Respiratory System
 Upper Respiratory→ Nose, nasal cavity, mouth,
pharynx, and larynx
 Lower Respiratory→ Trachea, lungs, bronchial tree.
 Airway → Nose, nasal cavity, mouth, pharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi, and bronchial network
 Pharynx → throat (passage way for food and air)
 Larynx → voice box
 Trachea → windpipe
 Airway is lined with cilia that trap microbes and
debris.
o Sweep back towards mouth
 Lungs → house bronchi and bronchia network
 Bronchi → extend into lungs and terminate in millions
of alveoli (air socs).
 Right lung → has 3 lobes
 Left lung → has 2 lobes
 Pleural membrane → reduce friction between surface when breathing.
 Respiratory muscles → diaphragm and intercostal
 Function on respiratory system → supply body with oxygen and rid body of carbon
dioxide.
 Exchange of gasses → occur in alveoli.
 Respiratory system filter air → the air is warm and moistened which filters as it
passes through nasl.
 Air passes through throat move to Larynx → vibrates sound → enters trachea.
 Homeostasis → maintain body acid base
 During breathing → Diaphragm/intercostal will contract to expand the lungs.
 Inspiration / inhalation – diaphragm contacts and moves down. (increase size of
chest)
 Intercoastal muscles contract ribs expand which increase chest cavity.
 Diaphragm-intercoastal relax → chest decrease.
 Expiration = force air out
 Medulla oblongata → control breathing
 Medulla oblongata → monitor levels of carbon dioxide in blood.
 Medulla oblongata → signals breathing rate to increase when levels too high of
carbon dioxide.
 During contraction the diaphragm decrease in alveolar pressure.
 Pleura is a double layered membrane that lines the lungs.
 Largest to smallest in diameter: Trachea, bronchi, bronchioles
 Mechanical process of normal breathing during expiration → diaphragm relaxes and
moves upward, while intercostal muscles relax and move ribs downward.
 Gas exchange between blood and alveoli would be enhanced by increased alveolar
surface area but impeded by increase membrane thickness.
 Major gas exchange taxes place in alveoli.
 Tidal volume → volume of air with normal breathing.
 Emphysema → exhibit an increase in lung compliance
 Surfactant → produce by the lungs for the purpose of reducing surface tension.
 Sequence of air inhaled: nasal cavity → pharynx → larynx → trachea → bronchi →
bronchioles
 Diffusion → exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide across the alveolar membrane
 Epiglottis → prevents food from entering the respiratory system
 Ventilation → movement of air in and out of lungs
 Voluntarily holding breath will → innate reflex of breathing due to increase carbon
dioxide levels.
 Lungs with low level of compliance → stiff lungs require extra work to accomplish
normal breathing.
 Function of pulmonary surfactant – prevent lungs collapse and reduce surface
tension, and increase in lung compliance.
Cardio System
 Circulatory System → responsible for internal transport substance to and from the
cells.
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Circulatory system contains → Blood, Blood Vessels, and Heart
Blood → composed of water, solutes, elements in fluid and connective tissue.
Blood vessels → tubules of different sizes that transport blood.
Heart → muscular pump providing the pressure necessary to keep blood flowing.
Capillary Beds → slow movement and smallest tubules
Lymph vascular system → cleans up excess fluids and proteins. Returns them to
circulatory system.
Blood vessels wall layers → tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia
Tunica Media → smooth muscle Elastic Fibers
Elastic arteries → stretch when blood is forced out of heart and recoil under low
pressure.
Muscular arteries → regulate blood flow by vasoconstriction.
Arterioles → primary vessels involved in vasoconstriction, control blood flow to
capillaries.
Venules → empty blood into larger veins.
Veins → carry blood back to heart.
Blood → carry raw material to cells and remove waste products, stabilize pH, fight
infections.
Blood has RBC/WBC, platelets and plasma.
Plasma → half blood volume and mostly water, serves as solvent
Plasma has → proteins, ions, glucose, amino acids, hormones, and dissolved gas.
RBC → transport oxygen to cell that forms bone marrow (live 4 months)
WBC → defend the body against infection
remove waste.
Platelets → important function for blood
clotting
Heart → cardiac muscular tissue
Circulatory system → coronary arteries
Atrial contraction → fills ventricles
Ventricular contraction → empty ventricles
Cardiac cycle → diastole & systole
Diastole → blood flow through superior and inferior venae cavae.
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Diastole → HEART IS RELAXED
Systolic → heart CONTRACTS, blood pressure rises and blood moves out.
Pulmonary Arteries → Blood to lungs
Coronary Circulation → Flood of blood to heart tissue.
