslikeNkrumah,Kenyata,WalaceJohnsonandNnamdiAzikiweusedthepress
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andotherassociationstodemandItalianwithdrawalfrom
Ethiopia.Theysentfinancial
assistanceand otherlogisticsto Ethiopia patriots.Thereactivitiesatracted the
InternationalcommunitytoisolateItaly.
8. ThechangeofmindbytheBritishfavouredEthiopianLiberation.TheBritishsoonafter
ItalyjoinedWorldWarIonthesideoftheaxisaliance,sentassistancetoEthiopians
throughtheneighbouringstatesofKenyaandSudan.ThisBritishsupportboosted
EthiopianresistanceagainstItaly.
9. Consequently,theItalianinvolvementinWorldWarIalongsidetheaxisalianceweakened
theholdontoEthiopia.ItalywasoccupiedinthewarwithlessconcentrationonEthiopia.
Shewentaheadtowithdrawmanyofothertroopsfrom
Ethiopia.TheBritishbegan
viewingItalyasanenemythatdeservedtobedefeated.ApartfromraidingItalianSomalilandandEritrea,theBritishextendedassistancetoEthiopia,whichstrengthenedher
resistance.
10.ThestealthreturnofEmperorHaileSelassietoEthiopiaplayedasignificantpartonthe
sideaEthiopia.ThroughSudan,HaileSelassiecrossedintoEthiopiainJanuary1941to
strengthenEthiopianresistanceagainstItalianaggression.Therefore,thepresenceof
EmperorSelassnboostedtheEthiopiancampthatfoughtwithdeterminationuntilthe
Italianswerethrownout.
IMPACTOFTHEITALO-ETHIOPIANCRISISONTHEGROWTHOFAFRICANNATIONALISM
PANAFRICANISM
ThewarhadaresoundingimpactoncolonialAfricaandtheblackraceinotherpartsofthe
worlddiscussedbelow
Referencequestions
a)HowdidtheItalianatackonEthiopia(1935-41)influencethegrowthofAfrican
nationalism?
b)Assesstheimpactofthe(1935-41)Italo-EthiopianwaronthegrowthofAfrican
nationalism
1. Italo-Ethiopianwarstrengthenedblackunityandsolidarityalovertheworldagainstwhite
domination.Blackmenworldwidewereprofoundlyshakenbythedestructionofacountry
thathadbeenaproudsymbolofAfricanindependenceandblackachievementamidstthe
eraofcolonialism.
2. ThecrisiscausedpoliticalawarenessanddeepenedthecauseofAfricannationaliststo
struggleforindependence.Africanscametoknowthatthewhitesweredeterminedto
completelyconquertheAfricancontinentmercilesslyandthereforeAfricanshadacause
tode-campaigncolonialruleinAfrica.
3. TheItalianinvasionofEthiopiaexposedtheWhiteman'sconspiracy.Africansbecame
unhappywiththeBritishandtheFrenchwhoreluctantlyfailedtopreventItalyfrom
atackingEthiopia.
Consequently,AfricanresistanceincreasedinBritishandFrench
coloniesinAfricathroughappliedboycotsanddemonstrations.
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4. Consequently,theEthiopianreactiontoItalianrulebecamealessontotherestofAfrican
statesunderwhitedomination.TheEthiopianresistancetoItalianlandgrabbing,forced
labourarbitraryarrestsandpoortaxationinspiredtheactivitiesofAfricanselsewhere
againstwhiteorders.ThemethodsusedbyEthiopiansagainsttheItalians,whichincluded
violentatacksonItalaliansetlersandtheirinstalationswerewitnessedinKenya,Angola,
Algeriaand
BritishCentralAfricawherewhitepropertyand
investmentsbecame
increasinglythetargetsofAfricanpatriotsinthestruggleforself-rule.
