CHE 410 - CHEMICAL PROCESS LABORATORY
Reviewer | Midterms
1.
COCONUT
REFINING
OIL
EXTRACTION
AND
HISTORY
Coconut Oil - made out of copra (dried kernel of
the coconut)
Coconut Tree - typically reach heights more than
30 m
Fresh Coconut Meat contains:
● 50% moisture
● 34% oil
● 7.3% carbohydrates
● 3.5% protein
● 3% fiber
● 2.2% ash
Coconut oil has a history dating back to 4000
years; approximately 3960 years of documented
historical applications of the edible and healing
properties of the fruits of the coconut palm have
all been positive
Coconut oil is widely used in:
● South America
● Central America
● Indian Subcontinent
● Mele
● Micronesia
● Polynesia
Since 1500 BC
Sanskrit-based Indian Ayurvedic medicine has
documented the use of coconut oil in virtually
every aspect of the body, mind, and spirit
Captain Cook, an early European explorer,
mentioned how coconut oil became an integral
part of the communities that thrived in the Pacific
regions
During World War II
Young Green Coconut’s Water served as a
saline drip, saving the lives of allied soldiers
Following World War II
Coconut oil was marketed and sold in the United
Kingdom (margarine) and USA (coconut
butter)
1954 - coconut oil became popular as being
nutritious than other oils because for centuries it
was negatively viewed due to its high saturated
content
Coconut oil aka MCT is used in baby formula,
energy bars, and sports drinks.
MCT Fatty Acids - have better digestive
properties than other fat types found in various oil
Hydrogenated Coconut Oil - process that
converts all fats into harmful carcinogenic trans
fatty acids
Alexander P. Ashbourne
- Invented the refining of coconut oil
- Started on 1875
- August 21, 1877 received his first patent
for treating coconut
- Coconut oil is used in: hair products,
foods, and scented products
1. Coconut oil processing begins with
filtration and bleaching via an activated
clay filter
2. The oil is then hydrogenated to ensure
that no unsaturated fatty acids remain in
the oil after being heated to a very high
temperature to remove any remaining
coconut smell or taste
EDIBLE AND NON-EDIBLE COCONUT OIL
Edible Coconut Oil
- Contains fatty acids that are about 90%
saturated
- Contains high content of the saturated fat
lauric acid which makes up around 40%
of its total fat content which makes
coconut oil highly resistant to oxidation at
high heat
- Coconut oil (90%) is higher in saturated fat
than butter (64%)
- Butter is neither healthy or unhealthy
Cooking
- When heated, the beneficial fats in some
oils
are
destroyed
because
the
polyunsaturated fats are too fragile.
-
However, coconut oil can withstand
higher temperatures
For best results, use extra-virgin coconut
oil. Coconut butter is a healthier choice
since it is less fatty
Non-edible Coconut Oil
The following is its usage:
● Body lotion and moisturizer
● Stop the itch
● Insect repellent
● Aftershave
● Sunscreen
● Deodorant
● Hair conditioner
● Toothpaste
● Furniture polish
Unrefined Coconut Oil
- Called virgin coconut oil
- Oil that has been pressed from coconut
meat
and
undergone
no
further
processing
2 Methods of Extracting Unrefined Coconut
oil:
● Dry. Uses a machine to press coconut oil
out of dried coconut flesh or copra
● Wet. involves pressing both coconut milk
and coconut oil out of fresh coconuts and
then separating the two
Most unrefined coconut oil is extracted using wet
process
Some are cold pressed which means no heat
was used in its extraction
Wet milling makes unrefined (virgin or pure) the
least processed form of coconut oil
Unrefined coconut oil is solid at room
temperature and has a strong coconut flavor and
scent
Smoke Point: 350 degree F (177 degree C)
which can change the texture and quality
of the oil. The oil is washed in water to
separate these gums from the oil
3. Deacidification. Sodium hydroxide (or
lye) is added to the oil and forms a soap
with free fatty acids. It reduces the risk of
rancidity as free fatty acids are prone to
oxidation
4. Decolorization. The oil is “bleached” by
filtering it through an activated clay filter.