Pulmonary circulation → flow of blood between the heart and lungs.
Renal Circulation → flow of blood between heart and kidney.
Arterial blood pressure → transport oxygen – poor blood into lungs and oxygen rich
blood to body tissue.
Arteries → contract and expand based on signals from body.
Arterioles → blood to deliver to specific areas based on complex communication.
Capillary beds → diffusion exchange between blood and interstitial fluid.
Carotid artery → deliver blood to brain
Vena cava → blood vessels deliver blood directly into right atrium.
Stroke → blood vessels in brain become blocked.
Blood is to deliver oxygen rich blood to body’s tissue.
Erythrocyte → contain oxygen carry protein called hemoglobin.
Veins → have valves arteries don’t.
Decrease in amount of hemoglobin in blood would result in decrease oxygen carrying
capacity.
HEART primary valves in the order which blood passes through → Tricuspid,
pulmonary, semiunar valve, biscuspid, aortic
Atherosclerosis → can lead to STOKE due to build up and blockage of coronary
arteries prevent blood flow to the myocardium.
Signal fails to reach PURKINGE FIBER will result in ventricles will not contact.
Blood flow back to heart at RV. Aorta, arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins,
vena cava.
Pulmonary artery → carry oxygen depleted blood AWAY from heart.
Pulmonary vein → carry oxygen rich blood TOWARDS the heart.
Anemia → RBC Are poorly function and have reduced ability to carry oxygen.
Gonadal artery → responsible of supplying blood to the reproductive system
In order blood to deliver to body enough pressure must be developed by the left
ventricle to push open aortic semilunar value.
During hyperventilation → decrease carbon dioxide levels result in an increase in Ph.
4 chambers
o Right Atrium → carries deoxygenated blood from the body via superior and
inferior vena cava.
o Right Ventricle → carries blood from the right atrium and pumps it into the
lungs through the pulmonary artery.
o Left atrium → carries oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins.
o Left Ventricle → carries oxygenated blood from the left atrium and pumps it
into the systemic circuit through the aorta.
 Layers of heart
o Epicardium → outermost layer of heart
o Myocardium → middle layer which contracting muscle
o Endocardium → inner most lines the inner chambers and valves.
 Blood flow of heart → From the superior and inferior vena cava, oxygen poor blood
goes to the right atrium through the tricuspid valve. → Right ventricle to the
pulmonary valve. → To the pulmonary trunk and arteries into the lungs CO2 is lost
and 02 is gain in the pulmonary capillaries. → O2 rich blood enters the pulmonary
veins to the left atrium. → Blood travels through the bicuspid valve and enters the
left ventricle. → Blood moves through the aortic valve and travels through the
aorta to the systemic circuit.
Lymphatic System
 Contains spleen, thymus, tonsils, transport fluid, lymph facilitates the filtering of
fluids at lymph nodes, filters of fluid at lymph nodes.
 Lymphatic System → will return excess tissue fluid to the blood stream.
 Consist of transport vessels and lymphoid organs.
 Lymph vascular system → Lymph capillaries, Lymph vessels, and Lymph ducts.
 Function of Lymphatic system → return of excess fluid to blood, return proteins from
the capillaries, transport of fats from digestive tract, disposal of debris, and cellular
waste.
 Main function is to filter unwanted material from blood to help fight infection.
 Lymphoid organs → Lymph nodes, Spleen, and Thymus
 Lymph nodes → each node contains lymphocytes and plasma cells.
 Spleen → filters blood of bacteria and viruses, stores RBC and macrophages.
 Thymus → secretes hormones and is major site of lymphocyte production, produce
thymosin
 Spleen
o Upper left abdomen
o Made of lymphoid tissue
o Blood vessels are connected to spleen by splenic sinuses.
 Peritoneal Ligaments support spleen
o Gastrolienal ligament
o Lienorenal ligament
o Mid section phrenicocolic ligament
 Gastrolienal ligament → connects stomach to spleen
 Lienorenal ligament → connects kidney to spleen
 Mid section phrenicocolic ligament → connects left colic to thoriac diaphragm
 Produces, maintains and distribute lymphocytes ( b and T cells)
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Gastrointestinal digestive System
 Digestive system function → movement, secretion, digestion, absorption.
 Movement → move mixes and passes nutrients through the system and eliminate
waste.
 Secretion → enzymes, hormones, and other substance necessary for digestion are
secreted into the digestive tract.
 Digestion → chemical breakdown of nutrients into smaller units that enter the
internal environment.
 Absorption → passage way of nutrients through plasma membrane into blood or
lymph then to body.
