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BLEPT REVIEW NOTES FOR FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
REVIEW NOTES NO. 1
Inclusive Education: What It Means, Proven Strategies, and a Case Study
By Lilla Dale McManis, PhD • November 20, 2017
https://education.cu-portland.edu/blog/classroom-resources/inclusive-education/
Considering the potential of inclusive education at your school, or, perhaps, are you currently working in an inclusive classroom and
looking for effective strategies? Lean in to this deep-dive article on inclusive education to gather a solid understanding of what it means,
what the research shows, and proven strategies that bring out the benefits for everyone.
What is inclusive education?
Inclusive education is when all students, regardless of any challenges they may have, are placed in age-appropriate general
education classes that are in their own neighborhood schools to receive high quality instruction, interventions, and supports that enable
them to meet success in the core curriculum (Bui, Quirk, Almazan, & Valenti, 2010; Alquraini & Gut, 2012).
The school and classroom operate on the premise that students with disabilities are as fundamentally competent as students
without disabilities. Therefore, all students can be full participants in their classrooms and in the local school community. Much of the
movement is related to legislation that students receive their education in the least restrictive environment (LRE). This means they are
with their peers without disabilities to the maximum degree possible, with general education the placement of first choice for all students
(Alquraini & Gut, 2012).
Successful inclusive education happens primarily through accepting, understanding, and attending to student differences and
diversity, which can include the physical, cognitive, academic, social, and emotional. This is not to say that students never need to spend
time out of regular education classes, because sometimes they do for a very particular purpose—for instance, for speech or occupational
therapy. But the goal is this should be the exception.
The driving principle is to make all students feel welcomed, appropriately challenged, and supported in their efforts. It’s also
critically important the adults are supported, too. This includes the regular education teacher and the special education teacher as well
as all other staff and faculty who are key stakeholders; and that also includes parents.
The research-basis for inclusive education
Inclusive education and inclusive classrooms are gaining steam because there is so much research-based evidence around the
benefits. Take a look.
Benefits for students
Simply put, both students with and without disabilities learn more. Many studies over the past three decades have found that
students with disabilities have higher achievement and improved skills through inclusive education, and their peers without challenges
benefit, too (Bui, et al., 2010; Dupuis, Barclay, Holms, Platt, Shaha, & Lewis, 2006; Newman, 2006; Alquraini & Gut, 2012).
For students with disabilities (SWD), this includes academic gains in literacy (reading and writing), math, and social studies—
both in grades and on standardized tests, better communication skills, and improved social skills and more friendships. More time in the
general classroom for SWD is also associated with fewer absences and referrals for disruptive behavior. This could be related to findings
about attitude in that they have higher self-concept, they like school and their teachers more, and are more motivated around working
and learning.
For their peers without disabilities, they also show more positive attitudes in these same areas when in inclusive classrooms.
They make greater academic gains in reading and math. Research shows the presence of SWD gives non-SWD new kinds of learning
opportunities. One of these is when they serve as peer-coaches. By attending to how to help another student, their own performance
improves. Another is that as teachers take into greater consideration their diverse SWD learners, they provide instruction in a wider range
of learning modalities (visual, auditory, and kinesthetic), which benefits their regular ed students as well.
Researchers often explore concerns and potential pitfalls that might make instruction less effective in inclusion classrooms (Bui
et al., 2010; Dupois et al., 2006). But findings show this is not the case. Neither instructional time nor how much time students are
engaged differs between inclusive and non-inclusive classrooms. In fact, in many instances regular ed students report little to no
awareness that there even are students with disabilities in their classes. When they are aware, they demonstrate more acceptance and
tolerance for SWD when they all experience an inclusive education together.
Parent’s feelings and attitudes
Parents, of course, have a big part to play. A comprehensive review of the literature (de Boer, Pijl, & Minnaert, 2010) found that
on average parents are somewhat uncertain if inclusion is a good option for their SWD. On the upside, the more experience with inclusive
education they had, the more positive parents of SWD were about it. Additionally, parents of regular ed students held a decidedly positive
attitude toward inclusive education.
Now that we’ve seen the research highlights on outcomes, let’s take a look at strategies to put inclusive education in practice.
Inclusive classroom strategies
There is a definite need for teachers to be supported in implementing an inclusive classroom. A rigorous literature review of
studies found most teachers had either neutral of negative attitudes about inclusive education (de Boer, Pijl, & Minnaert, 2011). It turns
out that much of this is because they do not feel they are very knowledgeable, competent, or confident about how to educate SWD.
However, similar to parents, teachers with more experience—and in the case of teachers more training with inclusive education—
were significantly more positive about it. Evidence supports that to be effective, teachers need an understanding of best practices in
teaching and of adapted instruction for SWD; but positive attitudes toward inclusion are also among the most important for creating an
inclusive classroom that works (Savage & Erten, 2015).
Of course, a modest blog article like this is only going to give the highlights of what have been found to be effective inclusive
strategies. For there to be true long-term success necessitates formal training. To give you an idea though, here are strategies
recommended by several research studies and applied experience (Morningstar, Shogren, Lee, & Born, 2015; Alquraini, & Gut, 2012).
Use a variety of instructional formats.
Start with whole group instruction and transition to flexible groupings which could be small groups, stations/centers, and paired
learning. With regard to the whole group, using technology such as interactive whiteboards is related to high student engagement.
Regarding flexible groupings: for younger students these are often teacher-led but for older students, they can be student-led with
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teacher monitoring. Peer-supported learning can be very effective and engaging and take the form of pair-work, cooperative grouping,
peer tutoring, and student-led demonstrations.
Ensure access to academic curricular content.
All students need the opportunity to have learning experiences in line with the same learning goals. This will necessitate thinking
about what supports individual SWD need, but overall strategies are making sure all students hear instructions, that they do indeed start
activities, that all students participate in large group instruction, and that students transition in and out of the classroom at the same
time. For this latter, not only will it keep students on track with the lessons, their non-SWD peers do not see them leaving or entering in
the middle of lessons to be pulled out, which can really highlight their differences.
Apply universal design for learning.
These are methods that are varied and that support many learners’ needs. They include multiple ways of representing content
to students and for students to represent learning back, such as modeling, images, objectives and manipulatives, graphic organizers,
oral and written responses, and technology. These can also be adapted as modifications for SWDs where they have large print, use
headphones, are allowed to have a peer write their dictated response, draw a picture instead, use calculators, or just have extra time.
Think too about the power of project-based and inquiry learning where students individually or collectively investigate an experience.
Now let’s put it all together by looking at how a regular education teacher addresses the challenge and succeeds in using
inclusive education in her classroom.
A case study of inclusive practices in schools and classes
Mrs. Brown has been teaching for several years now and is both excited and a little nervous about her school’s decision to
implement inclusive education. Over the years she has had several special education students in her class but they either got pulled out
for time with specialists or just joined for activities like art, music, P.E., and lunch and sometimes for selected academics.
She has always found this method a bit disjointed and has wanted to be much more involved in educating these students and
finding ways they can take part more fully in her classroom. She knows she needs guidance in designing and implementing her inclusive
classroom, but she’s ready for the challenge and to seeing the many benefits she’s been reading and hearing about for the children, their
families, their peers, herself, and the school as a whole.
During the month before school starts, Mrs. Brown meets with the special education teacher Mr. Lopez—and other teachers and
staff who work with her students—to coordinate the instructional plan that is based on the IEPs (Individual Educational Plan) of the three
students with disabilities who will be in her class the upcoming year.
About two weeks before school starts, she invites each of the three children and their families to come into the classroom for
individual tours and get-to-know you sessions with both herself and the special education teacher. She makes sure to provide information
about back-to-school night and extends a personal invitation to them to attend so they can meet the other families and children. She
feels very good about how this is coming together and how excited and happy the children and their families are feeling. One student
really summed it up when he told her, “You and I are going to have a great year!”
The school district and the principal have sent out communications to all the parents about the move to having inclusion
education at Mrs. Brown’s school. Now she wants to make sure she really communicates effectively with the parents, especially as some
of the parents of both SWD and regular ed students have expressed hesitation that having their child in an inclusion classroom would
work.
She talks to the administration and other teachers and, with their okay, sends out a joint communication after about two months
into the school year with some questions provided by the book Creating Inclusive Classrooms (Salend, 2001 referenced in Salend &
Garrick-Duhaney, 2001) such as “How has being in an inclusion classroom affected your child academically, socially, and behaviorally?
Please describe any benefits or negative consequences you have observed in your child. What factors led to these changes?”; “How has
your child’s placement in an inclusion classroom affected you? Please describe any benefits or any negative consequences for you.”; and
“What additional information would you like to have about inclusion and your child’s class?” She plans to look for trends and prepare a
communication that she will share with parents. She also plans to send out a questionnaire with different questions every couple of
months throughout the school year.
Since she found out about the move to an inclusive education approach at her school, Mrs. Brown has been working closely
with the special education teacher Mr. Lopez and reading a great deal about the benefits and the challenges. Determined to be successful,
she is especially focused on effective inclusive classroom strategies.
Her hard work is paying off. Her mid-year and end-of-year results are very positive. The SWD are meeting their IEP goals. Her
regular ed students are excelling. A spirit of collaboration and positive energy pervade her classroom and she feels this in the whole
school as they practice inclusive education. The children are happy and proud of their accomplishments. The principal regularly
compliments her. The parents are positive, relaxed, and supportive.
Mrs. Brown knows she has more to learn and do, but her confidence and satisfaction are high. She is especially delighted that
she has been selected to be a part of her district’s team to train other regular education teachers about inclusive education and
classrooms.
Summing Up
The future is very bright indeed for this approach. The evidence is mounting that inclusive education and classrooms are able
to not only meet the requirements of LRE for students with disabilities, but to benefit regular education students as well. We see that
with exposure both parents and teachers become more positive. Training and support allow regular education teachers to implement
inclusive education with ease and success. All around it’s a win-win!
Lilla Dale McManis, MEd, PhD has a BS in child development, a MEd in special education, and a PhD in educational psychology.
She was a K-12 public school special education teacher for many years and has worked at universities, state agencies, and in industry
teaching prospective teachers, conducting research and evaluation with at-risk populations, and designing educational technology.
Currently she is President of Parent in the Know where she works with families in need and also does business consulting.
REVIEW NOTES NO. 2
Historical and Theoretical Basis of Inclusive Education
https://www.eenet.org.uk/resources/docs/hist_theorectic.doc
Introduction
In 1945 the League of Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In the field of education, Article 26 of the
Declaration proclaims the right of every citizen to an appropriate education regardless of gender, race, colour and religion. This right
is also enshrined in the constitutions of all independent nations. The question is: To what extent are national governments
guaranteeing the right of 'every' citizen to an 'appropriate' education as we approach the new millennium? What measures are in
place at national and local level to address imbalances in education?
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In almost every country, children and adults are being excluded from formal education altogether; some of those who go to
school do not complete. They are gradually and deliberately pushed out of the school system because schools are not sensitive to
their learning styles and backgrounds. In a gesture of sympathy some children are sorted out into categories and placed in separate
special schools, away from their peers. This has led to the development of two separate systems of education within countries, regular
and special education. However, in recent years the rationale for having two parallel national systems of education has been
questioned and the foundations of 'special education' have begun to crumble. The thinking that has developed during the last 50
years in the disability field has had significant influences not only on special education but also on practice in regular education.
Current thinking and knowledge demands that the responsibility for ALL learners should remain with the regular classroom teacher.
It is this thinking that we are here to explore during the two days of this workshop.
The theme, “Inclusive Education: A Challenge for Teacher Education” chosen for the workshop, provides us with an opportunity
to re-examine our thinking and practice in the context of Namibia, whether we are in special or regular education, especially those of
us interested in teacher education. However, it is important that the re-examination of our thinking and practice is also set within the
wider international context.
We are all now familiar with the 1990 World Declaration on Education for All: Meeting Basic Learning Needs. The Declaration
states that, inter alia:
Basic education should be provided to all children... To this end, basic education services of quality should be
expanded, and consistent measures must be taken to reduce disparities (Article 3.1).