5. Theinvasion,hadprofoundrevolutionaryimpactonAfricannationalists'Nkrumahofthe
GoldCoastonreadingaheadingonanewspaperstandproclaimingareport"Mussolini
invadesEthiopia"helamented"Thatmoment,itwasasifthewholeofLondonhad
declaredwaronme…mynationalism surgedtothefore."JomoKenyataontheother
handvowednevertocutoffthebearduntilEthiopiawasfreeagain.Althesewere
expressionsofatachmenttowardsAfricaandhatredagainstforeigndomination.
6. ThecrisissparkedoffhostilepressatacksagainstcolonialrulemostlyinWestAfrica.
Walace.JohnsonofSieraLeoneandNnamdiAzikiweofNigeriaproducedadynamicand
explosivearticleinthepress"HasAfricaaGod?"Thetwowerequestioningthewisdomof
spreadingChristianitybyuseofpoisonousgas.JomoKenyatawroteanarticle"Hands
offAbyssinia"ThesearticlesinspiredAfricanselsewhereinAfricatoagitateforthe
liberationofAfrica.
7. ThewarmilitarisedAfricannationalism.ItchangedthemindsofAfricanswhohadopted
forpeacefulmeansoftransferofpowerfromcolonialrule.TheAfricansbeganadoptinga
similarmilitaryapproach,asthe"BlackLions"whichtheythoughtwastheonlylanguage
thecolonialroasterswouldunderstand.CasestudiesarethemaumauuprisinginKenya
(1952-55)andtheFLNwarinAlgeria(1954-62).
8. TheItalo-Ethiopiancrisiswasoneofthemajoreventsthatledtotheseatingofthe
Manchesterconferencein1945.ThefifthPanAfricanconferenceatManchester
recognisedthemeansemployedbyEthiopiansagainstItalyanddemandedforthereturn
ofAfricansfromabroadtoleadindependencestrugglesintheirrespectivecountries.
9. ThecrisisprovidedaplatformforAfricanstoairouttheirgrievancesagainsttheevilsof
colonialism.EmperorSelassieattheLeaguegeneralassemblystatedthattheEthiopian
resistancetoItalianrulewasacaseofdefendingthecauseofalpeoplethatwere
threatenedwithforeigndomination.ThispublicisedthecrisisforthesakeofAfricansand
atractedinternationalsympathytotheAfricancauseforindependence.
10.TheItalianinvasionofEthiopialedtotheriseoftheRastafariansect,ablackcultural
nationalistmovementinJamaica.ThemovementrejectedChristianityofthewhiterace;
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hadthevisionforworldwideBlackliberationandregardedEthiopiaasthelastcathedralof
AfricancolectivesecurityandthelastpieceoflandleftforAfricans.Themovement
lookedurgentlyforaradicalcureofthesicknessofcolonialisminAfrica.TheRastafarian
movementthereforemilitarisedthePanAfricanmovementinitsatempttoseekAfrican
freedomandindependence.
11.ThewarmarkedthecolapseoftheLeagueofNationsanddealtafinalnailinthecoffinof
internationalcolectivesecurity,pavingwayfortheformationoftheUnitedNations
Organisationlaterin1945.TheUNOadoptedacharterthatemphasisedequalityofal
nationsandthesovereignrightstoindependenceofstatesunderoppressionand
domination.
12.Consequently,theItalo-EthiopianwarinfluencedtheoutbreakofWorldWarI(1939-45)
whichhadanimpactofAfricanNationalism.HavingseenItalysuccessfulyoccupying
Ethiopia,HitlerledGermanytoinvadePolandin1939,whichwasasparklingfactorinthe
outbreakofWorldWarI.WorldWarIproducedAfricanex-servicemenwhousedthe
militaryskilsacquiredfromthewartofightagainstcolonialism.
13.ThecrisisinfluencedblackprotestsinAmerica.About20000blacksandcoloured
AmericanstooktothestreetsinCitieslikeNewYorktodemonstrateagainsttheItalian
rapeofEthiopiaandshowtheirsupportandsympathytoalAfricanstatesthatwereunder
Europeansdomination.