 Esophagus → carry food from pharynx to stomach
 Esophageal sphincter → prevent reflux of gastric content into the esophagus.
 Duodenum (small intestine) → contains opening of bile and pancreatic ducts.
 Large intestine → absorb water and eliminates waste.
 Enzymes
o Saliva → contains amylase to breakdown starch and ease digestion.
o Hydrochloric acid → kills bacteria, breaks food down into small particles,
facilitates gastric enzyme activation.
o Pepsin → coenzyme of gastric juice that breaks down proteins
o Gastrin → control gastric acidity
o Maltase → produces maltose into monosaccharides glucose.
o Lactase → breakdown lactose
o Sucrase → break down sucrose into fructose and glucose
o Enterokinase → breakdown trypsinogen into trypsin.
 Important for digestion
o Digestion is the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into smaller
components that are more easily absorbed into a bloodstream,
o Digestion is a form of catabolism
o Catabolism → breakdown of large food molecules to smaller ones.
o Digestive steps → ingestion → secretion → mix and propulsion → digestion →
absorption → defecation
Mouth & Stomach
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Salivary glands → stimulate and secrete saliva.
Saliva has enzymes that breakdown of starch in digestion.
Swallowed food → pharynx → esophagus → stomach
Stomach → flexible muscular sac.
Functions of Stomach →
o Mixing and storing food
o Dissolving and degrading food via sections
o Controlling passage of food into the small intestine
 Protein digestion begins in stomach.
 Smooth muscle moves food by peristalsis.
 Peristalsis → contact and relax to move nutrients
o Move the nutrient into small intestine where absorption process begins.
Liver
 Largest organ in body and largest gland
 Liver has four lobes
 Secured to the diaphragm and
abdominal walls by five ligaments.
 Liver processes all blood that passes
through digestive system
 Nutrient-rich blood is supplied to the
liver via the hepatic portal vein.
 Hepatic artery → supplies oxygen – rich
blood
 Blood leaves the liver through the
hepatic veins.
 Liver functional unit are lobules.
 Blood enters lobules through branches
to portal vein and hepatic artery.
 Blood → lobules branches → portal vein → hepatic artery → small channels sinusoids
 Liver function → produce bile → cholesterol → blood plasma proteins
 Storage of excess glucose in the form of glycogen.
 Regulation of amino acids
 Processing hemoglobin (store iron)
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Conversion of ammonia to urea
Purification of the blood (clear out drugs and toxins)
Regulate blood clotting
Control infection boost immune system and remove bacteria.
Pancreas
 Head lies near duodenum and tall near spleen
 Made up of exocrine and endocrine tissue
 Exocrine tissue → secrete digestive enzymes from series of ducts that collect from
main pancreatic ducts
 Main pancreatic duct → connect to
common bile bear duodenum.
 Endocrine tissue → secrete hormones
(insulin) in the blood stream.
 Pancreas assist digestion of food by
secreting enzymes that break down
food. FAT AND PROTEIN
 Zymogens produce group of exocrine
cells acini.
 Convert through chemical reaction in gut, the active enzyme pancreatic lipase and
amylase once enter small intestine.
 Pancreas secretes large amounts of sodium bicarbonate.
o This will neutralize the stomach acid that reaches the small intestine.
 Exocrine function the pancreas are controlled by hormones released by stomach and
small intestine when food is present.
 Exocrine flow into main pancreatic duct are delivered to duodenum through pancreatic duct.
Small Intestine
 Nutrients are absorbed
 Enzymes from pancreas, liver, stomach are transported to small intestine to aid
digestion
 Enzymes → act on fats, carbs, nucleic acids and proteins
 Bile is secretion on liver → which breaks down fats
 Bile is stored in gallbladder between meals.
 Villi covers small intestine
 Villi → absorb structures that greatly increase the surface area for interaction of
chyme.
 Epithelial cells surface of villi called microvilli.
 Microvilli → increase the ability of small intestine to serve as main absorption organ
Extra info:
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Stomach = chemical digestion
Large intestine = reabsorption of water
Pancreas → endocrine & digestion function
Peristalsis → contraction of smooth muscle in digestive system will move food along
GI tract
Small intestine → Jejunum, duodenum, lleum
Large intestine = colon
Large intestine → absorption of water and electrolytes
Absorption of protein occurs in small intestine
Chemical digestion of protein starts in stomach
Glucagon is hormone that is released from the pancreas and helps regulate blood
sugar.
Gastric reflux → occurs as the result of improper closing of lower esophageal
sphincter
Villi in small intestine → become damaged malnutrition would result due to a decrease
in ability to absorb nutrients.
