Chapter 2: Theories of Development
Why Theories of Development Are
Important
• Developmental theory: explanations that
allow prediction of child behavior
• Most theories can never be proven beyond
a shadow of any doubt
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (1 of 36)
Psychoanalytic Theory
• Psychoanalytic theory: first theory to
describe stages of development
• Freud: personality made up of the id, ego,
and superego
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (2 of 36)
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (3 of 36)
Psychoanalytic Theory: Freud’s
Psychosexual Stages
• Unconscious mind: part of mind of which
we are unaware
• Psychosexual stages: Freud's five stages
in child and adolescent development
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (4 of 36)
Psychoanalytic Theory: Freud’s
Psychosexual Stages
• Oral stage: birth to about 18 months of
age
• Anal stage: 18 months to 3 years
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (5 of 36)
Psychoanalytic Theory: Freud’s
Psychosexual Stages
• Phallic stage: 3 to 6 years
• Latency stage: 6 to 12 years
• Genital stage: 12 to adolescents
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (6 of 36)
Psychoanalytic Theory: Erikson’s
Psychosocial Stages
• Psychosocial stages: conflict rooted in
social experiences
• Erikson included three stages of adulthood
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (7 of 36)
A comparison of Freud’s and Erikson’s stages of development.
Ages
Freud’s
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
Psychosexual Stages
Infancy
Oral
Trust versus mistrust
Toddlerhood
Anal
Autonomy versus shame and doubt
Early Childhood
Phallic
Initiative versus guilt
Middle Childhood
Latency
Industry versus inferiority
Adolescence
Genital
Identity versus role confusion
Early Adulthood
Intimacy versus isolation
Middle Adulthood
Generativity versus stagnation
Later Adulthood
Ego integrity versus despair
SOURCES: Compiled from Kahn (2002) and Erikson (1963).
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (8 of 36)
Psychoanalytic Theory: Modern Applications
of Psychoanalytic Theory
• Some of Freud’s ideas still very influential
• Erikson's ideas remain influential in how
development is thought about today
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (9 of 36)
Learning Theories: Watson and Classical
Conditioning
• John B. Watson (1878–1958): father
behaviorism
• Process of classical conditioning
• Phobia: type of unreasonable fear
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (10 of 36)
Learning Theories: Modern Applications of
Classical Conditioning
• Use of virtual reality to treat children with
anxiety disorders
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (11 of 36)
Learning Theories: Skinner and Operant
Conditioning
• B. F. Skinner (1904–1990): further
developed behaviorism
• Reinforcement: increases the likelihood
the behavior will continue
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (12 of 36)
Learning Theories: Skinner and Operant
Conditioning
• Positive reinforcement: occurs when you
get something you want
• Negative reinforcement: occurs when
something disagreeable is removed
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (13 of 36)
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (14 of 36)
Learning Theories: Skinner and Operant
Conditioning
• Shaping behavior: bringing about desired
behavior by reinforcing other behaviors
• Less frequent reinforcement is more
effective for maintaining a behavior
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (15 of 36)
Learning Theories: Skinner and Operant
Conditioning
• Reward yourself
• Punishment: undesirable consequence in
response to an unwanted behavior
• Extinction: ignoring undesirable behavior
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (16 of 36)
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (17 of 36)
Learning Theories
• Modern applications of operant
conditioning
• Bandura and social cognitive theory
• Modern applications of social cognitive
theory
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (18 of 36)
Theories of Cognitive Development: Piaget’s
Cognitive Developmental Theory
• Schemas: units to organize understanding
• Assimilation: taking in new information and
placing it into existing schema
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (19 of 36)
Theories of Cognitive Development: Piaget’s
Cognitive Developmental Theory
• Accommodation: creation of a new
schema
• Equilibration: seesaw between
assimilation and accommodation
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (20 of 36)
Theories of Cognitive Development: Modern
Applications of Piaget’s Theory
Constructivism: children are active learners
Embodied cognition: bodily activities during
infancy the basis for development of thought
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (21 of 36)
Theories of Cognitive Development:
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
• Emphasis on importance of social world
and culture
• Learning first takes place in the interaction
between people
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (22 of 36)
Theories of Cognitive Development:
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
• Zone of proximal development: distance
between actual and potential development
• Scaffolding: guidance and support that
helps a child's understanding
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (23 of 36)
Theories of Cognitive Development: Modern
Applications of Vygotsky’s Theory
• Dynamic assessment: instructor starts with
the most indirect help and increases level
of direction as needed
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (24 of 36)
Theories of Cognitive Development:
Information Processing