(UNESCO, 1998:3)
Despite the rather token mention of special needs at the Jomtien Conference, there is now greater recognition that the special
needs agenda should be viewed as a significant part of the drive for Education for All (Ainscow, 1995). The idea is that the concept
of integration should be replaced by a move towards inclusive schooling/education. Integration demands that "additional
arrangements will be made to accommodate" pupils with disabilities "within a system of schooling that remains largely unchanged";
inclusive education, on the other hand, aims to restructure schools in order to respond to the learning needs of all children (Ainscow,
1995: 1). Thus integration calls for separate arrangements in the regular school for exceptional children, mainly those traditionally
labelled as disabled, through such practices as withdrawal, remedial education and/or mainstreaming. However, inclusive schooling,
in the first instance, recognises that special learning needs can arise from social, psychological, economic, linguistic, cultural as well
as physical (or disability) factors, hence the use of the term "children with special needs" rather than "children with disabilities".
Second, it recognises that any child can experience difficulty in learning, short-lived or long-term, at any time during the school career
and, therefore, the school must continually review itself to meet the needs of all its learners.
But how has the concept of inclusive education developed? Was it sparked off by the Jomtien Conference? Who is behind this
movement? I, therefore, intend, in this paper, to show how the inclusive education movement was born and the inclusive education
approach can ensure that the right to an appropriate education is guaranteed. I also want to argue that the measures currently in
place will not guarantee this right unless there are major reforms in the education systems. The tide is moving towards those reforms,
some experiments are already underway, but obstacles to the changes are indeed great. Perhaps the greatest of these obstacles is
the unwillingness of those who wield different types of power, and thus make important decisions as to why and who should be
excluded from receiving an appropriate education, to surrender power. Many disability groups, including Disabled People's
International (DPI), have argued that disability is socially constructed; it is the barriers that society places on certain groups of people
that create disability. Mike Oliver, a wheelchair using professor of social work at Greenwich University, has argued that the politics of
disablement is a lively area of social engagement (Oliver, 1990). A number of sociologists have also argued that we have the politics
of special needs (see, for example, Fulcher, 1989). All these analyses point to some explanation why some people are excluded from
schooling and from receiving an appropriate education.
Let me now consider first exclusion of persons with special needs in education before the turn of this century, before I
present arguments for inclusion and its obstacles.
Institutionalization of Persons with Disability
The history of disability in Europe is not a subject for celebration in view of the inherent violation of human rights, as we know
them today. People with disabilities (PWDs) were considered to pose a social threat, to contaminate an otherwise pure human species.
People with disability were killed and used as objects of entertainment. As such, the society had to be protected from PWDs and the
converse was also true, the latter had to be protected from society. Philanthropists found it imperative that PWDs should be given
custodial care. These attitudes led to PWDs being placed in asylums where they were fed and clothed. Asylums were not meant to
be educational institutions (Pritchard, 1960; Bender, 1970). Some PWDs, mainly those with physical and intellectual impairments as
well as mentally ill persons, were placed in hospitals for custodial care and treatment. This was the period of institutionalisation.
Special schools began to emerge in the 15th Century, starting with those with sensory impairments. Other disability groups
were considered for special schools when public schooling were expanded. The emphasis in the early special schools was on vocational
skills. Their curriculum was thus different from that in public schools. In addition, these early schools belonged to private philanthropic
organisations. Government involvement came in much later.
It was not until the late 1950s that categorisation of people with disabilities into separate groups and institutionalisation began
to be questioned. Institutionalisation removed PWDs from the cultural norms of the society to which they rightly belonged. This led
to the concept of normalisation, first developed in Scandinavian countries, especially Denmark and Sweden. Wolfensberger (1972:
28) defined normalisation as:
Utilisation of means which are as culturally normative as possible, in order to establish and/or maintain personal
behaviours and characteristics which are as culturally normative as possible.
Institutions were considered to be artificial and counter-productive. Transfer from institutions to and integration into, normal
community settings required considerable adjustment. Despite the adjustment problem, it was considered necessary to implement
normalisation or de-institutionalisation. This process is still going on today, with more and more mentally ill persons being placed in
the community, with some support.
In education, normalisation means making maximum use of the regular school system with a minimum resort to separate facilities.
It may, therefore, be argued that normalisation gave rise to the concept of integration. However, normalisation did not recognise the
existence of a wide range of individual differences in the society and "the diversity of educational, vocational and other opportunities that
are available to people in the adult world" (Jenkinson, 1997: 12). We need also to question who and what is 'normal' as well as the value
of programmes that ensure conformity to some predetermined norm of behaviour. Under normalisation, people's individuality seems to
be overlooked.
Special Education
Despite the criticisms against normalisation, attempts have been made to defend the placement of children and young people with
disabilities in special schools and integrated provision, which are the components of the special education system. It has been argued
that regular classroom teachers are relieved "of the need to devise and implement curricula for students who appeared unable to learn
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from normal instruction in the regular class" (Jenkinson, 1997: 13). However, this argument is in itself excluding in that children with
disabilities have to follow a different curriculum from that of the regular school.
The creation of special education introduced several educational problems. I will list only six here. These are:
1.
Children who qualify for special education have something wrong with them that make it difficult for them to participate
in the regular school curriculum; they thus receive a curriculum that is different from that of their peers.
2.
Children with disabilities and other conditions are labelled and excluded from the mainstream of society. Assessment
procedures tend to categorise students and this has damaging effects on teacher and parent expectations and on the
students' self-concept (Ainscow, 1991; Jenkinson, 1997).
3.
Unfair methods of identification and assessment have led to a disproportionate number of students from ethnic minority
groups. For example, in both Europe and North America black, Asian and Latino-American students are overrepresented in special schools and programmes; thus special education is being accused of legalising racial segregation
(Jenkinson, 1997; Wang et al., 1990).
4.
The presence of specialists in special education encourages regular classroom teachers to pass on to others
responsibility for children they regard as special (Ainscow, 1991).
5.
Resources that might otherwise be used to provide more flexible and responsive forms of schooling are channelled into
separate provision (Ainscow, 1991).
6.
The emphasis on Individualised Educational Plans and task analysis in special education tends to lower teacher
expectations of the students. In addition, task analysis and the associated behavioural teaching strategies introduce
disjointed knowledge and skills thus making learning less meaningful to students (Sebba, Byers and Rose, 1993).
To respond to these apparent weaknesses, integration was seen as a reasonable arrangement. Integration recognises the existence
of a continuum of services, from the special school, special class to the regular class with or without support.
Most of the UN declarations have supported special education as a continuum of provision. Indeed, the UN does not provide
leadership in specific fields out of context. Policy proposals reflect professional thinking, research and practice at the time. For instance,
I would like to argue that policy and legislative developments in the United States and the United Kingdom had the most significant
impact on the activities of the UN and its specialised agencies. The passing of PL42-142, Education for All Handicapped Children Act
(EAHCA) with its emphasis on the least restrictive environment in 1975 in the USA and the UK Warnock Report of 1978 and the subsequent
1981 Education Act abolishing disability categories and introducing the term "special educational needs" set the scene and basis for
international action. One such action was the endorsement of these developments by the political and professional community in the
Sundberg Declaration adopted at the World Conference on Action and Strategies for Prevention, Education and Rehabilitation for Persons
with Disabilities held at the Spanish city of Torremolinos in November 1981 (UNESCO, 1981). The emphasis at the Torremolinos
Conference was educational integration, allowing for a continuum from locational, social to functional integration.
Although the terms 'special educational needs' and 'Least Restrictive Environment' call for abandoning categories of disability and
associated labels as well as increased provision in the regular class, there has not been agreement in practice at national and local level.
For example, in Africa, the 1980s saw the mushrooming of special classes and units in all areas of disability (e.g. physical, sensory,
intellectual, emotional and learning difficulties) despite the purported abolition of categories (UNESCO, 1985).
Inclusive Schooling
At the same time, in the United States, professional advocacy groups claimed that the legislation did not go far enough. They,
therefore, launched the Regular Education Initiative (REI) movement, which called for the merging of special and general education into
one single system in which all children attended the regular community school. All special education staff, resources and learners with
special needs, they recommended, should be integrated into the regular school (Skrtic, 1991). Some countries, such as Australia and
New Zealand, left the debate open, but emphasised on parental choice (Jenkinson, 1997). The United Kingdom, while advocating for
education in the regular class, has introduced, through the Code of Practice, assessment procedures, which lead to a child being
'statemented ' by the Local Education Authority (LEA). The statement ensures that resources are made available to the child. It is obvious
that the concept of increased parental choice and detailed assessment procedures work against the REI movement. Indeed, the practice
of exclusion is being endorsed.
Alongside the Regular Education Initiative (REI) another movement was initiated by advocacy groups on severe intellectual
impairments, such as The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps (TASH), which promoted the rights and well-being of people
with severe intellectual disability (Jenkinson, 1997). This is the inclusive schooling movement. Like the REI, it proposes the merging of
special and general education, but it goes beyond this. It does not believe in the existence of a continuum of provision, from special
school, special class to regular class. There should be only one unified education system. The proponents of inclusive schooling call for a
restructuring of the school to accommodate all learners and advocate radical changes to the curriculum, claiming that current curricula
were perpetuating exclusion, dividing those learners who could meet their objectives as they are from those who could not (Ainscow,
1991, 1994; Jenkinson, 1997).
Research on inclusive schooling has focused on school improvement in terms of whole school responses as well as teaching
strategies that include all learners (Ainscow, 1991, 1994). In the early 1980s UNESCO carried out a survey on teacher education in 14
countries involving all world regions (UNESCO, 1986). The findings showed that regular classroom teachers were willing to take on the
responsibility for special needs children, but were not confident whether they had the skills to carry out that task. Most teachers felt they
needed training in the special needs field. These findings suggested the need for in- service training for regular classroom teachers,
through teacher trainers. UNESCO, therefore, set up a project, led by Professor Mel Ainscow, now at the University of Manchester, to
develop materials and teaching strategies that would meet the need of teachers in inclusive schools. Regional workshops were held for
Africa, (Nairobi, Kenya), Asia (Beijing, China), Middle East (Amman, Jordan), Europe (Romania), Latin America (Chile) and North America
(Canada). Resource Teams were set up for preparing and trialling materials that had to be culturally relevant. Between 1988 and 1993,
the project teams met, trailed the materials and ran workshops. The outcome was the currently widely distributed materials, including
the Special Needs in the Classroom: Teachers Resources Pack (UNESCO, 1993), Special Needs Classroom A Teacher Guide (Ainscow,
1994) and two videos, Inclusive Schools and Training video. These materials have been highly beneficial in improving school practice,
giving skills and confidence to regular classroom teachers.
The success of these materials and various experiments carried out on inclusive schooling in different parts of the world led
UNESCO to convene, with assistance of the government of Spain, the 1994 World Conference at Salamanca. The delegates deliberated
on the elimination of exclusive practices for children and young people with special needs arising from social, economic, psychological
and physical conditions. At the end of the conference, the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action was unanimously adopted by
acclamation (UNESCO, 1994).
The implications for inclusive schooling are wide. Different countries, regional, local communities and professionals are at different
levels of conceptualisation. While some are at the inclusive, School for All, stage, others are at the special school stage, and still others
somewhere in-between.
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Inclusive Education
So far, I have presented educational development in relation to persons with special needs in terms of schooling. Indeed,
education, in the eyes of economists and educational planners, has been presented in literature as if it existed mainly within the context
of schooling. Informal and non-formal education are often not their concern. Yet those who are excluded from schooling benefit from
these forms of education in order to become usefully contributing members of their communities. For many individuals with special needs
in many countries, these are the only forms of education.
Ociiti (1994:19) has described informal education as the "spontaneous learning by individuals as they interact with their social and
physical environment in their process of day-to-day living... purely on their own initiatives or through the processes of stimulated learning
and directed practice". Non-formal education, on the other hand, is said to cover all forms of learning, including functional literacy classes,
outside the formal, school system. Coombs has described these non-school forms of learning as the "shadow systems of education"
(Cannen, 1996:61). Economists have traditionally not recognised the significant role of informal and non-formal learning, and the
development of the informal sector, in developing inquiry, reflection, creativity and locally relevant and appropriate technology and in
producing affordable consumer goods, branding it as traditional and inferior. The economists' position has influenced some educationalists
to consider informal and non-formal learning as an insignificant part of an education system. It is rarely included in the description and
discussion of national education systems in major textbooks and journals. This omission was obviously the case at the Jomtien Conference
(Fordham, 1991: 173). Fordham argues that the goal of Education for All (EFA) may not be met if education development relies entirely
on existing schools, especially for "out-of-school children and under-educated and/or underemployed youth and adults" (p. 174) and, I
would quickly add, children and adults with special learning needs. In fact, some people in the latter group could benefit more from
ecologically and culturally relevant non-formal learning. Indeed, this educational arrangement would augur well with the spirit of the
inclusive education movement which calls for radical changes in the curriculum to include functional skills (Jenkinson, 1997).