Appendix → extension off the large intestine that is often referred to as vestigial
organ.
Bile → is manufactured by the liver and stored in gallbladder
Majority of nutrients absorption occurs in small intestine
Liver = bile secretion
Pancreas → digestive enzyme and hormones
Pyloric sphincter → is to control entry of food into the duodenum.
Function of stomach → is to secrete pepsinogen for protein digestion
Bile is fat emulsification in the stomach
The folds that make up the shape of villi and microvilli facilitate absorption due to
an increase surface area.
Peristalsis → contact smooth muscle in order to move food down esophagus to
stomach
Large intestine → contain vitamin produce bacteria
 Pancreatic juice →
neutralize pH of chyme,
chemical digest carbs,
chemical digest proteins
Nervous System
 Neurons → communicate system
 Messages are sent across the plasma membrane of neurons through a process action
potential.
 Messages occur when a neuron is stimulated past a necessary threshold.
 Stimulation occur in a sequence from the stimulation point of one neuron to its
contact with another neuron.
 Chemical synapse → substance is released that stimulates or inhibits the action of
the adjoining cell
 Direction of information flows depend on specific organization of nerve circuits and
pathways.
 Three general Types of neurons:
o SENSORY, MOTOR, INTERNEURONS
 Sensory neurons → transmit signals to CNS from the sensory receptors associated
with touch, pain, temp, hearing, sight, smell and taste.
 Motor neurons → transmit from CNS to the rest of the body, signaling muscles or
glands to respond.
 Interneurons → transmit signals between neurons.
 Neuron → cell body, axon, dendrites
 Dendrites → receive impulses from sensory receptors or interneurons and transmit
them towards cell body.
 Cell body (soma) → contain the nucleus of neuron
 Axon → transmits the impulses away from the cell body.
 Axon is insulated by oligodendrocytes and myelin sheath with gaps known as NODES
OF RANIVER.
 Axon terminates at the synapse.
CNS = Central Nervous System
 Spinal cord and Brain
 Spinal cord → bony structure of vertebrae, protects and supports. Major nerve tract
ascends and descend from spinal cord to brain.
 Brain → midbrain integrates sensory signals
 Forebrain → cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus
 Cerebral cortex → thin layer gray matter cover cerebrum.
 Frontal lobe → short term and working memory, information processing, decision
making, planning, and judgement
 Parietal lobe → sensory input and spatial positioning body.
 Occipital lobe → visual, processing and output
 Temporal lobe → auditory input
 Cerebellum → coordinates smooth muscle movement and store memories
 Brain stem = midbrain, pons, medulla oblongta
 Brain stem → important of respiratory, digestion, circulatory
 Info from body is sent to brain through brain stem.
ANS =Autonomic Nervous System
 Maintain homeostasis
 Controls function of internal organs, blood vessels, smooth muscle, and glands.
 Hypothalamus → above midbrain
 Hypothalamus
o Controls ABS through brain stem
o Helps homeostasis
o Regulate heart rate, breathing, body temp, blood Ph.
 ANS has two divisions:
1. Sympathetic nervous system (Fight or Flight)
2. Parasympathetic nervous system (Rest and Digest)
 Sympathetic nervous system → control body reaction to extreme stress, and
emergency situations (Think Anxiety attack)
 Increase heart rate, signal adrenal gland to secrete adrenaline, trigger the dilation
of pupils, and slow digestion.
 Parasympathetic nervous system → effect the Sympathetic nervous system.
Decrease heart rate, stops adrenaline, constricts pupil, returns digestion process to
normal. (Think Margarita feeling)
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Somatic Nervous System
 Controls five senses and voluntary movement of skeletal muscles.
 Neurons connect to sense organs.
 Effect = motor
 Affect = sensory
 Nerves help somatic nervous system to operate the senses and skeletal muscles.
 Efferent nerves → BRING signal from CNS sensory organs and muscles
 Afferent nerves → Bring signal FROM SENSORY to CNS.
 Reflex → simplest act of nervous system, Automatic response with out any conscious.
 Reflex arc → nerve pathway
 Think motor out, like you’re leaving out the door.
 Think sensory going in like you’re waling in the door.
 Involuntary movement.
Extra info:
 Autonomic division = peripheral nervous system
 Sensory neurons → carry afferent impulses or stimuli towards the brain and spinal
cord
 Motor neurons → carry efferent info away the brain which cause muscle contraction
 Muscle contraction → occur stimulation of neurotransmitter released in
neuromuscular junction
 Process requires ATP & involves shortening of sacrcomes by the sliding of actin of
myosin past each other.