No bleach is used in this process
5. Deodorizing. The oil is heat-deodorized
to remove any remaining coconut scent or
taste
Higher Smoke Point: 400-450 degrees F
(204-232 degrees C) more suitable for high
temperature cooking
Partially Hydrogenated Coconut Oil
Hydrogenation
- hydrogen atoms are added to the coconut
oil in high heat to turn unsaturated fat
components into saturated fats
- Results in a more solid form of coconut oil
and a longer shelf-life and increase in
melting point
- Coconut oil can be either partly or fully
hydrogenated
- Create trans fats which should be
avoided
CLINICAL APPLICATIONS OF COCONUT OIL
Coconut - tree of life
2 types of Coconut Oil
1. Coconut-copra oil
2. Virgin coconut oil
●
●
●
●
Refined Coconut Oil
- Undergoes additional processing
1. Pressing crude coconut oil from copra
which may be similar to the dry extraction
of unrefined coconut oil
2. Degumming. Crude coconut oil is mixed
with a degumming agent to remove gums
Prevention of dental cavity
Prevents hair damage
Ease skin conditions (eczema
psoriasis)
Diabetes
and
DRY AND WET PROCESS OF COCONUT OIL
EXTRACTION
Various Extraction Techniques-Sandrasegaran
● Fermentation
● Enzymatic
●
●
●
●
Chiling
Freezing and thawing
Wet extraction
Dry processing method
A. Dry Process
- Manufacture virgin coconut oil by
mechanical force
- Oil produced has a low moisture level
which prevents microbial contamination
and allows for the extraction process to be
scaled up to meet market demand
● requires making copra through dehusking
and removing the flesh from the shell
● meat of copra is dried at 40-50°C until the
moisture content is minimized from around
50% to 2-5%
- The production of virgin coconut oil was
shown to be proportional to the
moisture content, with lower moisture
content of dried shredded coconut
obtaining a larger yield.
● The shredded coconut will undergo
cold-pressing in order to collect the oil
-
flow of the considerably lower
density oil globules in an aqueous
phase
● Flocculation - oil aggregates
without dispersing the interfacial
film that covers each of the
globules of oil
● Coalescence - combine the oil
globules together and be collected
The extraction from the wet process is
more preferable than the dry process and
since it preserves the fragrance and
natural components of the oil, and also
because it is free from any chemicals.
Wet Process Method for Virgin Coconut Oil
Production
Cold Press Method for Virgin Coconut Oil
REFINING PROCESS FOR COCONUT OIL
EXTRACTION
B. Wet Process
- Raw coconut (instead of dried copra) is
used in the wet method of extraction as
well as the protein in the coconut which
generates emulsion of oil and water
- traditionally involved emulsion breaking
stages:
● Creaming - occurs in an oil-water
emulsion because of the upward
A. Degumming
- removes gum impurities in crude oil using
physical and chemical methods, and it is
an oil purification process.
- Crude oil is primarily composed of
triglycerides and a few
non-triglycerides after screw pressing
and solvent extraction from oilseeds.
- Non-triglyceride components such as
phospholipids, proteins, phlegmatic, and
sugar would react with triglycerides to
form gum impurities
- practice of hydrating phosphatides in oil
by adding water and centrifuging it.
Reason for doing degumming:
● to produce lecithin (phosphatides)
● to provide degummed oil for long-term
storage or transportation
● to prepare for physical refining
1. the crude oil is first pumped into the
degumming equipment, followed by the
addition of hot water (around 80°C) for
stirring
2. The hot water reacts with the phospholipid
molecules in the oil to form micelles.
3. After precipitation separation, the colloidal
impurities in coconut oil can be removed
to achieve degumming.
B. Decolorization
1. white soil is added to decolorizing
equipment to adsorb the pigment and
some other particulate impurities in crude
coconut oil.
2. After adsorption, the coconut oil is
pumped into the leaf filter to filter out the
waste white soil adsorbed with pigment,
thus completing the decolorization step
C. Deacidification
- neutralizing coconut oil with lye in
deacidification machinery to eliminate free
fatty acid
- Physical deacidification entails using
high-temperature water vapor to distill off
free fatty acid from coconut oil
1. oil that had been degummed was placed
into a tank that was deacidifying
2. After the oil reached an internal
temperature of 80 °C, a predetermined
volume of 15 Be' NaOH solution 0.1%
(w/w) was added.