On a broader scale, it is now being accepted that the contribution of informal and nonformal learning and production (learning by
doing) in both urban and rural areas, though unrecorded, is what sustains the life of nations (Bray, Clarke and Stephens, 1986). The
ongoing criticism of the dual economy, as a false classification of the economy into pre-existing and modern under foreign influence, has
led to a movement towards acceptance of the informal sector as an integral part of a nation's economy. What was needed was a
rediversification of indigenous economy with a view to modernising it, rather than replacing it. Indeed, the literacy campaigns of the
1960s and early 1970s with dramatic reductions in illiteracy in some countries have resulted in the legitimisation of informal or nonformal education. This integrative economic view, and indeed educational involving informal, formal and non-formal creation and
transformation of knowledge (Cannen, 1996) -allows individuals and communities to contribute and benefit from an expanded range of
possibilities or choices in the content to be learned and goods to be produced (Marglin, 1990). In addition, whilst the formal or modem
sector has failed to create jobs, the informal or "traditional" sector holds greater promise in increasing employment opportunities. For
some young people with profound and/or multiple learning needs, informal and non-formal learning could be an important complementary
option.
But informal and non-formal forms of learning are not new. These are mainly indigenous forms of education, principles of which
could be even used to advantage in the formal settings of the school (Dovey, 1994). As I have argued elsewhere, indigenous education
in Africa was, and is, inclusive. We need only to consider the principles, which guided indigenous forms of education. These include
(Kisanji, 1998: 58-60):
1.
Absence or limited differentiation in space, time and status: indigenous customary education was available and accessible
to all community members, wherever they were, during waking hours
2.
Relevance of content and methods:: the content of education was drawn from the physical or natural and social
environments, both of which were intricately tied to the religious/'spiritual life of the people
3.
Functionality of knowledge and skills: all the knowledge, attitudes and skills embodied in the curriculum were based on
cultural transmission, knowledge creation and transformation
4.
Community orientation: all educational content and practice was based on and within the community.
I would like to argue that these principles of universality, relevance, functionality and community localisation are essential for a
successful inclusive education system. Some of the teaching approaches and methods considered to facilitate effective learning in schools
today are the natural part of African indigenous education. Here I have in mind co-operative and collaborative learning and child-to-child
learning opportunities. However, due to our veneration of ideas and systems from outside, perhaps because of our history, we have all
along ignored these practices in our communities, only for research elsewhere to establish their effectiveness (Hawes, 1988; UNESCO,
1993).
Summary and Conclusion
In this presentation so far, I have attempted to chart the development of social and educational practice in relation to persons
with special needs due to disabilities and other backgrounds such as social, linguistic and economic experiences. The normalisation
movement, which began in Scandinavian countries in the late 1950s, spawned many research activities since the 1960s in Europe and
North America. The concept of normalisation was not relevant to Africa; we did not have institutions. However, it influenced the move
towards integration, which was adopted in all regions of the world. I would like to argue that integration is also alien to Africa because it
does not recognise diversity of human beings. It merely seeks to assimilate those who are different to learn and behave like everyone
else. It also supports the continued existence of special education as a separate system.
Inclusive schooling, on the other hand, is opposed to the concept and practice of special education. It demands that schools should
change in order to be able to meet the learning needs of all children in a given community. It seeks to improve the learning outcomes of
students in academic achievements, social skills and personal development. Clearly this is the purpose of the school improvement
movement, which aims to develop schools that are effective for all. Effective schools see pupils experiencing difficulty in learning ''as
indicators of the need for reform" (Ainscow, 1991: 3). These schools are characterised by (Ainscow, 1991; Hopkins, Ainscow and West,
1994):
1.
Strong administrative leadership and attention to quality of instruction
2.
Emphasis on student acquisition of basic skills
3.
High expectations for students and confidence among teachers that they can deal with children's individual needs
4.
Commitment to provide a broad and balanced range of curriculum experiences for all children
5.
Orderly, safe climate conducive to teaching and learning
6.
Arrangements for supporting individual members of staff through staff development, using both the workshop and the
workplace.
7.
Frequent monitoring of student progress
Effective schools are thus closely tied with effective teaching.
School improvement and effective research, which is at the heart of inclusive education, points to three important needs. First
there is the need for quality teacher education involving pre-service training for all teachers and staff development in the form of advanced
studies, the workshop and the workplace. School heads require additional training in order to play an effective leadership role. Second,
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there is the need for further research, especially school-based inquiry in order to improve practice. Lastly, there is also the need to make
formal education relevant in content and process to the social and cultural environment of learners.
While we are engaged with school improvement and management of change, I would like to end this presentation with a tacit
reminder of the stark reality of life: change is sometimes painful. When we become used to certain ways of doing things, we tend to
resist change. Change will be more painful to those of us who have made a living out of, and wield some power in, special education.
However, if we believe in Education for All, we need to surrender the power we hold and work collaboratively to create effective schools
and inclusive education.
REVIEW NOTES NO. 3
Special Education: Introduced
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_education
Special education (also known as special needs education, aided education, exceptional education or Special Ed) is the practice
of educating students in a way that addresses their individual differences and needs. Ideally, this process involves the individually planned
and systematically monitored arrangement of teaching procedures, adapted equipment and materials, and accessible settings. These
interventions are designed to help individuals with special needs achieve a higher level of personal self-sufficiency and success in school
and in their community which may not be available if the student were only given access to a typical classroom education.
Common special needs include learning disabilities (such as dyslexia), communication disorders, emotional and behavioral
disorders (such as ADHD), physical disabilities (such as osteogenesis imperfecta, cerebral palsy, muscular dystrophy, spina bifida, and
Friedreich's ataxia), and developmental disabilities (such as autism spectrum disorders and intellectual disability). Students with these
kinds of special needs are likely to benefit from additional educational services such as different approaches to teaching, the use of
technology, a specifically adapted teaching area, or a resource room.
Intellectual giftedness is a difference in learning and can also benefit from specialised teaching techniques or different
educational programs, but the term "special education" is generally used to specifically indicate instruction of students with disabilities.
Gifted education is handled separately.
Whereas special education is designed specifically for students with special needs, remedial education can be designed for any
students, with or without special needs; the defining trait is simply that they have reached a point of unpreparedness, regardless of why.
For example, even people of high intelligence can be under-prepared if their education was disrupted, for example, by internal
displacement during civil disorder or a war.
In most developed countries, educators modify teaching methods and environments so that the maximum number of students
are served in general education environments. Therefore, special education in developed countries is often regarded as a service rather
than a place. Integration can reduce social stigmas and improve academic achievement for many students.
The opposite of special education is general education. General education is the standard curriculum presented without special
teaching methods or supports. Students receiving special education services can enroll in a General education setting to learn along with
students without disabilities.
Identifying students or learners with special needs
Some children are easily identified as candidates for special needs due to their medical history. They may have been diagnosed
with a genetic condition that is associated with intellectual disability, may have various forms of brain damage, may have a developmental
disorder, may have visual or hearing disabilities, or other disabilities.
For students with less obvious disabilities, such as those who have learning difficulties, two primary methods have been used
for identifying them: the discrepancy model and the response to intervention model. The discrepancy model depends on the teacher
noticing that the students' achievements are noticeably below what is expected. At which the teacher may make the decision for the
student to receive support from a special education specialist. Before doing so, the teacher must show documentation of low academic
achievement. The response to intervention model advocates earlier intervention.
In the discrepancy model, a student receives special education services for a specific learning difficulty (SLD) if the student has
at least normal intelligence and the student's academic achievement is below what is expected of a student with his or her IQ. Although
the discrepancy model has dominated the school system for many years, there has been substantial criticism of this approach (e.g.,
Aaron, 1995, Flanagan and Mascolo, 2005) among researchers. One reason for criticism is that diagnosing SLDs on the basis of the
discrepancy between achievement and IQ does not predict the effectiveness of treatment. Low academic achievers who also have low
IQ appear to benefit from treatment just as much as low academic achievers who have normal or high intelligence.
The alternative approach, response to intervention, identifies children who are having difficulties in school in their first or second
year after starting school. They then receive additional assistance such as participating in a reading remediation program. The response
of the children to this intervention then determines whether they are designated as having a learning disability. Those few who still have
trouble may then receive designation and further assistance. Sternberg (1999) has argued that early remediation can greatly reduce the
number of children meeting diagnostic criteria for learning disabilities. He has also suggested that the focus on learning disabilities and
the provision of accommodations in school fails to acknowledge that people have a range of strengths and weaknesses and places undue
emphasis on academics by insisting that students should be supported in this arena and not in music or sports.
Individual needs
A special education program should be customised to address each individual student's unique needs. Special educators provide
a continuum of services, in which students with special needs receives varying degrees of support based on their individual needs. Special
education programs need to be individualised so that they address the unique combination of needs in a given student.
In the United States, Canada, and the UK, educational professionals use a student's Individualized Education Program (IEP).
Another name for a student's Individualized Education Plan is a student's Individual Learning Plan (ILP).
"The IEP is meant to address each child’s unique learning issues and include specific educational goals. It is a legally binding
document. The school must provide everything it promises in the IEP."
For children who are not yet 3, an Individual Family Service Plan (IFSP) contains information on the child's present level of
development in all areas; outcomes for the child and family; and services the child and family will receive to help them achieve the
outcomes.
In the United States, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is a federal law that requires that every school system
in the nation must provide a free and appropriate public education for every child, ages 3 to 22, regardless of how or how seriously that
child may be disabled. To ensure that this federal law is obeyed, the government requires every school system provide this type of
education to each student in order to receive federal funding.
Students with special needs are assessed to determine their specific strengths and weaknesses. The earlier these students with
special needs are assessed, the better it is for them to get the accommodations that they need in order for them to get the most out of
their education. Placement, resources, and goals are determined on the basis of the student's needs. Accommodations and Modifications
to the regular program may include changes in the curriculum, supplementary aides or equipment, and the provision of specialized
physical adaptations that allow students to participate in the educational environment as much as possible. Students may need this help
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to access subject matter, physically gain access to the school, or meet their emotional needs. For example, if the assessment determines
that the student cannot write by hand because of a physical disability, then the school might provide a computer for typing assignments,
or allow the student to answer questions verbally instead. If the school determines that the student is severely distracted by the normal
activities in a large, busy classroom, then the student might be placed in a smaller classroom such as a resource room.
Parent of students with a learning disability must know what type of disability their child has, so they can get accommodations
such as speech therapy, occupational therapy and adaptive physical education. For example, if a student takes an academic test and it
indicates that the student struggles with reading comprehension, parents can request speech and language support or classroom
accommodations, such as extra time to complete reading and writing tasks.
Methods of provision
Schools use different approaches to providing special education services to students. These approaches can be broadly grouped into four
categories, according to how much contact the student with special needs has with non-disabled students (using North American
terminology):
•
Inclusion: In this approach, students with special needs spend all, or most of the school day with students who do not have
special needs. Because inclusion can require substantial modification of the general curriculum, most schools use it only for
selected students with mild to moderate special needs, which is accepted as a best practice. Specialised services may be provided
inside or outside the regular classroom, depending on the type of service. Students may occasionally leave the regular classroom
to attend smaller, more intensive instructional sessions in a resource room, or to receive other related services that might require
specialised equipment or might be disruptive to the rest of the class, such as speech and language therapy, occupational therapy,
physical therapy, rehabilitation counseling. They might also leave the regular classroom for services that require privacy, such
as counseling sessions with a social worker.
•
Mainstreaming refers to the practice of educating students with special needs in classes with non-disabled students during
specific time periods based on their skills. Students with special needs are segregated in separate classes exclusively for students
with special needs for the rest of the school day.
•
Segregation in a separate classroom or special school for students with special needs: In this model, students with special
needs do not attend classes with non-disabled students. Segregated students may attend the same school where regular classes
are provided, but spend all instructional time exclusively in a separate classroom for students with special needs. If their special
class is located in an ordinary school, they may be provided opportunities for social integration outside the classroom, such as
by eating meals with non-disabled students. Alternatively, these students may attend a special school.
•
Exclusion: A student who does not receive instruction in any school is excluded from school. In the past, most students with
special needs have been excluded from school. Such exclusion still affects about 23 million disabled children worldwide,
particularly in poor, rural areas of developing countries. It may also occur when a student is in hospital, housebound, or detained
by the criminal justice system. These students may receive one-on-one instruction or group instruction. Students who have
been suspended or expelled are not considered excluded in this sense.