14.TheItalianinvasionoftheEthiopianmonarchyinfluencedtheactivitiesoftheWestAfrican
StudentsUnion(WASU)inLondon.MembersofWASUorganisedanEthiopiancommitee
consistingofJ.B.Danquah,Asomali,JomoKenyata,andfivemembersfromWestIndies.
TheAfricanmemberslaterbecameleadersoftheindependencemovementsintheir
respectivecountries.
THECAREEROFHAILESELASSIE(1930-1974)
HisImperialmajestyEmperorHaileSelassie,thelionofJudahwasbornonJuly23,1892to
RasMakonnen,acousinbrothertoEmperorMenelikI.HewasbornintheprovinceofHarar
andwasthe225thactivesuccessoroftheSolomonicdynastyofthedescendantsofKing
SolomonandQueenMakeda(QueenofShebah).Hewenttoschoolatanearlyageoffive
yearsandby1899,hehadstartedlearningFrenchandEnglish.
HaileSelassiewasamanofremarkablementalabilitiesandexceptionaltalent.Thisbrought
him
toastatelyappointatanearlyageoffourteenyearsasgovernorofareteinHarar
provincewherehewasborn.Attheageof24,hebecametheregentoftherealm(empire)
becameRa;Tafari.HealsobecamethecrownprinceorthenextNegusNegastor"Kingof
Kings"afterwhileEmpressZewditu(Zauditu),thedaughterofMenelikI.
HisrealnamesarehoweverRasTafariDjizmatchMakonnen.Hewascrownedemperoror
November2,1930withthemostpompousstyleandgainedthetitleofHisImperialMajesty
EmperorHaileSelassie,meaningthe"PoweroftheTrinity."OthertitlesadoptedbyEmperor
Selassieincluded"KingofKings"and,"TheconqueringLionofJudah."
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ACHIEVEMENTSOFEMPERORHAILESELASSIE
EmperorSelassiewasdeposedfromhisthronein1936whenEthiopiasuccumbedtoItalian
defeat.However,in1941acombinedforceofIndians,EthiopiansandBritishforcesofthe
King;AfricanRifle(KAR)thatEthiopiansdefeatedtheItalianimperialadministration.This
enabledHaileSelassietoregainhisthrone.Hewasbestowedthetitleof"TheLionofthetribe
ofJudah"uponhisreturntoEthiopia.EmperorHaileSelassiescoredanumberof
achievementsduringhisreign;hence,theEthiopiansreferredtohim asamananda
modernizer.Hisachievementsincludedthefolowing:
Referencequestions:
a)AssesstheachievementsofEmperorHaileSelassieinEthiopia
b)HowsuccessfulwasEmperorHaileSelassie'sreignbetween1941and1974? c)
ExaminethechangesintroducedbyEmperorHaileSelassieinEthiopiafrom1941
1. Immediatelyafterhiscoronation,EmperorSelassieintroducedaconstitutionaldecreethat
transformedEthiopiaintoaconstitutionalmonarchy.Thedecreebecamethecountry's
firstwritenconstitutioninmorethan2000years.Theconstitutioncombinedboththe
country'scustomsandtheculturesofthemoderncivilisedandeducatednations.The
principalaimoftheconstitutionwastobringtogetherthepeopleofEthiopiaasonefamily,
unitedandcontroledbyonelaw,andgovernedbyoneEmperor.HaileSelassiewasalso
hopefulthenewconstitutionwouldcreatealongperiodofpeaceandprosperityinhis
empireafteraseriesofwarsandraidsamongdifferenttribes.