 Myelin sheath role insulate axon
 Cerebellum → responsible for posture, balance, and movement coordination
 Cerebrum → sensory, motor control, cognitive function
 Temporal lobe → interpretation of hearing
 Occipital lobe → visual
 Sarcomere → basic contractile unit of skeletal muscle
 Sarcolemma → stores calcium for muscle contraction
 Acetylcholine → neurotransmitter that stimulates muscle contraction
 Axon, dendrite, cell body → transmission of info or impulses to and from body
 Glial cells → perform support function of neurons
 In case of injury glial cell under go cell division and multiplication in order to occupy
the space formerly occupied by dead neuron.
 Role of acetylcholine → in muscle contraction acetylcholine binds to the membrane
receptor in the sarcolemma and facilitate opening of sodium channels
 When dopamine is released into nerve synapse binding of dopamine to the membrane
receptor of the postsynaptic cell
 Muscles involuntary → cardiac and visceral
 Voluntary muscles → skeletal
 Afferent nerves carry sensory impulses towards the CNS
 Temporal summation → process of nerve stimulation where in the action potential is
generated through several stimulations release in rapid succession by single source.
 Axon sends stimulus to axon terminal
 Digestion → autonomic nervous system
 Sympathetic responses are flight or fight response which include blood pressure,
dilation of pupils and sweating.
 Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis → disorder caused by the degenerative demyelination of
motor neurons resulting in dysfunction of voluntary muscles
 Somatic and autonomic system → transecting injury to spinal cord will have
detrimental effect
 Myosin → track contractile protein found in saccomere
 Calcium bind to troponin and initiate actin myosin binding
 Somatic division → muscle contraction
 During contraction thin actin filament slide past thing myosin filaments which result
to shortening of sarcomere and contact muscle
 ATP is needed for relation and contraction muscle
 Sarcomere → contractile unit of muscle made up of fibrous protein filaments shorten
in length when actin and myosin slide past each other during contraction
 Sarcolemma → surround the muscle fiber
 Demyelination → disrupted propagation of action potential along the axon.
Muscular System
 Function →movement, muscle contact, movement of joints, joint stability, hold bones
and joints in place, heat production, muscles contract and cause blood to flow to area
of heat
 Skeletal muscles
o Epimysium → connective tissue sheath that surrounds the entire muscle.
o Perimysium → connective tissue sheath that surrounds the bundle muscle
fiber
o Endomysium → connective tissue sheath that surrounds the individual muscle
fiber
o Tendon → cord like bunch of dense fibrous connective tissue that connects
MUSCLE TO BONE
 Skeletal Muscle fibers
o Sarcolemma → cell membrane
o Sarcoplasm → cytoplasm fluid
inside of cell
o Sarcoplasmic reticulum →
stores calcium
 Ligament → similar to tendon.
Connects bone to bone.
 Origin → end of muscle that
is attached to a relatively
immovable part
 Neuromuscular junction →
junction between a nerve cell and
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a muscle fiber. Each muscle cell has only one junction.
Types of muscle tissue → skeletal, cardiac, smooth
Excitability → muscle tissue has an electric gradient which can reverse when
stimulated.
Contraction → muscle tissue has ability to contact or shorten
Elongate → muscle tissue share the capacity to elongate
Skeletal muscles are voluntary
Muscles have fibers, bound together in parrell bundles.
 Bundles look like striated muscle
 Smooth muscle → involuntary
 Smooth muscle found in walls of internal organs such as stomach, intestine, and blood
vessels
 Smooth muscle tissue or visceral tissue is nonstriated
 Smooth muscle tissue → short wider than skeletal and found in spinchers or valves
that control openings throughout the body.
 Cardiac muscle → involuntary
 Muscle fibers → contain myofibers
 Myofibrils → composed of multiple repeating contractile units called sarcomeres
 Myofibrils contain two proteins
o Thick microfilaments
o Thin microfilaments
 Thick Filament = protein myosin
 Thin filament = protein actin
 Skeletal muscle formed when thick and thin over lap (dark bands)
 Light bands = thin filament
 Skeletal muscle attract occur when the thin filament slide over thick filament will
SHORTEN SACROMERE.
 Action potential (electrical signal) calcium ions are released.
 Calcium ions bind to the myosin and actin → which assist binding of myosin heads.
 Myosin heads (thick) to actin (thin) molecules
 Adenosine triphosphate → release from glucose promotes energy
Extra info:
 Autonomic division = peripheral nervous system
 Sensory neurons carry afferent impulses or stimuli TOWARD the brain and spinal
cord
 Motor neurons carry efferent information AWAY from the brain which cause muscle
contractions
 Muscle contraction occur upon stimulation of neurotransmitters released in the
neuromuscular junction.