•
‘’Co-Teaching:’’ In this setting, students with disabilities are placed in a General education classroom to learn along with their
disabled peers and non-disabled peers. A General Education teacher and a Special Education teacher work as partners in
instruction.
Effective Instruction for students with disabilities
•
Goal Directed: Each child must have an individualised Education Program (IEP) that distinguishes his/her particular needs.
The child must get the services that are designed for him/her. These services will allow him/her to reach his/her annual goals
which will be assessed at the end of each term along with short-term goals that will be assessed every few months.
•
Research-Based Methods- There has been a lot of research done about students with disabilities and the best way to teach
them. Testing, IQs, interviews, the discrepancy model, etc. should all be used to determine where to place the child. Once that
is determined, the next step is the best way for the child to learn. There are plenty of different programs such as the Wilson
Reading Program and Direct Instruction
•
Guided by student performance- While the IEP goals may be assessed every few months to a year, constant informal
assessments must take place. These assessments will guide instruction for the teacher. The teacher will be able to determine if
the material is too difficult or to easy.
Special schools
A special school is a school catering for students who have special educational needs due to learning difficulties, physical
disabilities or behavioral problems. Special schools may be specifically designed, staffed and resourced to provide appropriate special
education for children with additional needs. Students attending special schools generally do not attend any classes in mainstream
schools.
Special schools provide individualized education, addressing specific needs. Student to teacher ratios are kept low, often 6:1 or
lower depending upon the needs of the children. Special schools will also have other facilities for children with special needs, such as
soft play areas, sensory rooms, or swimming pools, which are necessary for treating students with certain conditions.
In recent times, places available in special schools are declining as more children with special needs are educated in mainstream
schools. However, there will always be some children, whose learning needs cannot be appropriately met in a regular classroom setting
and will require specialised education and resources to provide the level of support they require. An example of a disability that may
require a student to attend a special school is intellectual disability. However, this practice is often frowned upon by school districts in
the US in the light of Least Restrictive Environment as mandated in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.
An alternative is a special unit or special classroom, also called a self-contained classroom, which is a separate room or rooms
dedicated solely to the education of students with special needs within a larger school that also provides general education. These
classrooms are typically staffed by specially trained teachers, who provide specific, individualized instruction to individuals and small
groups of students with special needs. Self-contained classrooms, because they are located in a general education school, may have
students who remain in the self-contained classroom full-time, or students who are included in certain general education classes. In the
United States a part-time alternative that is appropriate for some students is sometimes called a resource room.
History of special schools
One of the first special schools in the world was the Institut National des Jeunes Aveugles in Paris, which was founded in 1784.
It was the first school in the world to teach blind students. The first school in U.K, for the Deaf was established 1760 in Edinburgh by
Thomas Braidwood, with education for visually impaired people beginning in the Edinburgh and Bristol in 1765.
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In the 19th century, people with disabilities and the inhumane conditions where they were supposedly housed and educated were
addressed in the literature of Charles Dickens. Dickens characterized people with severe disabilities as having the same, if not more,
compassion and insight in Bleak House and Little Dorrit.
Such attention to the downtrodden conditions of people with disabilities brought resulted in reforms in Europe including the reevaluation of special schools. In the United States reform came more slowly. Throughout the mid half of the 20th century, special schools,
termed institutions, were not only accepted, but encouraged. Students with disabilities were housed with people with mental illnesses,
and they were not educated much, if at all.
Deinstitutionalization proceeded in the US beginning in the 1970s following the exposes of the institutions, and it has taken
sometime before the Education for All Handicapped Children's Act of 1974, to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and
then Individuals with Disabilities Educational Improvement Act (IDEIA) have come into fruition. School integration was supported as early
as the 1970s, and teacher preparation programs in higher education have carefully taught and instructed graduates on inclusion at the
classroom, individual, school, and district levels for decades resulting in dual certification of "regular teachers".
With the Amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997, school districts in the United States began to
slowly integrate students with moderate and severe special needs into regular school systems. This changed the form and function of
special education services in many school districts and special schools subsequently saw a steady decrease in enrollment as districts
weighed the cost per student. It also posed general funding dilemmas to certain local schools and districts, changed how schools view
assessments, and formally introduced the concept of inclusion to many educators, students and parents.
Examples of modifications
•
Skipping subjects: Students may be taught less information than typical students, skipping over material that the school
deems inappropriate for the student's abilities or less important than other subjects. For example, students with poor fine motor
skills may be taught to print block letters, but not cursive handwriting.
•
Simplified assignments: Students may read the same literature as their peers but have a simpler version, such as
Shakespeare with both the original text and a modern paraphrase available.
•
Shorter assignments: Students may do shorter homework assignments or take shorter, more concentrated tests.
•
Extra aids: If students have deficiencies in working memory, a list of vocabulary words, called a word bank, can be provided
during tests, to reduce lack of recall and increase chances of comprehension. Students might use a calculator when other
students do not.
•
Extended time: Students with a slower processing speed may benefit from extended time for assignments and/or tests in
order to have more time to comprehend questions, recall information, and synthesize knowledge.
•
Students can be offered a flexible setting in which to take tests. These settings can be a new location to provide for minimal
distractions.
Examples of accommodations
•
Response accommodations: Typing homework assignments rather than hand-writing them (considered a modification if the
subject is learning to write by hand). Having someone else write down answers given verbally.
•
Presentation accommodations: Examples include listening to audiobooks rather than reading printed books. These may be
used as substitutes for the text, or as supplements intended to improve the students' reading fluency and phonetic skills. Similar
options include designating a person to read to the student, or providing text to speech software. This is considered a
modification if the purpose of the assignment is reading skills acquisition. Other presentation accommodations may include
designating a person to take notes during lectures or using a talking calculator rather than one with only a visual display.
•
Setting accommodations: Taking a test in a quieter room. Moving the class to a room that is physically accessible, e.g., on
the first floor of a building or near an elevator. Arranging seating assignments to benefit the student, e.g., by sitting at the front
of the classroom.
•
Scheduling accommodations: Students may be given rest breaks or extended time on tests (may be considered a
modification, if speed is a factor in the test). Use a timer to help with time management.
REVIEW NOTES NO. 4
Characteristics of Children with Special Needs
http://www.doe.virginia.gov/support/transportation/training/driver_training/sped/unit_2.pdf
Common Disabilities & Disorders
PART 1:Types of Learning Disabilities
Student reading a book in classroom Learning disabilities are neurologically-based processing problems. These processing
problems can interfere with learning basic skills such as reading, writing and/or math. They can also interfere with higher level skills
such as organization, time planning, abstract reasoning, long or short term memory and attention. It is important to realize that learning
disabilities can affect an individual’s life beyond academics and can impact relationships with family, friends and in the workplace.
Since difficulties with reading, writing and/or math are recognizable problems during the school years, the signs and symptoms
of learning disabilities are most often diagnosed during that time. However, some individuals do not receive an evaluation until they are
in post-secondary education or adults in the workforce. Other individuals with learning disabilities may never receive an evaluation and
go through life, never knowing why they have difficulties with academics and why they may be having problems in their jobs or in
relationships with family and friends.
Learning disabilities should not be confused with learning problems which are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor
handicaps; of intellectual disability; of emotional disturbance; or of environmental, cultural or economic disadvantages.
Generally speaking, people with learning disabilities are of average or above average intelligence. There often appears to be a
gap between the individual’s potential and actual achievement. This is why learning disabilities are referred to as “hidden disabilities”:
the person looks perfectly “normal” and seems to be a very bright and intelligent person, yet may be unable to demonstrate the skill
level expected from someone of a similar age.
A learning disability cannot be cured or fixed; it is a lifelong challenge. However, with appropriate support and intervention,
people with learning disabilities can achieve success in school, at work, in relationships, and in the community.
In Federal law, under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), the term is “specific learning disability,” one of 13
categories of disability under that law.
“Learning Disabilities” is an “umbrella” term describing a number of other, more specific learning disabilities, such as dyslexia
and dysgraphia. Find the signs and symptoms of each, plus strategies to help below.
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Specific Learning Disabilities
1. Auditory Processing Disorder (APD)
Also known as Central Auditory Processing Disorder, this is a condition that adversely affects how sound that travels unimpeded through
the ear is processed or interpreted by the brain. Individuals with APD do not recognize subtle differences between sounds in words, even
when the sounds are loud and clear enough to be heard. They can also find it difficult to tell where sounds are coming from, to make
sense of the order of sounds, or to block out competing background noises.
2. Dyscalculia
A specific learning disability that affects a person’s ability to understand numbers and learn math facts. Individuals with this type of LD
may also have poor comprehension of math symbols, may struggle with memorizing and organizing numbers, have difficulty telling time,
or have trouble with counting.
3. Dysgraphia
A specific learning disability that affects a person’s handwriting ability and fine motor skills. Problems may include illegible handwriting,
inconsistent spacing, poor spatial planning on paper, poor spelling, and difficulty composing writing as well as thinking and writing at the
same time.
4. Dyslexia
A specific learning disability that affects reading and related language-based processing skills. The severity can differ in each individual
but can affect reading fluency, decoding, reading comprehension, recall, writing, spelling, and sometimes speech and can exist along
with other related disorders. Dyslexia is sometimes referred to as a Language-Based Learning Disability.
5. Language Processing Disorder
A specific type of Auditory Processing Disorder (APD) in which there is difficulty attaching meaning to sound groups that form words,
sentences and stories. While an APD affects the interpretation of all sounds coming into the brain, a Language Processing Disorder (LPD)
relates only to the processing of language. LPD can affect expressive language and/or receptive language.
6. Non-Verbal Learning Disabilities
A disorder which is usually characterized by a significant discrepancy between higher verbal skills and weaker motor, visual-spatial and
social skills. Typically, an individual with NLD (or NVLD) has trouble interpreting nonverbal cues like facial expressions or body
language, and may have poor coordination.
7. Visual Perceptual/Visual Motor Deficit
A disorder that affects the understanding of information that a person sees, or the ability to draw or copy. A characteristic seen in people
with learning disabilities such as Dysgraphia or Non-verbal LD, it can result in missing subtle differences in shapes or printed letters,
losing place frequently, struggles with cutting, holding pencil too tightly, or poor eye/hand coordination.
Related Disorders
1. ADHD
A disorder that includes difficulty staying focused and paying attention, difficulty controlling behavior and hyperactivity. Although ADHD
is not considered a learning disability, research indicates that from 30-50 percent of children with ADHD also have a specific learning
disability, and that the two conditions can interact to make learning extremely challenging.
2. Dyspraxia
A disorder that is characterized by difficulty in muscle control, which causes problems with movement and coordination, language and
speech, and can affect learning. Although not a learning disability, dyspraxia often exists along with dyslexia, dyscalculia or ADHD.
Executive Functioning
An inefficiency in the cognitive management systems of the brain that affects a variety of neuropsychological processes such as planning,
organization, strategizing, paying attention to and remembering details, and managing time and space. Although not a learning disability,
different patterns of weakness in executive functioning are almost always seen in the learning profiles of individuals who have specific
learning disabilities or ADHD.
Memory
Three types of memory are important to learning. Working memory, short-term memory and long-term memory are used in the processing
of both verbal and non-verbal information. If there are deficits in any or all of these types of memory, the ability to store and retrieve
information required to carry out tasks can be impaired.
RT 2: What is a physical disability?
Physical disabilities may affect, either temporarily or permanently, a person’s physical capacity and/or mobility.
Whilst there are tests available for some physical disabilities, they are often diagnosed through observations of a person’s
development, behaviour, and physical capabilities.
There are may different causes of physical disabilities but they can include inherited or genetic disorders, serious illnesses, and
injury.
Types of physical disabilities
1. Acquired brain injury
Acquired brain injuries are due to damage that happens to the brain after birth. They can be caused through a wide range of factors
including a blow to the head, stroke, alcohol or drugs, infection, disease such as AIDs or cancer, or a lack of oxygen.
It is common for many people with a brain injury to find that they are slower at processing information, planning, and solving
problems. They may also experience changes to their behaviour and personality, physical and sensory abilities, or thinking and learning.
The effects of brain injuries and the disabilities they cause can be temporary or permanent.
2. Spinal cord injury (SCI)
A spinal cord injury often causes a permanent physical disability. The spinal cord can become injured if too much pressure is applied
and/or if the blood and oxygen supply to the spinal cord is cut. When the spinal cord has been damaged, it leads to a loss of function
such as mobility or feeling.