2. In1955,theemperorrevisedtheconstitutionthatcreatedanationalassemblycomprising
twosections,theupperandlowerchambers.Theupperchambercomprisedmainly
membersoftheRoyalImperialFamilyandcloseassociatesoftheEmperorSelassie;while
thelowerchambercametobeknownasthepeople'sparliament.Therevisedconstitution
recognisedvotingrightsoftheEthiopianpeople,whichenabledthemtovotefordeputies
(representatives)ofthelowerchamberthroughthesecretbalot.Thismodernmove
towardspoliticalempowermentofthegrassrootsmasseswasanexpressionofgreater
democracy.
3. EmperorSelassiesuccessfulyestablishednationalunityinEthiopia.HavingaUnited
EthiopianKingdomwasSelassie'sfirstmajorachievementashebelievedthatthepower
ofunitywouldbeprotectedbyinterestswhichbindEthiopianspermanentlytogether.He
wasthereforeabletodowhatotherGreatEthiopianEmperorslikeMenelikI,Tewodros
andYohannesIV,onlydreamtabout,"AunifiedEthiopia."Thestruggletocreateaunified
modernstatewasbegunbyEmperorMenelikI.ThoughEmperorMenelikdidnotlivelong
enoughtoseehiseffortsbearfruits,HaileSelassierecognisedhimbyunveilinghisstatue
duringhiscoronation(crowning)ceremonies.
4. Hemadeagreatcontributiontohiscountrybyensuringthetotalabolitionofslaveryand
feudalism intheEthiopianempire.SlaveryandFeudalism hadbeenstrongage-old
economicinstitutionsencouragedbythepreviousemperors.Amongthewarshefoughtin
EthiopiainhisearlyyearsasaregentandlaterasEmperorweremostlyagainstthe
EthiopianprovincialgovernorswhoopposedtheEmperor'smovetoproviderightsand
freedomstothepoorcommunitiesinEthiopiathatwerevictimsofoppressiondueto
slaveryandfeudalism.Healsoestablishedadepartmentandaschoolforfreedslavesto
rehabilitatethemfromtheinferioritycomplexofenslavement.
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5. HaileSelassiemadeeffortsto
modernisetheeducationsystem
ofEthiopia.He
establishedschoolsandcolegesinAddisAbabaandotherprovincialcitiesoftheempire.
HesentEthiopianstudentstouniversitiesinEngland,Egypt,France,andSyria.Thiswas
aimedatensuringmodernplanningofeducationinthecountry.EmperorSelassiealso
upgraded"TafariMakonnenSecondarySchool"thathefoundedin1925,intoamodern
educationfacility.HerecruitedFrenchandEnglishteachersasinstructorsintheschool.
6. Consequently,theambitionforhighereducationenabledtheemperortoestablishHaile
SelassieIUniversity.HeevenalowedasectionofhispalaceinAddisAbabato
accommodatesomeoftheimportantdepartmentsoftheuniversity.Foreignprofessors
andexpatriateswererecruitedfrom
France,Belgium,BritainandSwedentoupliftthe
standardsofuniversityeducationinthecountry.Thiswasasignenoughtoshowthat
EmperorSelassiewasnotaconservativemonarchicalleader.
7. EmperorSelassiemodernisedthehealthsectoroftheEthiopianmonarchy.Heupgraded
theBetSayda,Hospitalhefoundedearlierin1924intoamodernhealthyfacility.The
EmperorsetupmorehospitalsinAddisAbabaandinotherprovincialcitiesoftheempire.
HetrainedEthiopiantechnocrats(experts)inthefieldofmodernmedicine,whichwasa
quickradicalmoveinthefieldofhealth.Althiswasduetohisdesireforimprovedhealth
servicesforhispeople.