3. The mixture was initially agitated for 30
minutes at 50 rpm
4. Before centrifugation, the FFAs were fully
saponified by increasing the speed to 20
rpm for 15 minutes.
5. The aqueous soap stock was then allowed
to settle by standing the mixture for 30
minutes.
6. Without shaking it further, the oil-soap
stock mixture was cooled to room
temperature
7. Following separation, the oil was
thoroughly washed with distilled water at
60 °C to remove all soap, and then dried
under vacuum for 30 minutes at 90 °C.
D. Deodorization
1. direct steam should be injected into the
deodorizing equipment to remove the odor
substances in coconut oil by using the
volatilization difference of oil and odor
substances, so as to improve the flavor
and quality of coconut.
2. Bleached oil was pumped into a
middle-scale (10-L) deodorization tower
and heated to 230 °C using a thermal oil
heater
3. A live steam was used to evaporate the
volatile components and other odoriferous
substances under vacuum
4. The oil spent approximately 90 min in the
deodorizer
5. At the end of the process, we allowed the
oil to cool to 40–50 °C before the sample
was collected.
NEWS, INNOVATIONS, AND RECENT
DISCOVERIES
Virgin coconut oil (VCO) study results on
COVID-19 suspect and probable cases
released by DOST-FNRI
- A study conducted by the Department of
Science and Technology’s Food and
Nutrition Research Institute found that 5
out of 29 patients who took VCO dietary
supplement diminished any signs and
symptoms of COVID-19 faster than the
patients that didn’t take the supplement.
Patients who took the VCO supplement
showed no symptoms at day 18 of having
the virus while the patients who didn’t take
the supplement showed no symptoms at
day 23. They concluded that VCO can be
used to prevent severe symptoms of
COVID-19 from happening. However,
further studies are recommended to really
prove the effectiveness of VCO
supplements in mitigating the COVID-19
virus especially with patients that have
co-morbidities
Improvement of Main Cognitive Functions in
Patients with Alzheimer’s Disease after
Treatment with Coconut Oil Enriched
Mediterranean Diet: A Pilot Study
- The potentiality of coconut oil to cure
patients with Alzheimer's disease has
been proved by a Spanish study. It was
carried out on 44 patients with Alzheimer’s
disease. They were given a total of 40 mL
of coconut oil daily, 20 mL each for
breakfast and lunch in 21 consecutive
days. According to the findings of De la
Rubia Ort et al. (2018), patients who took
coconut oil considerably improved in
several cognitive domains such as
episodic, temporal orientation, and
semantic memory in AD patients.
Cold Extraction Process of Coconut Oil
Cold Extraction - Coconut oil is extracted from
coconut milk which do not use heat to separate
the emulsion
1. In order to obtain the white coconut meat
inside the fruit, the fibrous outer husk of
mature coconuts is removed. The
preference for mature coconuts over
young coconuts is based on the fact that
as the fruit ages, its oil content rises
2. The coconut meat will be put in a mesh
bag and coconut milk will be extracted
from the meat
3. Let it sit in a container for one day
producing three layers: the top layer
(coconut cream), middle layer (coconut
cream), and bottom layer (water).
4. The second layer will be filtered, left for 72
hours for water to evaporate and will
produced
Coconut dehydration-based oil extraction
process
Coconut harvest: the coconut is harvested fully
ripe (11–12 months) and selected for oil
production. The peel is removed from the coconut
using a manual shelling machine
Coconut preparation: the coconut is cracked in
half
Coconut pulp powdering: once split, the
coconuts are pressed manually against the
rotating blade of the scraping pulp machine. This
machine scrapes off the fine pulp of the coconut
with the help of a properly designed stainless
steel blade. It is important that only the white part
of the pulp is scraped off. The capacity of the
scraping pulp machine is 60 nuts per hour
Nock pulp dehydration: the powdered coconut
is placed in the dehydrator. The dehydration
process takes approximately 12 h at a
temperature of approximately 58 ◦C. The
dehydrator capacity is approximately 100 kg and
the energy consumption is approximately 5850
Wh
Dried pulp pressing: a continuous screw press
is used to extract the oil from the dehydrated pulp
(Figure 8b). The press capacity is 25 kg/h and
energy consumption is 1500 Wh). The extraction
process has a yield of 65%
Filtering: the oil is filtered until it becomes
crystalline. The filtering process can be carried
out through sterilized cotton wool filters, filter
paper or filter cloth. At the end of the process the
oil is stored in stainless steel containers.