For some people, a spinal cord injury results in paraplegia (loss of function below the chest), for others it leads to quadriplegia (loss
of function below the neck).
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Accidents account for 79% of spinal cord injuries in Australia – mostly caused by motor vehicle accidents and falls. Other causes
include cancer, arthritis, infections, blood clots, and degenerative spinal conditions.
As well as affecting the ability to move through paralysis, it may affect many areas of a person’s body – such as the cardiovascular
and respiratory systems, bladder and bowel function, temperature, and sensory abilities.
3. Spina bifida
Spina bifida is the incomplete formation of the spine and spinal cord in utero. It can cause the spinal cord and nerves to be exposed
on the surface of the back, instead of being inside a canal of bone surrounded by muscle.
People with spina bifida experience a range of mild to severe physical disabilities including paralysis or weakness in the legs, bowel
and bladder incontinence, hydrocephalus (too much fluid in the brain cavities), deformities of the spine, and learning difficulties.
The cause of spina bifida is not well understood, but it is likely caused by genetic and environmental factors. Adequate intake of
folate by the mother in early pregnancy has been found to be a significant factor in preventing a child developing the disability.
4. Cerebral palsy
Cerebral palsy is associated with movement, muscle tone, and posture – ‘Cerebral’ refers to the brain and ‘palsy’ means weakness
or lack of muscle control.
Typically, it is due to an injury to the developing brain before or during birth, caused by a reduced blood supply and lack of oxygen
to the brain. Illnesses during pregnancy such as rubella (the German measles), accidental injury to the brain, meningitis in young children,
and premature birth can all be causes.
In Australia, over 90% of cerebral palsy was due to a brain injury while the mother was pregnant, or before one month of age,
however, 10% of people develop the disability later in life, usually as a result of infections such as meningitis or encephalitis, stroke, or
a severe head injury (Cerebral Palsy Alliance).
People with Cerebral palsy may experience epilepsy, and may have difficulty with awareness and comprehension.
5. Cystic fibrosis (CF)
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an inherited genetic condition, which affects the body’s respiratory, digestive, and reproductive systems. It
specifically affects the mucus and sweat glands in the body, causing mucus to be thick and sticky. In the case of the lungs, this can clog
the air passages and trap bacteria causing lung damage and recurrent infections.
In Australia, more than 1 in 25 people carry the cystic fibrosis gene, but being a carrier doesn’t mean that you will also have CF itself
(Better Health Channel).
A range of other symptoms are caused by the effects of CF on other parts of the body, including sinus infections, liver damage,
diabetes, poor growth, diarrhoea, and infertility. In the case of the pancreas, the release of enzymes needed to digest food is prevented,
which means people with CF must consume a very high calorie diet – 20 to 50% more each day than the recommended intake.
People with CF can also have low salt levels in the body which causes problems such as fatigue, cramps, and dehydration.
6. Epilepsy
Epilepsy is a neurological condition where a person has a tendency to have recurring seizures due to a sudden burst of electrical
activity in the brain. Seizures can cause unusual movements, odd feelings or sensations, a change a person’s behaviour, or cause them
to lose consciousness.
The causes of epilepsy are not always known, however, brain injuries, strokes, cancer, brain infection, structural abnormalities of
the brain, and other genetic factors can all cause epilepsy.
There are many different types of epilepsy and the nature and severity of seizures experienced by people can vary widely. Some
people can control their seizures with medication and the condition is not lifelong for every person.
7. Multiple sclerosis (MS)
MS occurs when the myelin sheath – protective tissue around nerve fibres in the body – becomes damaged, causing random patches
or scars. The scars can interfere with messages sent through the central nervous system, affecting the brain, optic nerves, and spinal
cord.
The symptoms of MS are very varied but can include fatigue, loss of motor control, tingling, numbness, visual disturbances, memory
loss, depression, and cognitive difficulties.
The progress and severity of MS can be difficult to predict – it may progress very slowly for one person, but develop quickly in
another.
8. Muscular dystrophy
Muscular dystrophy is a group of disorders that lead to progressive and irreversible weakness and loss of muscle mass. There are
more than 30 different types of muscular dystrophy, and each has a separate cause. They are all however genetic conditions, which
means that they are caused by an alteration within the genetic makeup.
Signs and symptoms can be very varied however can include difficulty walking, trouble breathing or swallowing, restriction in joint
motion, and heart and other organ problems.
Symptoms of the most common type of the disease appear in childhood, however, others do not become apparent until middle age
or older.
9. Tourette syndrome
Tourette syndrome is a neurological disorder which involves involuntary and repetitive vocalisations, sounds, and movements called
tics. These tics are neurological not behavioural – which means a person with Tourette syndrome cannot control them.
Vocal tics can include sniffing, throat clearing, tongue clicking, grunting, or more rarely blurting out socially unacceptable words or
phrases. Motor tics can include repetitive eye blinking, shoulder shrugging, nose twitching, head jerking, facial expressions, touching
objects or other people, spinning around, imitating someone else’s actions, or jumping up and down.
Tourette syndrome is typically diagnosed between the ages of 2 and 21. It is not known exactly what causes Tourette syndrome,
but it is likely a combination of genetic, environmental, and neurochemical (chemicals of the brain) factors.
10. Dwarfism
Dwarfism is short stature (abnormal skeletal growth) which can be caused by over 300 genetic or medical conditions. It is generally
defined as an adult height of 4 feet 10 inches or less, with the average height of someone with dwarfism being 4 feet (Mayo Clinic).
In general, there are two categories for dwarfism:
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Disproportionate dwarfism: where some parts of the body are smaller, whilst other parts are average or above-average.
Proportionate dwarfism where the body is averagely proportioned, and all parts of the body are small to the same degree
Children with dwarfism may experience a delay on developing motor skills, however, dwarfism does not have a link to any intellectual
disability.
PART 3: Types of Developmental Disabilities
1. What is ADHD?
ADHD is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders of childhood. It is usually first diagnosed in childhood and often
lasts into adulthood. Children with ADHD may have trouble paying attention, controlling impulsive behaviors (may act without thinking
about what the result will be), or be overly active.
About 2 million of the more than 6 million children with ADHD were diagnosed as young children aged 2-5 years.
2. What is Autism Spectrum Disorder?
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disability that can cause significant social, communication and behavioral
challenges. There is often nothing about how people with ASD look that sets them apart from other people, but people with ASD may
communicate, interact, behave, and learn in ways that are different from most other people. The learning, thinking, and problem-solving
abilities of people with ASD can range from gifted to severely challenged. Some people with ASD need a lot of help in their daily lives;
others need less.
A diagnosis of ASD now includes several conditions that used to be diagnosed separately: autistic disorder, pervasive developmental
disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), and Asperger syndrome. These conditions are now all called autism spectrum disorder.
3. What is Cerebral Palsy?
Cerebral palsy (CP) is a group of disorders that affect a person’s ability to move and maintain balance and posture. CP is the most
common motor disability in childhood. Cerebral means having to do with the brain. Palsy means weakness or problems with using the
muscles. CP is caused by abnormal brain development or damage to the developing brain that affects a person’s ability to control his or
her muscles.
The symptoms of CP vary from person to person. A person with severe CP might need to use special equipment to be able to walk,
or might not be able to walk at all and might need lifelong care. A person with mild CP, on the other hand, might walk a little awkwardly,
but might not need any special help. CP does not get worse over time, though the exact symptoms can change over a person’s lifetime.
4. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs)
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs) are a group of conditions that can occur in a person whose mother drank alcohol during
pregnancy. These effects can include physical problems and problems with behavior and learning. Often, a person with an FASD has a
mix of these problems.
5. What is Fragile X Syndrome?
Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is a genetic disorder. A genetic disorder means that there are changes to the person’s genes. FXS is caused
by changes in the fragile X mental retardation 1 (FMR1) gene. The FMR1 gene usually makes a protein called fragile X mental retardation
protein (FMRP). FMRP is needed for normal brain development. People who have FXS do not make this protein. People who have other
fragile X-associated disorders have changes in their FMR1 gene but usually make some of the protein.
FXS affects both males and females. However, females often have milder symptoms than males. The exact number of people who
have FXS is unknown, but it has been estimated that about 1.4 per 10,000 males and 0.9 per 10,000 females have FXS.
6. What is Hearing Loss?
A hearing loss can happen when any part of the ear is not working in the usual way. This includes the outer ear, middle ear, inner
ear, hearing (acoustic) nerve, and auditory system.
Signs and Symptoms
The signs and symptoms of hearing loss are different for each child. If you think that your child might have hearing loss, ask
the child’s doctor for a hearing screening as soon as possible. Don’t wait!
Even if a child has passed a hearing screening before, it is important to look out for the following signs.
Signs in Babies
Does not startle at loud noises.
Does not turn to the source of a sound after 6 months of age.
Does not say single words, such as “dada” or “mama” by 1 year of age.
Turns head when he or she sees you but not if you only call out his or her name. This sometimes is mistaken for not paying attention or
just ignoring, but could be the result of a partial or complete hearing loss.
Seems to hear some sounds but not others.
7. What is intellectual disability?
Intellectual disability is a term used when there are limits to a person’s ability to learn at an expected level and function in daily life.
Levels of intellectual disability vary greatly in children. Children with intellectual disability might have a hard time letting others know
their wants and needs, and taking care of themselves.
Intellectual disability could cause a child to learn and develop more slowly than other children of the same age. It could take longer
for a child with intellectual disability to learn to speak, walk, dress, or eat without help, and they could have trouble learning in school.
8. What are Jaundice and Kernicterus?
Jaundice is the yellow color seen in the skin of many newborns. Jaundice happens when a chemical called bilirubin builds up in the
baby’s blood. During pregnancy, the mother’s liver removes bilirubin for the baby, but after birth the baby’s liver must remove the
bilirubin. In some babies, the liver might not be developed enough to efficiently get rid of bilirubin. When too much bilirubin builds up in
a new baby’s body, the skin and whites of the eyes might look yellow. This yellow coloring is called jaundice.
When severe jaundice goes untreated for too long, it can cause a condition called kernicterus. Kernicterus is a type of brain damage
that can result from high levels of bilirubin in a baby’s blood. It can cause athetoid cerebral palsy and hearing loss. Kernicterus also
causes problems with vision and teeth and sometimes can cause intellectual disabilities. Early detection and management of jaundice
can prevent kernicterus.
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9. What is Muscular Dystrophy?
Muscular dystrophies are a group of diseases caused by defects in a person’s genes. Over time, this muscle weakness decreases
mobility and makes the tasks of daily living difficult. There are many muscular dystrophies and the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) studies the major types.
Different types of muscular dystrophy affect specific groups of muscles, have a specific age when signs and symptoms are first seen,
vary in how severe they can be, and are caused by imperfections in different genes. Muscular dystrophy can run in the family, or a person
might be the first one in their family to have the condition.
Muscular dystrophy is rare, and there is not a lot of data on how many people are affected by the condition. Much of the information
comes from outside the United States. CDC scientists are working to estimate the number of people with each type of muscular dystrophy
in the United States. The table below shows what is known about the major types of muscular dystrophy.
10. What is Tourette Syndrome?
Tourette Syndrome (TS) is a condition of the nervous system. TS causes people to have “tics”.
Tics are sudden twitches, movements, or sounds that people do repeatedly. People who have tics cannot stop their body from doing
these things. For example, a person might keep blinking over and over again. Or, a person might make a grunting sound unwillingly.
Having tics is a little bit like having hiccups. Even though you might not want to hiccup, your body does it anyway. Sometimes people
can stop themselves from doing a certain tic for awhile, but it’s hard. Eventually the person has to do the tic.
11. What is vision loss?
Vision loss means that a person’s eyesight is not corrected to a “normal” level. Vision loss can vary greatly among children and can
be caused by many things.
What causes loss of vision?
Vision loss can be caused by damage to the eye itself, by the eye being shaped incorrectly, or even by a problem in the brain.
Babies can be born unable to see, and vision loss can occur anytime during a person’s life.
PART 4: Communication Disorders
Communication disorders affect a person's ability to communicate, causing problems with speech, language, hearing, or all
three. The exact symptoms will vary according to the particular communication disorder, but they generally revolve around problems
with expression. The ability to understand language (comprehension) as well as the ability to speak clearly to others are both affected
to some degree. Although rare, there is also a chance that there may be convulsions with acquired aphasia - also known as LandauKleffner syndrome. No matter what signs appear, treatment for communication disorders is possible. Here on GoMentor.com, you can
find therapists who use online therapy and counseling to help. Before explaining that more clearly, here are some other things you should
know about these types of disorders.