8. EmperorHaileSelassiemodernisedtheEthiopianmilitary.Theprocessofmodernisingthe
armybegan
in
1932,immediatelyafterthedefeatoftheGojam
rebelion.The
modernisationofthearmywentonasfastastheEthiopianfinancesalowed.Selassie
recruitedmilitaryexpertsfrom
Russia,Belgium
andSwedentotrainEthiopianarmy
officersinmodernwarfaretechnology.TheFrenchandGermanswereemployedto
developtheEthiopianairforce.EmperorHaileSelassiesentmilitarycadrestomilitary
schoolsinEgypt,FranceandEngland.TheEmperoralsointroducedmodernmilitary
schoolstotrainEthiopianmilitarygeneralsinmodernmilitaryinteligence.
9. Theemperorwascreditedforhavingaliberalatitudetowardsreligion.Hehadabelief
thatreligionwasapersonalmaterthatbelongedtoalpeoplesofEthiopia.To
demonstratethis,EmperorSelassiemadeimperialdominationstotheChurchandthe
Mosquealike.Duringhisregime,hesupportedtheEthiopianChurchtobecomecompletely
independentfromthecontroloftheAlexandrianPatriarchChurch.
10.EmperorHaileSelassiehadgreatloveforart.Hedevotedmostofhismoneyandtimeon
culturaldevelopmentespecialyinAmhara.Hetriedtosupporttheestablishedofcultural
centersinAddisAbabaandotherprovinces.Selassiewasextremelyfondofclassical
musicandreadingsinthefieldofphilosophy,historyandregion;litlewonderthathe
supportedtheintegrationofhistory,religionandMDDintheeducationcurriculum
of
Ethiopia.
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11.Selassiealsoemergedasamodernizerintheprintingfield.Hemadeeffortstotransform
theBerhanennaSalam,or"LightandPeace,"PrintingPressintoamodernprintingpress.
HefoundedPressin1923duringhisdaysasaregenttoEmpressZawditu.Thepress
printedanAmharicnewspaperwiththetitleof"BerhanennaSalam."Thenewspaper
publishedarticlespopularisingthecauseofreformingandmodernisingEthiopia.Asteady
flowofliterature,religious,andeducationalbooksinAmharicwerepublished.
12.TheemperorintroducedmodernpoliticalstructuresinEthiopiawheremodernand
importantministrieslikefinance,internalandforeignaffairs,healthandcommunication
wereestablished.Acouncilofministerswasalsosetuptostrengthenadministrationof
theempire.HaileSelassieputupaformidablecivilserviceinEthiopia.Althesepolitical
developmentselevatedhimtothepositionofamoderniser.
13.HaileSelassieintroducedaschoolofaeration(piloting)whereEthiopiatrainedherown
pilots,aircraftengineersandoperators.By1971,ofalcommercialairlinesontheAfrican
continent,theEthiopiaairlinewasfulyofficeredandranbyAfricans.
14.Theemperorintroducedafive-yeardevelopmentplaninwhichheinvolvedforeign
technocratstoassistEthiopiainherdevelopmentprograms.Thesetechnocrats(experts)
from EuropeancountrieslikeFrance,Sweden,Belgium,andBritain,aswelasfrom the
USAwereanexampleofacardinal(veryimportant)relationship,theemperorhadwith
Europe.Therefore,theancientempireofEthiopiashiftedtomodernityandoveral
progress.
15.Hehadakeeninterestinalkindsofsportsalthoughwithapersonalbiasintennis,
horsebackridingandhunting.Hefacilitatedsportssuchthatduringhisregime,Ethiopia
producedoutstandingsportsmenandwomenincludingthelegendaryAbebeasuccessful
longdistancerunner.
16.HaileSelassieisrememberedforhisatitudeandcarefortheunfortunateandunprivileged.
Hardlyadaycouldpasswithouthimvisitinghospitals,orphanagesandinstitutionsofthe
disabled.Heputsomeofhisearningsinthedisposalfund,whichwaschargedwith
planningandadministeringinstitutionsofthepoorandthesick.