 Role of myelin sheath → insulate axon
 Cerebellum → responsible for posture, balance and movement
 Sarcomere → basic contractile unit of skeletal muscle.
 Skeletal muscle contraction is stimulated by the release of acetylcholine at the
neuromuscular junction.
 Glial cells → structure divided and multiply in case of injury or disease.
 Acetylcholine in muscle contraction → acetylcholine binds to the membrane receptor in
the sarcolemma and facilitates opening of the sodium channels.
 When dopamine is released into the nerve synapse → binding of dopamine to the
membrane receptor of the postsynaptic cell
 Involuntary muscle = cardiac and visceral
 Afferent = carry stimulus toward the central nervous system
 Temporal summation → process of nerve stimulation where in the action potential is
generated through several stimulation released in rapid succession by a single source
 Axon → sends stimulus to axon terminal
 Digestion = autonomic
 Sympathetic response are fight or flight response which include the increase on BP,
dilation of pupils and seating.
 Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis → disorder caused by the degenerative demyelination of
motor neurons resulting in dysfunction of voluntary muscles
 Somatic and autonomic system → transecting injuries to the spinal cord will have
detrimental effect
 Myosin → thick contractile protein found in sarcomere
 Sliding filament theory of muscles calcium will bind to troponin and initiate actin
myosin binding.
 Somatic division → nervous system facilitates muscle contraction
 During contraction thin actin filaments slide past thick myosin filaments which result
to shortening of sarcomere and contraction of muscle.
 ATP is needed for both relaxation and contraction of muscle.
 Sarcomere → contractile unit of muscle, made up of fibrous protein filaments, and
shortens in length
 Demyelination → disrupted propagation of action potential along the axon.
Reproductive System
Males
 Produce, maintain, transfer sperm, transfer semen into female, produce and secrete
male hormones.
 External structure → penis, scrotum, testes
 Penis → control urethra
 Urethra → can fill w/blood and become erect enabling the deposit of semen and sperm
into a female.
 Scrotum → sac of skin and smooth
muscle
 Scrotum house tests
 Scrotum keeps testes at proper
temp for spermatogenesis
 Testes → male gonads
 Testes → produce sperm and
testosterone.
 Internal → epididymis, vas
deferens, ejaculatory duct, urethra,
seminal vesicles, prostate gland,
bulbourethral gland.
 Epididymis → store sperm as
matures
 Mature sperm moves from the epididymis → through vas deferens to ejaculatory
duct.
 Seminal vesicles → secrete alkaline fluids w/ protein and mucus.
 Prostate gland → secret milky white fluids with proteins and enzymes as part of
semen.
 Bulbourethral or cowper’s gland → secrete fluid into urethra to neutralize the acidity
in urethra.
 Hormone male reproductive system FSH → stimulate spermatogenesis.
 LH → stimulate testosterone
 Testosterone → male sex characteristics
Females
 Function to produce ova
(eggs)
 Transfer ova to
fallopian tubes for
fertilization
 Receive sperm from male
 Provide a protective,
nourishing environment
for developing Embro.
 External
o Labia major and Labia minor → (enclose and protect vagina)
o Barthdin gland → secret a lubricating fluid
o Clitoris → erectile tissue and nerve ending for sensual pleasure
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Internal → ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina
Ovaries → female gonad, produce ova, secrete estrogen, progesterone
Fallopian tubes → carry the mature egg toward uterus → fertilization
Uterus → egg travels where implants in uterine wall protects developing embryo till
birth.
 Vagina → muscular tube extends from cervix to outside body receiving semen and
sperm, provides a birth canal.
Females Cycle
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Change in ovaries and uterine lining
Follicular phase → FSH stimulates the maturation of follicle → secretes estrogen
Estrogen → helps regenerate urine lining that was shed during menstruation
Ovulation → release of secondary oocyte from ovary induce surge LH.
Luteal phase → begins formation of corpus luteum
Corpus luteum → secrete progestogen and estrogen → inhibit FSH & LH
Progesterone also maintains the thickness of endometrium
Uterine cycle → proliferative → secretory → menstrual
Proliferative → regeneration of urine
 Secretory → endometrium become increasing vascular, nutrients are secreted to prep
for implantation.
 Menstrual → without implantation, endometrium is shed during menstruation.
 Pregnancy → blastocyst implants in uterine lining release Hcg.