Types of Communication Disorders
These are the main types of communication disorders that affect most people.
1. Expressive Language Disorder - Children effected by expressive language disorder generally understands language better
than they are able to communicate with others.
2. Mixed Receptive-Expressive Language Disorder - This communication disorder centers around an inability to
understand language as well as problems communicating with others.
3. Phonological Disorder - Children who do not develop the ability to produce some or all sounds needed for speech are said
to have a phonological disorder.
4. Acquired Aphasia with Epilepsy - Also known as Landau-Kleffner syndrome, this affects verbal communication, but also
has the potential for convulsions.
5. Stuttering - This is a disorder that causes people to repeat words or have problems pronouncing words correctly.
6. Unspecified Communication Disorder - When the symptoms from some or all of the communication disorders are
present, it is referred to as an unspecified communication disorder because it doesn't fit exactly under one of the other
categories.
Symptoms of Communication Disorders
The exact symptoms are going to vary depending on the type of communication disorder being talked about, but in general they are
going to include the following.
•
Trouble speaking or expressing complex ideas is one symptom of a communication disorder.
•
Trouble understanding others is another sign that a communication disorder may be a problem.
•
Convulsions are sometimes present with communication disorders, although they are rare.
•
Repetition of words - stuttering - is a common symptom of a communication disorder.
While all the symptoms may not be present in all people, if some do it may be a good idea to get a proper diagnosis. If a
communication disorder is present, there is still hope thanks to treatment options available for this problem.
Treatment for Communication Disorders
Getting online therapy and counseling from trained therapists, helps people with communication disorders. No matter what
exact type of disorder is present, you can find therapists on GoMentor.com who can assist with dealing with everything that comes
along with it. Whether it is a mild disorder or something more serious, you can find therapists who are available to help. When left
untreated, communication disorders can lead to other mental problems like depression. Before letting it get that far, let a therapist on
GoMentor.com show you what be done to help with a wide array of communication disorders.
Definition of Communication Disorders
Communication disorders are those that affect speech, language, and hearing. The symptoms vary depending on the
particular type of communication disorder, but they generally center around problems communicating. Therapy and counseling are
both helpful with the treatment of various communication disorders.
PART 5:Behavioral Disorder Symptoms, Causes and Effects
Behavioral disorders, also known as disruptive behavioral disorders, are the most common reasons that parents are told to
take their kids for mental health assessments and treatment. Behavioral disorders are also common in adults. If left untreated in
childhood, these disorders can negatively affect a person’s ability to hold a job and maintain relationships.
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What Are the Types of Behavioral Disorders?
According to BehaviorDisorder.org, behavioral disorders may be broken down into a few types, which include:
1. Anxiety disorders
2. Disruptive behavioral disorders
3. Dissociative disorders
4. Emotional disorders
5. Pervasive developmental disorders
6. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
According to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, ADHD is a condition that impairs an individual’s ability to properly focus
and to control impulsive behaviors, or it may make the person overactive.
ADHD is more common in boys than it is in girls. According to the Wexner Medical Center at Ohio State University, males are two
to three times more likely than females to get ADHD.
Emotional Behavioral Disorder
An emotional behavioral disorder affects a person’s ability to be happy, control their emotions and pay attention in school. According to
Gallaudet University, symptoms of an emotional behavioral disorder include:
•
Inappropriate actions or emotions under normal circumstances
•
Learning difficulties that are not caused by another health factor
•
Difficulty with interpersonal relationships, including relationships with teachers and peers
•
A general feeling of unhappiness or depression
•
Feelings of fear and anxiety related to personal or school matters
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)
•
ODD is a behavioral disorder characterized by hostile, irritable and uncooperative attitudes in children, according to Children’s
Mental Health Ontario. Children with ODD may be spiteful or annoying on purpose, and they generally direct their negative
actions at authority figures.
Anxiety
Anxiety is a normal emotion, and all people feel anxiety at some point in their lives. However, for some people, anxiety may get to
a point where it interferes with their daily lives, causing insomnia and negatively affecting performance at work or school, according to
the Mayo Clinic. Anxiety disorders involve more than regular anxiety. They are serious mental health conditions that require treatment.
Examples of these types of mental conditions include:
•
Post-traumatic stress disorder
•
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
•
Generalized anxiety disorder
•
Panic disorder
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
OCD is characterized by fears and irrational thoughts that lead to obsessions, which, in turn, cause compulsions, according to
the Mayo Clinic. If you have OCD, you engage in compulsive, repetitive behavior despite realizing the negative consequences of — or
even the unreasonable nature of — your actions. Performing these repetitive acts does nothing more than relieve stress temporarily.
If you or a loved one is experiencing any of these behavioral disorders, it is important to get help as soon as possible, because
these conditions can affect quality of life to such a degree that they may lead to self-harm. Please call for assistance.
What Causes a Behavioral Disorder?
A behavioral disorder can have a variety of causes. According to the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, the abnormal
behavior that is usually associated with these disorders can be traced back to biological, family and school-related factors.
Some biological causes may include:
•
Physical illness or disability
•
Malnutrition
•
Brain damage
•
Hereditary factors
Other factors related to an individual’s home life may contribute to behaviors associated with a behavioral disorder:
•
Divorce or other emotional upset at home
•
Coercion from parents
•
Unhealthy or inconsistent discipline style
•
Poor attitude toward education or schooling
What Are the Signs of a Behavioral Disorder?
Someone who has a behavioral disorder may act out or display emotional upset in different ways, which will also vary from
person to person.
Emotional Symptoms of Behavioral Disorders
According to Boston Children’s Hospital, some of the emotional symptoms of behavioral disorders include:
•
Easily getting annoyed or nervous
•
Often appearing angry
•
Putting blame on others
•
Refusing to follow rules or questioning authority
•
Arguing and throwing temper tantrums
•
Having difficulty in handling frustration
Physical Symptoms of Behavioral Disorders
Unlike other types of health issues, a behavioral disorder will have mostly emotional symptoms, with physical symptoms such
as a fever, rash, or headache being absent. However, sometimes people suffering from a behavioral disorder will develop a substance
abuse problem, which could show physical symptoms such as burnt fingertips, shaking or bloodshot eyes.
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Short-Term and Long-Term Effects of a Behavioral Disorder
If left untreated, a behavioral disorder may have negative short-term and long-term effects on an individual’s personal and
professional life. People may get into trouble for acting out, such as face suspension or expulsion for fighting, bullying or arguing with
authority figures. Adults may eventually lose their jobs. Marriages can fall apart due to prolonged strained relationships, while children
may have to switch schools and then eventually run out of options.
According to HealthyChildren.org, the most serious actions a person with a behavioral disorder may engage in include starting
fights, abusing animals and threatening to use a weapon on others.
The earlier a behavioral disorder is diagnosed and properly treated, the more likely it is that a child or adult suffering from it
will be able to control their behavior. Contact us at for assistance in finding treatment options.
Medication Side Effects
Medications for behavioral disorders may have side effects. They can increase emotional issues, increase suicidal thoughts and
aggravate seizure conditions. Some of the possible side effects include:
•
Insomnia
•
Appetite reduction
•
Tremors
•
Depression
•
Abnormal heart rhythms
Behavior Drug Addiction, Dependence and Withdrawal
An individual may become addicted to the medication taken to treat a behavioral disorder. As a result, the person may need
professional help with weaning off that medication. You may experience withdrawal symptoms if you abuse certain medications.
If you suspect that you, your child or someone else you know has become dependent on prescription medication, contact us
at for immediate assistance.
Medication Overdose
Children are more likely than adults to accidentally overdose on medication, including behavioral medications. A person who is
depressed because of a behavioral disorder may attempt an overdose on purpose. People who are depressed or have suicidal thoughts
have a high risk for overdose, according to the National Coalition Against Prescription Drug Abuse.
Depression and Behavioral Disorders
According to the Cleveland Clinic, a behavioral disorder may trigger depression. The opposite is also possible, with depression
being a trigger for a behavioral disorder, which can also lead to substance abuse.
Dual Diagnosis: Addiction and Behavioral Disorders
It is not uncommon for people with a behavioral disorder to also have an addiction to drugs or alcohol. According to
Psychology Today, an individual who has a panic disorder may also be addicted to alcohol.
Children with ADHD may be at a higher risk for developing a substance abuse or alcohol dependence issue if the condition
carries over into adulthood, according to WebMD.
Getting Help for a Behavioral Disorder
Because of the severity of these mental health issues, getting help for a behavioral disorder is crucial. Cognitive behavioral therapy
along with medication is an effective way to treat disorders such as ODD. The sooner you get help, the easier it will be to restore your
life to normal.
REVIEW NOTES NO. 5
Typical and Atypical Development in Children
The Difference Between Typical and Atypical Development in Children
JENNIFER ZIMMERMAN
HTTPS://WWW.LIVESTRO NG.COM/ARTICLE/56190 5-THE-DIFFERENCE-BETWEEN-TYPICAL-AND-ATYPICALDEVELOPMENT-IN-CHILDREN/
Children have so many ways in which they need to develop: language skills, cognitive skills, social skills and physical skills. Since each
child develops at his own pace, with his own particular strengths and weaknesses, it can be challenging to determine the difference
between typical and atypical development in children. How can you tell what is typical and what is not?
Preschool Development
The American Academy of Pediatrics describes atypical preschool development by listing skills that all preschoolers should have.
If your child is missing one or more of the following skills, you should talk to your pediatrician: the abilities to throw a ball overhand,
jump in place, ride a tricycle, scribble, pay attention to other children, use the toilet, copy a circle, say sentences with more than three
words and engage in pretend play.
Kindergarten Development
The Centers for Disease Control lists indications that a 5-year-old child has atypical development. The CDC suggests talking to
your child's pediatrician if he does not show a wide range or emotions, cannot focus on one activity for more than five minutes, cannot
tell what's real and what is imaginary, loses acquired skills, cannot get undressed or wash his hands without help, or shows extreme
behaviors like biting when angry.
Elementary Development
Australia's Youth Services Department lists traits that may indicate developmental problems for children from 6 to 9 years old.
Not being able to keep up with the rest of the students is definitely a concern, but parents should also look out for lying, cheating or
trouble separating from them. Being bullied or being a bully are other experiences that may indicate developmental problems.
Puberty Development
The onset of puberty can start as young as 8 years of age in girls, with age 10 being average. For some girls, it may not begin
until as late as age 13. In boys, puberty typically begins at age 11, although for some it may begin as early as age 9 while or be delayed
until age 14. If your child begins earlier or later than these ages, you'll need to talk to your pediatrician. Another indication of atypical
development would be physical changes that occur out of order. The first sign of puberty in girls, for example, is breast development.
The beginning of menstruation before breast development might be a cause for concern.
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Early Identification: Normal and Atypical Development
By: National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD)
http://www.ldonline.org/article/6047/
NORMAL DEVELOPMENT
Children gather information from people, things, and events in their environment. They organize this information in their minds,
and code it in ways that keep it usable and easily understood. They match the information with what they've learned before, noticing
similarities and differences, and store the information for future use. Once this process is complete, children behave in ways that suggest
that learning has taken place.
Children's development usually follows a known and predictable course. The acquisition of certain skills and abilities is often
used to gauge children's development. These skills and abilities are known as developmental milestones. Such things as crawling, walking,
saying single words, putting words together into phrases and sentences, and following directions are examples of these predictable
achievements. Although not all children reach each milestone at the same time, there is an expected time-frame for reaching these
developmental markers.
The following points are important to understanding the nature and course of children's development.
The course of children's development is mapped using a chart of developmental milestones
These milestones are behaviors that emerge over time, forming the building blocks for growth and continued learning. Some of the
categories within which these behaviors are seen include:
• Cognition (thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, understanding)
• Language (expressive and receptive abilities)
• Motor coordination (gross/fine motor, jumping, hopping, throwing/catching, drawing, stacking)
• Social interaction (initiating peer contact, group play)
• Adaptive (dressing, eating,washing)
Some children may be very advanced in their use of oral language while others may first be discovering the power of spoken words.
Some children may be advance in motor skills while others are reluctant to use play equipment or engage in building activities or crafts
projects.
PATTERNS OF GROWTH WITHIN DIFFERENT CHILDREN CAN ALSO VARY
Children who show strength in one area of development might be slower to develop skills in another. For example, a child who
has wonderful ability to understand spoken language might struggle with verbal expression.
CULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT CONTRIBUTE TO THE WAYS CHILDREN BEHAVE
The course of development can be greatly influenced by cultural and environmental factors. Behaviors that are acceptable in
one environment may be inappropriate, even strange, in another. It is important to remember that differences in behavior do not always
reflect differences in development.
EXPOSURE TO A FOREIGN LANGUAGE CAN INFLUENCE THE WAY CHILDREN LEARN AND INTERACT
Children who do not have a working knowledge of the primary language used in their classroom may not be able to express their
needs or fully participate in classroom activities. Teachers can provide these children with opportunities for successful communication
and participation while learning a new language. They can:
• explain concepts using models or multi-sensory materials
• facilitate vocabulary growth using pictures accompanied by verbal cues
• provide opportunities for children to demonstrate understanding through non-verbal play
• find alternate ways to help children communicate and participate until language foundations are secure
ATYPICAL DEVELOPMENT
Some children exhibit behaviors that fall outside of the normal, or expected, range of development. These behaviors emerge in
a way or at a pace that is different from their peers.
Some important thoughts about atypical development are listed below:
Some children show patterns of behaviors that are unusual or are markedly different from their peers
Great care should be given to determining whether patterns of behavior are reflections of children's personality, or whether they exemplify
areas of weakness and concern. Teachers and parents should note the:
• time at which skills emerge
• sequence within which skills emerge
• quality of skill level and how it contributes to children's functioning
Atypical behaviors should be noted and carefully recorded. They may be isolated events that have little or no impact on later development.
They might, however, be early warning signs of later and more significant problems. Patterns of atypical behavior can be useful in
confirming areas of need. Teachers and parents should note the:
• dates and times of occurrence
• duration and frequency of behavior
• type of activity: language, fine motor
• settings and activities
• interactions with peers and other influences
There is a world of difference between a skill that is delayed and one that is disordered
Great care should be taken to distinguish between skills that are slow in emerging and those that are different in quality, form, and
function.
REVIEW NOTES NO. 6
The Seven Principles for Inclusive Education and its Characteristics
https://www.tolerance.org/sites/default/files/general/ED%20-%20Seven%20Principles.pdf
1. Teaching All Students
Students learn in different ways. It is, therefore, important to develop the skills to teach in different ways. For example, some students
learn best when introduced to information visually, while others learn best through hearing information, working in groups or activitybased projects. By using several different approaches to the same material within the same lesson or activity, information can become
more interesting and tangible to a greater number of students.
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Some ways to accomplish this are:
•
Think of three different ways to teach a lesson. You could teach a new concept or definition by:
(1) having students create a web map on newsprint to represent a concept or a definition (visual),
(2) giving a brief lecture about the concept or definition (auditory), or
(3) having students act out the concept or definition using various clues (kinesthetic).
Of course, there are other strategies as well, such as doing a group brainstorm on chart paper to evoke students’ prior knowledge
about what they already know about the topic, reading a story aloud that illustrates the concept or inviting students to draw an illustration
of what they guess the concept might mean. There are many modes to uncover student knowledge and expand new ideas. By
incorporating at least three different approaches in your instruction, you will have increased your student’s learning outcomes by a factor
of three.
•
Ask other teachers how they have taught or would teach a lesson how they have taught or would teach a lesson.
Try out new approaches, even if you may not have used that approach before.
•
Share with your colleagues a lesson that you created and ask if they see evidence of the three learning styles
being addressed or have any other ideas or suggestions. Learn from each other!
•
Listen carefully to student's questions and comments. Learning is a dialogue between students and teachers,
with both asking questions and seeking answers from each another. Allow and encourage students to feel comfortable
enough to ask for more information, or to seek clarification of information that has already been given. Draw upon the prior
knowledge and life experience that students bring to the classroom. Integrate their comments and questions authentically into
discussion.
•
Expect student's backgrounds and abilities to be different. Try to be considerate of these differences and help the
students reflect on their individuality and to cultivate a sense of belonging in your learning community.
2. Exploring Multiple Identities
Building confidence and affirming identity for students supports their learning. Students who are excited about themselves and
other people, and who are inquisitive about the world around them will more easily learn to be compassionate and understanding of
people who are different from them. They are less likely to hold negative feelings about others, if they are comfortable withthemselves
and also with those who are different.
Here are some ways to affirm and encourage student’s identities:
•
Create activities Create activities that help students talk about, and feel pride in, themselves and their unique experiences.
•
Engage students in projects Engage students in projects where they can talk about their experiences as it relates to the academic
content, so that their experiences gain status by becoming part of academic knowledge.
•
Encourage all aspects of each student's individuality. Let them know it is okay to be themselves.
•
Create an environment where it is safe to wonder an Create an environment where it is safe to wonder and investigate about
se d investigate about self and others. others Help students to see that none of us is a “final product!” Rather, we are all in a
constant state of developing as learners and as members of our communities.
•
Discuss all areas in which a student may find opportunities for success — academic, artistic, athletic, physical, emotional and
personal.
•
Help students understand the ways in which their identities and their experiences may be linked to their gender and sexual
identity, their ethnicity and racial identity, or their religious beliefs and religious identity.
•
Maintain a respectful environment Maintain a respectful environment ul environment among the students among the students.
Help them to use respectful language and behaviors with all their classmates and peers. Work with students so that they learn
to disagree respectfully. Students should not shy away from conflicting ideas but learn how to use divergent points of view as
an opportunity to deepen their understanding of themselves and others. Cultivate a classroom community where questions are
welcomed and expected.
3. Preventing Prejudice
All of us are influenced by the legacy of institutionalized inequalities that permeate history as well as the stereotyped ideas and
images we encounter every day. The best way for an educator to address preconceived stereotypes and to prevent them from escalating
into feelings of prejudice and bias is to create awareness. This can be done by discussing students’ stereotypes in both large and small
groups.
These are a number of suggestions about how to create student awareness of stereotyped beliefs and inequality:
•
Teach explicitly about histories of unfairness, or institutionalized inequality. Guide students in understanding that institutionalized
inequality is not everybody’s fault, but that it is everybody’s responsibility to become aware, and to create fair and equitable
learning communities.
•
Talk about all of the student's feelings and attitudes. Do not ignore prejudicial behaviors or feelings. They will not go away on
their own. Cultivate a productive atmosphere of trust, examination and responsibility rather than one of guilt.
•
Set clear boundaries and rules about behaviors that are based on prejudices, such as teasing, bullying or excluding. Set goals
for an anti-racist, anti-sexist, anti-biased classroom or learning community. Work explicitly with students to create ways to
recognize and interrupt discriminatory or biased language and acts. Be clear with students that you and they will benefit from
an inclusive learning community.
•
Introduce key words to students that can alert them to the presence of a stereotype. “All women…” “They always…” “My people
would never…” and “Those people…” are a good start.
•
Help students to identify prejudicial behavior (as opposed to making generalizations). opposed to making generalizations). We
all put people, places and things into categories so that we can contextualize them in relationship to ourselves. But when we
place a value on people that is less than the value we place on ourselves, we are prone to treat those people in an unfair
manner.
•
Don't be afraid to talk about stereotypes. If you do not feel you have been able to get a point across, you can always come
back to it at a later time, or consult with another educator for assistance.
•
Train students to discern fact from fiction, especially when it comes to stereotype ally when it comes to stereotypes. If a student
makes a statement or uses words that are prejudiced or are based on a stereotype, the teacher should address the situation by
asking questions about the information source, asking whether there are other points of view on the stereotype, provide concrete
information that will enable students to rethink their stereotypes based on new information.
For example, if a student says that women are not good at sports, ask the student, “What makes you say that?” or “Does anyone
know of women who have excelled in sports?” Try to help students gain an understanding of their own source(s) of misinformation.
Then, engage in activities and dialogue that illustrate the many professional and amateur female athletes, who have defined sports
throughout the ages (such as Wilma Rudolph, Kerri Strug, Lisa Leslie, Dara Torres, Mia Hamm, Serena Williams, Venus Williams and
more).
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Develop dialogue and reflection Develop dialogue and reflection. Help the students ask themselves, Why do I feel this way?
Where did I learn this misinformation? How can I incorporate and act upon this new information?
4. Promoting Social Justice
Young people are good judges of what is or is not fair. Talk to students about issues of fairness, and of justice or injustice in terms
of equality for all.
Here are some ways to promote social justice in your classroom:
•
Make comparisons. Help students compare situations of injustice in their own lives to larger social issues. For some students,
their experiences of injustice are directly linked to larger social issues, such as access to equitable education, immigration rights
and civic neglect of urban environments. For other students, these larger social issues will be “new” ideas with which to grapple.
These dialogues help students develop empathy and awareness of their personal context within the broader community.
•
Develop a worldview. Encourage students to explore their perspective on issues within and outside their immediate communities
and their relationship to the larger world. For example, if the air or water in their community is polluted, what are the sources
of pollution?
•
Engage in critical thinking. Ask students to explore why they think what they think and examine where they got their opinions.
Have they taken other people’s perspectives into account? Assist students in activities to gain accurate information or to see
other perspectives.
•
Explore power dynamics. Ask students if every view has been represented in a given situation. Ask students to explore how they
define “power,” who has power, who doesn’t, and examine issues of access to power. Use students’ own experiences to explore
power dynamics. Who has greater or lesser power on sports teams? In math or spelling or beauty competitions? In the
classroom? In the school?
•
Encourage students to develop a sense of civic responsibility. Use academic learning to encourage students to understand their
unique roles in society and the contributions that they can make. Provide role models by teaching about students and
communities who have created social change.
•
Bring these discussions into all subject areas. Don't limit your discussions to one day a . week, month, or year. Fully integrate a
social justice perspective into all content areas. These topics can be addressed continuously and in many different contexts. For
example, you can draw attention to a character's behavior in a book or in a math problem that compares the resources of one
city with another.
•
Service learning and action planning. Service learning and action planning. Get students involved in taking social justice
issues into their own hands. Service opportunities can help students feel empowered to address issues of inequity in their own
communities. Help students develop concrete projects that are achievable and relevant in their own communities. Guide students
in critically examining the misguided assumptions of taking on the role of “rescuer” in humanitarian aid/“charity work.” Engage
the voices and viewpoints of the communities with which the service learning is taking place.
5. Choosing Appropriate Materials
It is important to choose books and materials that reflect accurate images of diverse peoples. Books, magazines, movies, web-based
media and handouts can be guides for behavior and ideas, but they also have the potential to perpetuate some stereotypes. Read over
all materials you are planning to use with students and decide if they promote a positive and appropriate image of people and themes.
The following are a number of things to keep in mind when choosing what you present to the students:
•
Be diverse. Have multiple pictures, sources, or readings by . and about different groups and people.
•
Let groups speak for themselves. Use sources from within the contexts you are studying. For example: when studying about
women, make sure you use women authors to describe situations, not just men writing about women.
•
Experts are everywhere. Go outside the traditional people, organizations and resources to find sources that relate to your studies.
These will offer a unique perspective that can round out more traditional sources. Draw from the richness of democratic media
such as YouTube, blogs and other interactive sources.
•
Use primary sources. Secondary sources are useful – but are used best to accompany primary sources and not as a stand in for
them.
•
Show past and present images of different groups images of different groups. Societies and cultures are constantly changing
and people often appear very different now from how they may have appeared in the past. It is important for students to
recognize the ways in which culture and people change over time. For example, ceremonial dress is for ceremonies. Make sure
that students don’t confuse the actions and dress celebrating an important day for a cultural or religious group, with the usual
daily actions and dress of that same group.
6. Teaching and Learning about Cultures and Religions
It is important that students learn about other cultures and religions in a positive and comfortable manner. This includes learning about
the cultural and religious differences among their peers – as well as other cultures and religions that are more remote from their
experiences.
Some ways to do this are:
•
Teach students the value of asking questions. As a teacher, model ways of asking respectful questions in the classroom or
learning community. Encourage them to think about how to ask respectful questions of each other and to practice doing so.
•
Discuss appropriate ways to ask questions about identity, religion, culture and race. Help the students use positive terms to gain
information about others.
•
Provide anonymous ways for students to ask questions such as an anonymous “question box” in a prominent place in the
classroom. This is essential for a learning community that hopes to open dialogue. When students realize they may ask previously
silenced questions, they can become more eager participants in their learning.
•
Emphasize that culture is not a fixed or permanent condition. Society and culture are constantly changing. Languages, religions,
rituals, traditions and ways of knowing change over time. People often appear very different now from how they may have
appeared in the past. It is important for students to recognize the evolving nature of, and the inaccuracies of, previously assumed
images.