17.EmperorHaileSelassiehadlovefornature.Despiteofhisaginglife,theEmperorfound
timetorestwithhispetiesthatincludedHorses,dogsandbirds.Hekeptaboutthirteen
lionsinhisAddisAbabapalace,togetherwithmanyhorsesandparrots.Thiswasan
indicationofmoderncarefornatureduringhisprivatelife.
18.Duringhisregime,theemperorsucceededinsecuringandmaintainingtheEthiopianseat
intheLeagueofNations.SelassiehadregisteredEthiopiaasamemberoftheleaguein
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1924,duringhisreignasaregenttotheEthiopianthrone.ThisenabledEthiopiatointeract
withmajorEuropeanpowerslikeFranceandBritainatthesamelevel.ItenabledEthiopia
toparticipateininfluentialdecisionsattheinternationallevel.BeingpartoftheLeagueof
NationsalsoprovedthatSelassiehadgreatdesireforpromoteEthiopianforeignaffairs
(relations).TheLeagueprovidedhimwithavaluableplatforminhiseffortstodefendhis
countryagainstthefascist-ItalianatackwhichgreatlythreatenedEthiopianindependence.
19.Asasignofconcerntohumanity,theleaderofEthiopiasupportedtheopeningupofthe
EthiopianbranchoftheRedCross.Theemperorwasimpressedbythesupportgivenby
theRedCrosstothevictimsoftheItalianaggressionandoccupationofEthiopiabetween
1935and1941.HethereforegavethebodypermanentpremisesinEthiopiatocontinue
withtheirhumanitarianworktowardsEthiopianpeople.
20.HisinternationalpopularityledtotheinvitationofEthiopiaasoneofthefoundermembers
oftheUnitedNationsorganizationin1945.ThismadetheEthiopianempirenotonly
popularbutalsoamajorcontributortointernationalpeaceandsecurity.Hencebecauseof
EmperorHaileSelassie,hiscountrybecamepartofthedeterminingpowersofmodern
worldaffairs.
21.HaileSelassiepromotedPanAfricanism,throughemphasisingcontinentalunityinAfrica.
HisconstructiveinfluencewasseenwhenheworkedwithNkrumahofGhanaandNasser
ofEgypttoreconciletheCasablancaandMonroviagroupings,leadingtotheformationof
theOrganisationofAfricanUnity(OAU).TheOAUCharterwassignedinAddisAbabaon
May25,1963underthechairofHaileSelassie.Thiswasamajorsteptowardsbringing
togetherdifferentpeoplesofAfrica.
22.Consequently,EmperorHaileSelassieproudlyshelteredthepermanentheadquartersof
theOAUinAddisAbaba.ThiswasamemorablesymbolofthemodernconceptofPan
AfricanismthatcaledforunityontheAfricancontinent.Thismovebytheemperormade
EthiopiabecomethecenterofAfricanpolitics,replacingAccraofGhanaandCairoof
Egypt.
23.Asamodernnationalist,EmperorSelassiestoodfirm behindthecauseforcomplete freedom
ontheAfricancontinent.HeworkedcloselywithotherAfricanstatesmento
ensuretotaldecolonisationoftheAfricancontinentfromEuropeandominance.Hesharply
criticisedtheUnilateralDeclarationofIndependence(UDI)inZimbabweandcondemned
theBritishgovernmentforfailingtointerfereandstoptheRhodesianrebelionthatdenied
Africansfreedomintheirland.
24.HaileSelassiestronglysupportedpeacefulsetlementofinterstateconflictsinAfrica.He
advocatedforpeacetalksandinitiatedseveralpeacemissionstosetledisputesonthe
continent.HeusedhisgoodofficetomediateintheSudancivilwarleadingtotheAddis
AbabaPeace
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Treatysignedin1972betweentheSudanesegovernmentandtheAnyanyaMovement.The
EmperoralsomediatedintheborderdisputebetweenSudanandEgypt,amongothers.