 HCG → prevents corpus luteum from degrading and cont to produce estrogen and
progesterone.
 Oxytocin & estrogen → stimulate the release of prostaglandins and positive
feedback in birth of fetus.
Extra info:
 Male gametes = sperm
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Sperm has half set of chromosomes
Prostate gland → secrete of fluid that contributes to sperm motility and viability
LH → stimulates ovulation and produce of testosterone
FSH → produce by the anterior pituitary gland
FSH → stimulates maturation of sperm and ovum
Fallopian tube → transport female gametes
Seminiferous tubules → produce sperm
Corpus luteum → produce progesterone in prep for pregnancy
Ovaries = estrogen
Testes → produce male gametes
Penis → passaway for semen and urine
Scrotum → pouch of skin that enclose and support testes
Glands found in F/M→ parathyroid, adrenal, pituitary
Cowper gland → in males
Meiosis → gametes divide and produce half the # of chromosomes found in somatic
cell
 Uters → the implantation site of fertilized ovum and pathway for sperm to reach
the uterine tubes.
 Male reproductive system → epididymis, urethra, bulbourethral gland
 Vas deferens → sperm duct to penis
 Vagina → copulatory organ of female
 Penis → external sex organ of male
 Gonads → produce sperm in males and ova in females
 Testes located in scrotum
 46 chromosomes
INTEGUMENTARY System
 Function to protect the body from pathogens, bacteria, viruses, and various
chemicals.
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Sebaceous gland → secrete oil → water proof skin
Sweat glands → body homeostatic of thermo regulation
Sweat glands serve as excretory organ and help rid of body of metabolic waste
Skin function w communication of sensory receptors
Sensory receptors → distribute throughout skin → send into to brain → pain, touch,
pressure and temp
Skin manufactures vitamin D
Layers of skin → Epidermis → Dermis → hypodermis
Epidermis → most superficial layer → epithelial cells (no blood vessels)
Deepest portion of epidermis → stratum basal
Stratum basal → single layer of cells continually undergo divison
Epidermal cells → are keratinized
Keratin → waxy protein → helps waterproof skin
Dermis → under epidermis
Dermis is connective tissue
Dermis has blood vessels, sensory receptors, hair follicles, sebaceous gland, sweat
glands
Dermis has elastin and collagen fibers
Subcutaneous layer → hypodermis → not layer of skin
Hypodermis → connective tissue → binds to skin to muscles → fat deposit to help
cushion and insulate body.
Epidermis cells
» Keratinocytes → produce keratin
» Melanocytes → produce melanin (pigament)
» Langerhans → antigen
» Merkel → cutaneous receptor → in stratum basal
Cells in dermis
» Fibroblast → secrete collagen, elastin, glycosaminoglycan
» Adipocytes → fat cells
» Macrophages → engulf potential pathogens
» Mast cell → antigen (release histamine)
Skin Temp of skin
 Thermoregulation → body maintains stable body temp
 Temp of body controlled by a negative feedback → receptor → control center →
effector
 Receptor → sensory cell located in dermis
 Control center → hypothalamus (brain)
 Effector → sweat glands, blood vessels, muscles
 Evaporation of sweat glands across the surface of skin cools the body to maintain
its tolerance
 Vasodilation → blood vessels near the surface of skin release heat into lower body
temps
 Exocrine gland → secrete substances into gland (through the ducts to surface of
skin)
 Sebaceous gland → are holocrine gland secrete sebum
 Sebum → oily mixture of lipids and proteins
 Sebaceous gland are connected to hair follicles and secrete sebum through hair pores
 Sebum inhibits water loss form skin and protects against bacterial and fungal
infection
 Sweat glands → eccrine gland or apocrine gland
 Eccrine gland → not connected to hair follicles
 Eccrine gland → activate by elevated body temp
 Eccrine gland → found in forehead, neck and back
 Eccrine gland → secrete electrolytes and water → containing sodium chloride,
potassium, bicarbonate, glucose and antimicrobial peptides
 Apocrine → secrete oily solution → which are fatty acids, triglycerides and proteins
→ this is secreted when a person has stress or anxiety.