•
Allow opportunities for students to learn about the ever changing cultures of the world. Complicate this goal through a range of
subjects - not just social studies. For example, an abacus can be a tool to teach both math and the similarities between Chinese,
Japanese, and Russian cultures. Yet, the use of the abacus has changed drastically in the past fifty years, especially the past
ten years – the lifetime of many of our students - so these kinds of examples should be approached with a contemporary
framework. Furthermore, avoid making sweeping statements about “Chinese, Japanese, and Russian cultures” or other cultural
groups. There is vast diversity within every cultural group. It may be more helpful for students to grasp the notion of diversity
within groups and geographic regions than to try to oversimplify the experiences of a certain people, nation or region.
•
Help students see a range of nuanced views and make connections within and between cultures. For example, a generalization
such as “Muslim women cover their hair” is not only false, but it does not address the range of beliefs among Muslims about
modesty in dress and what that entails. A more helpful discussion may guide students in seeing connections between Islam and
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other religions where people may cover their hair in different instances due to religious requirements and preferences (for
example: Amish women, Jewish women, Greek Orthodox women, Sikh men and women, Catholic women, etc.) These
discussions require constant attention to nuance and acknowledging the spectrum of practices that spring from the range of
ways people interpret their religious teachings and beliefs.
7. Adapting and Integrating Lessons Appropriately
It is important that educators be flexible in the adaptation of all the lessons in our curriculum as well as prescribed curriculum
in general. Sometimes, the most teachable moments are unplanned and unscripted. Often pre-designed lessons are a good starting point
for dialogues or critical thinking.
Some ways to do this include:
•
Be mindful of who is in your classroom, so that the lessons can be more culturally- lessons can be more culturally relevant.
When utilizing a lesson that shows representations of a particular place (such as the country of Kenya in East Africa), first ask
students if they have ever been to the place in question. The students who have been there, or have family from there, may be
able to participate in the activity in a leadership role. Also, be cognizant that stereotypes or ignorance on the part of students
or educators can make some students hesitant to share their connection or personal stories. Students and families may feel
more trusting to share stories in a classroom that makes distinctions among the range of perspectives and experiences held by
individual Kenyan families and that avoids the all-too-common pitfall of assuming that all experiences from Kenya, or worse,
from the continent of Africa, are similar. It is also presumptuous to assume that the student from the place in question is an
expert or wants a leadership role. Caution should be taken to be certain that the student is comfortable sharing. For example,
students or family members, who have survived severe conditions and possibly entered the United States as refugees, may not
have a desire, nor be prepared to “show and tell” something about their homeland.
•
Proceed with caution and thoughtfulness about student family histories. Provide meaningful opportunities for students to present
their beliefs and traditions, based on their own readiness and willingness to share them. This is very important so that you can
make connections throughout the various lessons to their personal experiences. Themes of family history and immigration are
commonly used in classrooms that aim to bring a multicultural perspective; however, when doing this, a social justice perspective
points to the need to include discussions on the forced immigration of enslaved people and refugee people as well as the forced
migration and genocide of American Indian people. Children of adoption and foster care may not have access to stories of
“where my family is from,” so caution needs to be taken in how to include stories of questioning. Do not assume students have
access to family history, or that it is a topic with which the family wants to share.
•
Do not assume that you can tell where students are from or how they identify just by looking at them, by the sound of their
names or articles of dress. Remember race and ethnicity are social constructions, not scientific law.
REVIEW NOTES NO. 7
Inclusive Education: The Philippine Perspective
http://iamyouinclusion.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/DepEd-Inclusive-Education-Policy-Framework-Dr-Lorna-Dino.pdf
GENERAL INFORMATION on INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
◼ FACTS and FIGURES
Children with disabilities who are in school are about 101, 762 (2011-2011).
- Children with disabilities are still combating educational exclusion
- 97.3 % of them are still unreached.
- About 5,916 are mainstreamed in regular classes
- Children of Indigenous peoples number about 12-15 million across the country. These are spread in seven ethnographic areas with
117 ethno-linguistic groups. Those in the elementary schools total 639, 483 while 158, 550 are in the secondary schools (2010-2011).
- 140,570 Muslim elementary and secondary pupils are attending ALIVE (Arabic Language and Islamic Values Education) in public
schools
- Street children are about 246, 000 thousand75% are children on the streets;
25% are children of the streets;
70 are boys
- Working children are growing in number
- Number of abused children is being tracked down
EDUCATION POLICIES
◼ The right to education is a basic human right.
◼ All children and youth shall have access to quality education.
◼ Inclusive education shall be concerned with all learners, with focus on those who have traditionally been excluded from
educational opportunities.
◼ Support system shall be organized and delivered holistically.
PUBLIC POLICY SUPPORT on INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
◼ The 1987 Philippine Constitution
◼ P.D. 603 - The Child and Youth Welfare Code
◼ RA. 7610 – Special Protection of Children against Child Abuse, Exploitation and Discrimination Act
◼ R.A. 7277- The Magna Carta for Disabled Persons amended by R.A 9442
◼ Policies and Guidelines in Special Education
PHILIPPINES ADOPTS INTERNATIONAL DOCUMENTS on INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
▪
UN Conventions on the Rights of the Child (1989)
▪
World Declaration on Education for All (1990)
▪
UNESCO Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action (1994)
INCLUSION DEFINED
◼ Reaching out to all learners
◼ Addressing and responding to diversity of needs of all children, youth and adults
◼ Involves changes and modification in content, approaches, structures and strategies
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STRATEGIES in INCLUSIVE EDUCATION for DISADVANTAGED LEARNERS
◼ CHILDREN WITH DISABILITES
1. Partial mainstreaming towards inclusion
- students are educated in regular classes at least half the day
- receive additional help or specialized services
- pull-out
2. Full mainstreaming or inclusion
- complete regular instruction
- receive all special services in general classroom
SUSTAINING PROGRAMS for CHILDREN with DISABILITIES
◼ Establishment of 276 Special Education Centers nationwide
◼ Provision of SPED items
◼ Downloading of funds
◼ Sustaining Programs for Children with Disabilities
◼ Conduct of training programs for teachers handling children with various disabilities
◼ Conduct of training for school heads and supervisors
◼ Development of instructional materials for children with disabilities
◼ Conduct of advocacy strategies like the SPED caravan in regions and divisions without SPED centers or without SPED programs
◼ Implementation of various intervention programs, like:
Early Intervention
Transition program
Headstart program
INDIGENOUS PEOPLES EDUCATION
◼ Policy actions
To provide access to quality basic education
To ensure the preservation, recognition, promotion and protection of the rights of indigenous peoples to ancestral domain, cultural
identity and heritage
◼ Objective:
The National IP Education Policy Framework operationalized in all schools
Indigenous Peoples Education Activities
◼ Launching of the Philippine’s Response to Indigenous Peoples and Muslim Education (PRIME)- a facility for IP and ME
◼ Conduct of implementation planning activities for the national, & regional clusters
◼ Celebrating IP month in October
◼ MADRASAH EDUCATION for Muslim Children
◼ Policy action:
To provide acess to quality education
To ensure the preservation, recognition, promotion, and protection of the rights of Muslim learners to religious identity and heritage
◼ Objective:
Institutionalization of the Madrasah Education Program at all levels in basic education
◼ Madrasah Education for Muslim Children
◼ Development of Madrasah Currriculum for Kindergarten (Tahderiyyah)
◼ Implementation of the Madrasah Curriculum in the elementary level
◼ Development of the Curriculum in the secondary level
◼ Professionalizing the Asatidz through the Accelerated Teacher Education Program now on its fourth cycle
STREET CHILDREN EDUCATION
◼ Enhancing the implementation of the “Kariton Klasrum” project in partnership with the Dynamic Teen Company
◼ Street educator, Efren Penaflorida awarded by CNN as Hero of the Year
◼ Conducting stock-taking activities in selected sites that will implement the program
EDUCATION for CHILDREN SEXUALLY ABUSED
◼ Institutionalization of Personal Safety Lessons in both elementary and secondary schools nationwide
◼ On-going training of trainers for the basic education levels
◼ Coordination with the agencies to ensure the welfare of the sector
ALTERNATIVE DELIVERY MODES for DISADVANTAGED CHILDREN
◼ MISOSA- (Modified In-School and Off-School Approach for elementary)
◼ Open High School Program for secondary
◼ Distance Learning
◼ Modular learning
◼ On-line learning
◼ Home-based learning
◼ Alternative Delivery Modes
CURRENT ISSUES and CHALLENGES
◼ Increasing the holding power of schools over these children
◼ Making existing resources and other support systems adaptable and suitable to the needs of inclusive education
◼ Mobilizing parents and other duty bearers in supporting inclusive education
◼ Providing post-school support to fully integrate and enable disadvantaged children to participate in gainful employment or
productive work.
SOCIAL BENEFITS
◼ Creates positive social and attitudinal changes in both regular and disadvantaged chidren such as:
a. Reducing and eliminating prejudices against disabled children
b. Improving self-concept or self-esteem
c. Growth in social cognition
d. Encouraging greater participation in social progress
Challenge
◼ Inclusion may result in overcrowding and lowering of quality of education
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ECONOMIC BENEFITS
◼ Leads to higher participation rate, cohort-survival or completion rate
◼ There is higher simple and functional literacy rates.
◼ There is higher employment participation rate.
◼ Enable children to become independent and productive in later years
CHALLENGES
◼ Inclusion education entails additional resources over and above those provided to regular schools.
◼ Per pupil cost is relatively higher than the regular pupil.
PROPOSED INITIATIVES/RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Ensuring education through early learning intervention
2. Rationalizing the establishment of more centers: special education centers, community centers, drop-in centers
3. Capability building for teachers of diverse learners at pre service levels
4. Adopting equivalency, testing and acceleration programs to diverse learners
REVIEW NOTES NO 8
Inclusion Strategies for Student Success
http://www.teachhub.com/18-inclusion-strategies-student-success
If you are a teacher of students within an inclusion classroom, then you are probably a creative, caring, patient, innovative,
resourceful, structured, and flexible person. Whew!
The Many Facets of Inclusion Teaching
The many hats that you wear on any given day depend upon the students, subjects, and topics you teach. Schools and families
collaborate to assist students of all ability levels to achieve many skills, while co-teachers and all staff collaborate together to teach and
reach each student. Planning for successful inclusion includes allocating the time, resources, strategies, interventions, appropriate student
supports, and of course, can do attitudes!
At times, inclusion teachers work with the whole class, small groups, and individual students. Baseline levels inform teachers
which students need direct skill instruction, practice, remediation and/or enrichment. Inclusion at its finest involves general and special
education teachers and related staff forming collaborative respectful partnerships that honor all students’ levels. Overall, the most
important thing to remember is to always have high expectations for your students and to highlight their strengths.
Here are 18 practical strategies to turn your inclusion experiences into award winning classroom performances.
1. Establish prior knowledge.
2. Pre-plan lessons with structured objectives, but also allow for inter/post planning.
3. Proceed from the simple to the complex by using discrete task analysis, which breaks up the learning into its parts.
4. Use a step-by-step approach, teaching in small bites, with much practice and repetition.
5. Reinforce abstract concepts with concrete examples, such as looking at a map while learning compass directions or walking around a
neighborhood to read street signs.
6. Think about possible accommodations and modifications that might be needed such as using a digital recorder for notes, reducing the
amount of spelling words, and having enrichment activities prepared.
7. Incorporate sensory elements: visual, auditory, and kinesthetic ones, like writing letters in salt trays or creating acute, right, and
obtuse angles with chopsticks.
8. Teach to strengths to help students compensate for weaknesses such as hopping to math facts, if a child loves to move about, but
hates numbers.
9. Concentrate on individual children, not syndromes.
10. Provide opportunities for success to build self-esteem.
11. Give positives before negatives.
12. Use modeling with both teachers and peers.
13. Vary types of instruction and assessment, with multiple intelligences and cooperative learning.
14. Relate learning to children’s lives using interest inventories.
15. Remember the basics such as teaching students proper hygiene, social skills, respecting others, effectively listening, or reading
directions on a worksheet, in addition to the 3R’s: Reading, wRiting and aRithmetic.
16. Establish a pleasant classroom environment that encourages students to ask questions and become actively involved in their learning.
17. Increase students’ self-awareness of levels and progress.
18. Effectively communicate and collaborate with families, students and colleagues, while smiling; it’s contagious
Remember, always keep learning more about your students’ abilities and the many ways you can reach, teach,
and of course INCLUDE!
Prepared by: Sir Fitz