WeaknessofEmperorHaileSelassie
1. MuchasHaileSelassiewasregardedamodernizer,hedidnotlivetotheexpectationsof
someEthiopiansmanythingswentwrongandmanyfactorsfailedhimduringhisnation
buildingforinstance,
2. The1955-revisedconstitutiondidnotfulydemocratiseEthiopia.Theconstitutiongavethe
emperorabsolutepowerswhichturnedhim
intoadespot(dictator).Evenwhenthe
parliamentexisted,itspressurewasunnoticed.Theemperorneveralowedpolitical
pluralismasitwouldsubjecthimtocriticism.
3. BecausetheemperorcamefromtheAmharatribe,thetribedominatedaltheaffairsof
Ethiopia.TheEthiopianmasseswereexpectedtospeakAmharicasanationallanguage
duringHaileSelassie'sreign.Suchexhibitionoftribalism
wasalsoexperiencedinthe
politicalofficeswherenepotism
becameaformulaforstatelyappointments.Many
AmharasmaintainedsensitivepositionsintheEmperor'sgovernment.
4. TheemperormadeOrthodoxChristianityastatereligion.Muchofhisreligiousatributes
weredirectedtotheOrthodoxChurch.ThisannoyedtheMuslimcommunityespecialyin
theEritreanprovince.TheMuslimsraliedbehindrevolutioniststo
bringabouta
fundamentalchangeinEthiopiaby1974.
5. DuringtheeraofEmperorSelassie,Ethiopiaremainedbackward.Theindustrialsectorwas
diminishing.AlotofunemploymentexistedandEthiopiansexperiencedpoorstandardsof
living.Thiswaspartialyduetotheforeigndominationintheeconomicactivities.Bythe
timeofhisoverthrow,themajormeansoftransportinEthiopiawasbyhorses.
6. Consequently,the emperoremployed foreigners as his governmentadvisers.He
appointedaSwissforlegalissues,anEnglishadviserforinternalaffairsandaSwedefor
foreignaffairs.Healso,hadanAmericanwhogavehimfinancialadvice.Thiswasinno
doubtpromotionofneo¬colonialism.
7. Theemperorputhisefforttoimproveinfrastructureonahardrock.Thiswasbecausethe
roadsandrailwaylinesremainedinadequatewhileafewthatwereexistinghadbroken
down.Manyareasinthecountrysideaswelassometownsremainedremote,not
connectedorinaccessible.ThiswasonereasonwhyEthiopiaremainedeconomicaly
backward.
8. TherewasgrossviolationofhumanrightsduringEmperorSelassie'sreign.TheEthiopians
weredeprivedoffreedomofworship,ofspeech,freedomofAssemblyandofAssociation.
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ThismeantthattheperiodEthiopiawasunderHaileSelassiewasdominatedby
undemocraticpoliciesandpoliticalanarchy.
9. TheEmperorfailedtoreformthelandtenuresystem.Thelandproblemremainedconstant
andaffectedmanyoftheEthiopianpeasants.Themostlyaffectedpeoplewereresidents
ofSouthernEthiopiawhowerelandlessandstayedundercruellandownersthatcharged
themheavylanddues.Therefore,Ethiopiasufferedfromfeudalismandserfdomduring
Selassie'sreign.
10.Between1972and1974,droughtandfaminebefelEthiopiaandaffectedmanyof
Ethiopianmasses.AmongthevictimsofthesecatastrophesweretheTigre,Oromo,
SomaliandtheEritreancommunity.ThegovernmentofEmperorSelassiehoweverdid
litletorescuethesituation.Closeto200,000masseslosttheirlives.Thiswasoneofthe
unrealistictreatmentsbyHaileSelassie'sgovernmentthatledtoitsoverthrow.
11.PoliticalinstabilitiesinEthiopiaatthetimewereatributedtoHaileSelassie'sgovernment.