2. PRODUCTION OF SOAP AND DETERGENTS
INTRODUCTION
- Soap got its name from Mount Sapo
where animals were sacrificed
- Rain washed a mixture of melted animal
fat or tallow and wood ashes down into
-
the clay soil along Tiber River. It was
found that this clay mixture cleaned the
washed clothes with much less effort
Soap class name for the sodium and
potassium salts of fatty acids
HISTORY
- Ancient Egyptians Bathed regularly
- Ebers Papyrus (medical document)
describes the combining of animal and
vegetable oils with alkaline salts to form a
soap-like material
- Early Greeks bathed for aesthetic reasons
and apparently did not use soap. Instead,
they cleaned their bodies with blocks of
clay, sand, pumice, and ashes, then
anointed themselves with oil, and scraped
off the oil and dirt with metal instrument
known as a strigil
- The first of the famous Roman baths was
supplied water from their aqueducts.
- In Europe, by the 7th century, soap
making was an established craft.
Soap-maker guilds guarded their trade
secrets closely. Vegetable and animal oils
were used with ashes of plants along with
fragrance
- Italy, Spain, and France were early
centers of soap manufacturing because of
their ready supply of raw materials such
as oil from olive trees
- The English began making soap during
the 12th century
- The soap business was so good that in
1622, King James I granted a monopoly
of soap to a soap maker for $100,00 a
year
- In 19th century, soap was heavily taxed as
a luxury item
- In 1791, Nicholas Leblanc patented a
process for making soda ash or sodium
carbonate from common salt
- Soda ash in the alkali obtained from ashes
combines with fat to form soap
- The Leblanc Process yielded quantities
of good quality, inexpensive soda ash
- 15th century (Venice and Sauona) 17th
Century (Marseilles) 18th century (Europe
and North America) 19th century (wide
spread)
RAW MATERIALS
Soaps are manufactured from a renewable
source
Triglycerides (triesters of fatty acids) - raw
material for the production of soap which occur
widely in plants and animals
Tallow and Coconut Oil - principal fatty materials
in soap making in the US.
Palm Oils, Palm Kernel Oil, and other
derivatives are used in soap manufacture in other
parts of the world
Greases obtained from hogs and smaller
domestic animals are the second most important
source of glycerides of fatty acids
Coconut Oil - important in soap making. The
soap from it is firm and lathers well. It contains a
large amount of desired glyceries of lauric and
myristic acids
The soap maker represents one of the larger
consumers of chemicals, especially caustic soda,
salt, soda ash, caustic potash, sodium silicate,
sodium bicarbonate, and trisodium phosphate.
Builders are inorganic chemicals added to
soap. In particular, tetrasodium pyrophosphate
and sodium tripolyphosphate were usually
effective soap builders
CHEMISTRY OF SOAPS
Soaps
- Water-soluble sodium or potassium salts
of fatty acids containing 8 to 22 carbon
atoms
- The fatty acids are generally a mixture of
saturated and unsaturated moieties
-
Saponification - basic chemical reaction in soap
making
The other method for making soap comprises fat
splitting followed by the neutralization process
with sodium hydroxide
Most commonly used alkaline moieties in both
process:
● Sodium hydroxide
● Potassium hydroxide
● Sodium carbonate
● triethanolamine
Soap manufacture by the saponification of fatty
methyl esters has been developed in Japan and
Italy. The methanolysis of triglycerides takes
place in the presence of enzymes (lipase) as
catalysts to produce fatty methyl ester and
glycerin. The fatty methyl ester undergoes the
saponification and forms the final product
CLASSIFICATION OF SOAPS
Two Main Classes of Soaps:
● Toilet soap
● Industrial soap
Toilet Soap
- made from mixtures of tallow and coconut
in the ratios of 80-90:10-20
- Contains 0nly 10 to 15 percent moisture
Have little added material except for
perfume and a fraction of a percent of
titanium dioxide used as a whitening
agent
Bar Soap - regular and super fatted toilet soaps,
deodorant and antimicrobial soaps, floating
soaps, and hard water soaps.