• Information processing theory: breaks
down the way we understand information
into specific aspects of cognition
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (25 of 36)
Theories of Cognitive Development:
Information Processing
• Stores model: view that the mind functions
similar to a computer
• Connectionist or neural network model:
cognition consists of multiple simultaneous
processes
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (26 of 36)
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (27 of 36)
Theories of Cognitive Development: Modern
Applications of Information Processing
• Developmental cognitive neuroscience:
linking cognitive processes with changes
in brain and nervous system
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (28 of 36)
Evolutionary Theory: Ethology
• Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution: living
things adapted to environment more likely
to pass on genes
• Ethology: adaptive value of behavior in the
natural environment
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (29 of 36)
Evolutionary Theory: Ethology
• Imprinting: ducks and geese immediately
follow mothers after they were born
• Modern applications of evolutionary theory
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (30 of 36)
Ecological Theory
• Ecological systems theory: development
as interaction between organism and
environment
• Interaction between environmental
aspects affect the individual
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (31 of 36)
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (32 of 36)
Ecological Theory: Bronfenbrenner’s Five
Systems
• Microsystem: face-to-face interactions that
a person has in her immediate settings
• Mesosystem: two settings that contain the
child
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (33 of 36)
Ecological Theory: Bronfenbrenner’s Five
Systems
• Exosystem: settings the child never enters
but affect the child’s development
• Macrosystem: cultural norms that make up
someone’s everyday life
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (34 of 36)
Ecological Theory: Bronfenbrenner’s Five
Systems
• Chronosystem: events that take place at
different times in a child’s life
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (35 of 36)
Ecological Theory
• Examples of ecological systems
• Modern applications of ecological theory
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Theories of Child and Adolescent
Development (36 of 36)
Dynamic Systems Theory
• Dynamic systems theory: all aspects of
development interact and affect each other
• Each child creates unique pattern of
behavior
• Modern applications
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Theories of Child Development in
Historical and Cultural Context
• Journey of research: theories in historical
context
• Developmental theory in a cultural context
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Comparison of Developmental Theories
TABLE 2.3 Comparison of developmental theories.
RECENT
APPROACHES/
INTERNAL PROCESSES
THEORY
(THEORISTS)
Psychoanalytic
theory (Freud and
Erikson)
QUANTITATIVE
OR QUALITATIVE
CHANGE
Qualitative:
Freud has
five stages.
Erikson has
eight stages.
Behaviorism and
social cognitive
theory (Watson,
Skinner, and
Bandura)
Quantitative
AND/OR
ENVIRONMENTAL
INFLUENCES
CONTRIBUTION TO
THE STUDY OF
CHILD
DEVELOPMENT
Biology drives
development and
is affected by
environmental
experiences.
Children’s unconscious
thoughts and motivations
help explain their
behavior.
Environment
Reinforcement is used to
change children’s
problem behaviors.
Imitation
is central to children’s
learning.
Erikson’s stages describe
typical developmental
issues from infancy
through adolescence.
APPLICATIONS
BASED ON EACH
THEORY
Psychotherapeutic
approaches to
treatment of
psychological and
emotional problems.
Virtual and
augmented reality
treatment of phobias
Applied behavior
analysis
Self-efficacy
continue
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Comparison of Developmental Theories (cont.)
Piaget’s cognitive
theory
Qualitative:
Piaget has four
stages.
Biology drives
development of
cognitive processes,
and the environment
shapes it.
Understanding children’s
active construction of
knowledge shapes
teaching approaches.
Activity-based
learning Embodied
cognition
Vygotsky’s
cognitive theory
Quantitative
Environment, in the
form of culture and
social infl drives
development of
cognitive processes.
Scaffolding and the zone
of proximal development
form the basis for
teaching approaches.
Dynamic assessment
Information processing
Quantitative
Biology and
environment interact to
influence cognitive
processes.
Basic processes of
cognitive development are
central to understanding
the process by which
children learn.
Developmental
cognitive
neuroscience
Evolutionary
theory - Ethology
(Lorenz)
N/A
Biology underlies
adaptation to the
environment.
Children’s behaviors
are explained as a
result of adaptation to
the environment.
Evolutionary
developmental
psychology
continue
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Comparison of Developmental Theories (cont.)
Ecological theory
(Bronfenbrenner)
Quantitative
A nesting of
environmental infl
ences is also affected
by a child’s
characteristics.
Children interact with and
are influenced by
numerous levels of social
influence.
Social policy
applications such as
the Head Start
Program
Dynamic systems
theory (Thelen)
Quantitative
Biological growth
interacts with
cognitive processes
and environmental
experiences.
Children’s behavior results
from a complex interaction
of biological,
environmental, cognitive,
and social- emotional
factors.
Ongoing research
on aspects of
cognitive
development
continue
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