Theemperorrefusedtorecognisetheinternalself-governmentofEritreaandtheOgaden
claim bySomaliresidents.ThesecontinuouslyinvolvedtheEthiopiancommunityinwar
withEritreaandtheSomaliarespectively.ManyEthiopianssufferedduetothese
instabilities,whichledtounpopularityoftheEmperor.
12.TheEmperorwasreluctanttoimproveontheconditionsofthearmy.Thesoldierswere
subjectedtopoorpayments,poorlivingconditions,andnepotismduringtheprocessof
promotion.Raisedgrievancesinthearmy,whichpromptedyoungarmygeneralslikeHaile
Mengistutoplotacoupin1974.
13.The Ethiopian societyby1970 wasfacing an economiccrisischaracterised by
unemployment,scarcityofessentialscommodities,economicstagnationandacute
inflation.ThisleftmanyEthiopianstarving;theworkersreceivedlowpaymentswhilethe
freshgraduatescouldhardlybeposted.ThispromptedmanyEthiopiansespecialyyouths
togoonstrike,henceexposingtheweaknessoftheemperorashewasageing.
14.EmperorSelassiefailedtocurbdownthehighlevelsofiliteracy.Bythetimehewas
overthrowntheiliteracyratewas90-95%,thehighestinAfrica.Manyoftheiliterateswere
unemployed.Thisincreasedtheunpopularityoftheemperor.
15.BitingpovertyclaimedmajorityoftheEthiopianpopulation.Manyofthemcouldnotafford
toeducatetheirchildren,cloththemorshelterthem.ItwashardforanEthiopianduring
HaileSelassie'sregimetomeetthedailynecessitiesoflife,therefore,leadingtopoor
standardsofliving.
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16.TherewastoomuchlabourexploitationinEthiopiaduringtheregimeofHaileSelassie.
Theworkingconditionswereverypoorinthecountrycharacterisedbylitlepaybecause
thegovernmentofSelassiehadnotregulatedajustwage.Theworkerswerealso
exploitedthroughheavytaxation.
17.CoruptionandeconomicmismanagementruinedthegovernmentofEmperorHaile
Selassie.Manyofhisgovernmentofficialssquanderedpublicresourcestosatisfytheir
selfishinterests.Theyhadlitleconcerntotheproblemsofthemasses.Theemperordid
notatempttoconvictthecoruptgovernmentofficials,whichcaledformilitary intervention.
THEDOWNFALLOFEMPERORHAILESELASSIE
In1974,theEthiopianmonarchywasousted(overthrown)byagroupofyoungarmyofficers.
Earlieronin1960,Ethiopiaexperiencedanabortedcoupforwhichoneofthecouporganisers
wasHaileSelassie'sson.The1960coupwasunsuccessfulduetothehighmilitary
inteligenceoftheemperor.
ByDecember1973,thesituationinEthiopiawasappaling.Manyofthemassesweresuffering
15thedroughtandfaminecatastropheswereworsening.Theageingemperor(at81years)
wasadvisedtostepdownbutherefused.InFebruary1974,agroupofuncompromisedyoung
armyofficersledbyMengistuHaileMariamstagedupanarmyuprising(mutiny)wherethey
tookoverthearmyleadership.Thejuniorofficersestablishedaprovisionalmilitaryadvisory
council(Dergue)toassisttheageingemperorinmanagingthecountry'saffairs.
TheDerguegradualyweakenedthepowersoftheemperorandbySeptember1974,Haile
SelassiewasinsignificantingoverningEthiopia.Consequently,membersoftheDerguewho
includedHaileMengistuMariam,AtnafuAbateandAmanAndom
stagedacoupon
September'.1974thatfinalyledtothedownfalofHaileSelassie'sregime.
Uponhisoverthrow,theEmperorwastakenfromhispalaceinAddisAbabaanddetainedinan
exclusiveprisonwherehewastorturedandmistreated.Hediedayearlaterundermysterious
circumstances.