Super Fatted Soaps - made from a mixture of
tallow and coconut oil in ratios 50—60:40—50
Shaving Soaps - contain a considerable amount
of potassium soap and an excess of stearic acid;
the combination gives a slower drying lather
All soaps practically contain 10 to 30 percent
water and also contain perfume that serves to
improve the original soap odor
3. PRODUCTION OF FOOD CONDIMENTS
Condiments
- prepared food compounds containing one
or more spices, or spice extracts.
- It is a substance added to other foods for
the purpose of giving a strong flavor or
relish.
- originally meant seasoned, pickled, or
preserved foods in Latin
- can be either simple (e.g. celery salt,
garlic salt, onion salt) or compound (chili
sauce, chutney, meat sauce, mint sauce,
prepared mustard, etc.)
HISTORY OF CONDIMENTS
Ancient times
- The first condiment was salt. Salt has
always been used both as a preservative
and to enhance the flavor of food
- Vinegar has also been used since ancient
times. Its name is probably derived from
the French words vin aiger meaning sour
wine. (Vinegar was used as a medicine as
well as a food)
- The Romans liked condiments and they
made many sauces for their food. One of
the most common was a fish sauce
called liquamen. The Romans also grew
mustard and they introduced it into the
parts of Europe they conquered. They
also made mint sauce.
-
Middle Age
- mustard was a popular condiment in
Europe
- At first, English mustard consisted of
coarse powder and it was not very strong.
However, in 1720 Mrs. Clements of
Durham began making a much smoother
mustard powder. When mixed with water
to make paste it was very hot but it proved
to be popular and Durham became a
center of the mustard industry. (For
centuries mustard was used as a medicine
as well as a food).
-
16th, 17th, and 18th century
- Pesto sauce was invented in 16th century
Italy.
- New sauces were invented in the 17th
century
including
bechamel
and
chasseur
- Chutney comes from India. It was first
exported to England in the 17th century
- Soy sauce, which was invented in China
reached Europe in the 17th century and
by the mid-18th century, it was popular in
Britain
- According to one story, a French chef
first made mayonnaise in 1756.
However, there are many stories about
where it comes from
- Hollandaise sauce was also first recorded
in the mid-18th century.
- Ketchup began life as a Chinese fish
sauce called ke-tsiap. The name was
gradually changed to ketchup and in
Britain people added other ingredients
instead of fish.
- In the 18th century, they began adding
tomatoes. Sauces similar to tartar sauce
were made in the Middle Ages but
‘modern’ tartar sauce was first made in the
1800s.
19th Century
In the 19th century with the Industrial
Revolution condiments began to be
mass-produced in factories.
-
Tomato ketchup was a bestseller and HP
sauce was invented at the end of the 19th
century.
Meanwhile, Worcester sauce was
invented in 1835 by John Lea and
William Perrins.
Horseradish sauce went on sale in
bottles in the USA around 1860.
Tabasco sauce was invented by Edmund
McIlhenry in 1868.
Salad cream was invented in 1914.
CLASSIFICATION OF CONDIMENTS
1. Salt
- Earliest and most important condiment
- Major preservative and commonly found in
processed foods
2. Sugar or Sweeteners
- Sugar and honey are used directly in
everything from bitter beverages, such as
tea, coffee, and chocolate, to a topping for
breakfast cereals.
- Sugar and honey are also employed in
making other condiments such as jams,
jellies, preserves, and marmalades, and
are used extensively on bread, rolls,
scones, and in pastries.
3. Pickled Foods
- Picked foods date back to the ancient
world in Europe as well as Asia. Common
pickled foods used as condiments today
include ginger (Japan), chutney (South
Asia), and cucumbers (dill, butter, and
gherkins).
4. Spicy
- Spicy or hot foods, such as black pepper,
chili pepper, mustard, garlic, horse-radish,
and onions.
- Like salt, pepper is used in savory dishes.
It is also a base ingredient in some pepper
sauces.
5. Compound Sauces
- Compound sauces include ketchup,
Worcestershire sauce, fish sauces, soy
sauce, salad dressings, curries, and
barbecue sauces.
- The earliest known compound sauces
were made of fish. In widely separated
regions, such as in the ancient
Mediterranean and Southeast Asia,
preservation of fish in a liquid form
evolved.
Americans consume at least 1.5
teaspoons of salt per day, or about 3400
mg of sodium, which contains far more
than our bodies need.
TYPES OF CONDIMENTS
A. Aromatic
- Aromatics refers to vegetables and herbs
that add flavor and aroma to a dish.
- Vanilla, cinnamon, clove, parsley, bay leaf,
caraway and cumin seeds.
B. Allylic or Alliaceous
- Condiments that contain various species
of Allium.
- Garlic, onion, mustard, horseradish,
chives, leeks.
C. Acid
- Acid condiments are those that has a
natural pH of ≤4.6
- Vinegar (white, cider or wine), capers,
gherkins
D. Animal
- These are condiments that are produced
from animals (i.e., fish, beef, pork).
- Caviar, anchovies, beef bouillon
History
- Salt has long been an essential part of the
human diet.
- Salt is existent in all animal and vegetable
life and is coeval with life itself. It must
have been present in the first herbage that
gave nourishment to the first beast.
- It has served as an object of worship and
as a medium of exchange, lumps of salt
being used in Tibet and Mongolia for
money. Its distribution has been employed
as a political Leading Innovations,
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weapon by ancient governments and even
today in Oriental countries high taxes are
placed on salt.
- In Japan the manufacture of salt by boiling
was introduced some 2000 years ago
E. Mineral
- Condiments which are in the form of
mineral compounds that are organically
found in nature and are chemically
processed.
- Salt and all salt-based seasonings (miso,
soy, tamari, etc.)
SALT
- Salt, also known as sodium chloride, is
about 40% sodium and 60% chloride
- It flavors food and is used as a binder and
stabilizer. It is also a food preservative, as
bacteria can’t thrive in the presence of a
high amount of salt.
- The human body requires a small amount
of sodium to conduct nerve impulses,
contract and relax muscles, and maintain
the proper balance of water and minerals.
- It is estimated that we need about 500 mg
of sodium daily for these vital functions.
But too much sodium in the diet can lead
to high blood pressure, heart disease, and
stroke
- It can also cause calcium losses, some of
which may be pulled from the bone. Most
Uses of Salts
1. Sodium chloride is the basic raw material
of many chemical compounds such as
sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate,
sodium sulfate, hydrochloric acid, sodium
phosphates, and sodium chlorate and
chlorite.
2. Chlorine is harvested through the
electrolysis of sodium chloride.
3. Employed in the zeolite process of water
softening
4. Used in salting out soap and the
precipitation of dyes.
5. Acts as a preservative for fish, meat, and
hides through refrigeration.
6. Utilized in dairying and pickling industries
7. Large quantities of the purest sodium
chloride are sold as table salt.
Recommended Amounts
- Recommended Dietary Allowance or a
toxic level for sodium (aside from chronic
disease risk). Because of this, a Tolerable
Upper Intake Level (UL) has not been
established; a UL is the maximum daily
intake unlikely to cause harmful effects on
health. Guidelines for Adequate Intakes
(AI) of sodium were established based on
the lowest levels of sodium intake used in
randomized controlled trials that did not
show a deficiency but that also allowed for
an
adequate
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intake of nutritious foods naturally
containing sodium. For men and women
14 years of age and older and pregnant
women, the AI is 1,500 milligrams a day
SALT PRODUCTION METHODS
The exploitation of the salt resources involves
different methods of extraction; from its minerals
in diluted form, dry extraction or evaporation of
seawater until the dry product is obtained.
A. Solar Vaporization Method
Solar Evaporation
- oldest method for producing salt
- Capturing salt by evaporating seawater in
natural lagoons or artificially created
ponds
- Salt marshes or marine salt flats one of
the oldest processes. Mainly created near
areas inhabited by ancient civilisations
and on flat stretches
- Sea water or natural brine evaporates up
to the saturation point in open basins due
to the action of sun and wind. Over time,
the
system
of
evaporation
and
crystallization ponds and the method of
operating them have gradually been
improved. Currently, crystallization occurs
in dedicated open basins where the
saturated brine is poured. Once the salt
crust has been formed, the exceeding
water is eliminated before harvest. If
necessary
and
depending
upon
requirements, the raw salt can be further
processed, including washing, drying,
sifting and grading
B. Rock Salt Mining
4. PRODUCTION
FLAVORS
OF FRAGRANCES AND
5. FERMENTATION PRODUCTS