Extra info:
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Deepest layer of skin is hypodermis
Epidermis most external layer
Ceruminous gland produces cerumen/ear wax
Apocrine sweat gland produces odor perspiration
Eccrine gland secrete perspiration necessary for evaporative cooling
Sebaceous gland secrete oil or sebum
Cutaneous vasodilation cools the body by allowing heat to be released through skin
Cutaneous vasoconstriction warms the body by restricting blood flow in skin
Arrector pilli bundle of smooth muscle responsible for appreance of goose bumps
Dermis thickest layer of skin
Exposure to UV light synthesize vit D
Keratin – hair and nails
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Sweat glands inhibited will result in loss of ability to regulate body temp
Stratum lucidum – absent in all parts of body except palm and soles
Epidermis – protects underlying tissue from abrasions, heat, microbes, and chemicals
Sebaceous gland – produce secretion that when released has an odor with a possible
pherome function in humans
Dermis – middle vascular layer
Subcutaneous – fat stored in hypodermis
Ceruminous gland – produce sticky barrier that prevents foreign bodies and insects
enter ear
Thermoregulation – production of sweat by eccrine glands facilitate cooling body
Cutaneous vasoconstriction – reduce heat and warms body via skin
Layers of Skin Tissue:
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 Burns
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1st degree - only epi
2nd degree – epi and part of dermis
3rd degree – epi and all dermis
4th degree – epi, dermis, underlying bones, muscles and tendons
ENDOCRINE System
 Secretes hormones
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Hypothalamus and pituitary gland → coordinate to serve neuroendocrine control center
Receptors → benefit from hormonal influence
Steroid hormones → trigger gene activation and protein synthesis
Protein hormones → change the activity of existing enzymes
Insulin → (hormone) work quickly when body signals an urgent need.
Eight Major Endocrine glands
 Adrenal Cortex → monitors blood sugar level → helps in lipid and protein metabolism
 Adrenal medulla → controls cardiac functions → raises blood sugar → controls the size
of blood vesseks
 Thyroid gland → help regulate metabolism → function in growth and development
 Parathyroid → regulate calcium level in blood
 Pancreas islet → raise and lower blood sugar → activate in carb metabolism
 Thymus gland → plays a role in immune response
 Pineal gland → has influence on daily biorhythms and sex activity
 Pituitary gland → important role in growth and development
 Endocrine gland → myriad reaction, function, and secretion that are crucial to well
being of body.
Hypothalamus
 Hypothalamus → superior to pituitary → inferior to thalamus
 Hypothalamus communicate with pituitary by secreting RH releasing hormone and IH
inhibiting hormone.
 Hypothalamus hormones → Oxytocin and ADH
 Oxytocin → uterus → stimulate contraction → targets mammary gland which
secretion of milk
 ADH – Vasopressin → antidiuretic hormone → Kidney/blood vessels → increase water
retention
Pituitary = Master gland
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Pituitary glands Anterior
TST → Thyroid
stimulating hormone
o Thyrotropin
o Thyroid
o Stimulates the
secretion of thyroid
hormones
ACTH →
Adrenocorticotropic
hormone
o Adrenal cortex
o Stimulate release
of glucocorticoids
and
mineralocorticoids
GH → Growth hormone
o Muscle and bone
o Stimulate growth
FSH → Follicle stimulating
hormone
o Gonads
o Stimulate the maturation of sperm cell and ovarian follicles
LH → Luteinizing hormone
o Gonads
o Stimulate production of sex hormones
o Surge stimulate ovulation in females
PRL → Prolactin → stimulates production of milk
ADH → Antidiuretic hormone
o Produce in hypothalamus
o Released by posterior pituitary
o Kidney and blood vessels
o Increase water retention
Pineal gland → situated between two hemisphere of brain where two half’s of
thalamus join
Pineal gland hormone → melatonin → brain → regulate wake and sleep
Thyroid gland
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Butterfly shape gland point of attachment between two lobes called isthmus.
Isthmus → anterior portion of trachea lobes wrap around trachea
T3 TRIIODOTHYRONINE → stimulate cellular metabolism
T4 Thyroxine → stimulate cellular metabolism
Calcitonin → bone/kidney → lower blood calcium
Thymus gland
 Between sternum and heart → Embedded in mediastinum
 Thymosin → stimulate production T-Cells → Lymphatic tissue
Pancreas
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Posterior of stomach
Insulin → liver, muscle, adipose tissue decreases blood glucose
Glucagon → liver → increase blood glucose
Growth hormone → inhibit the secretion of insulin and glucagon
Adrenal Medulla
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Top Kidney
Epinephrine → fight
Norepinephrine → flight
Increase heart rate and blood sugar
Adrenal Cortex
 Inner gland top of kidney
 Glucocorticoids and Androgen
 Glucocorticoids → release in response to long term stressor increase blood glucose and
decrease immune response
 Androgens → regulate Na content in blood
GI Tract
 Gastrin → stomach → response to food stimulate production of gastric juice
 Secretin → response to acidity in small intestine
 CCK – CHOLECYSTOKNIN → pancreas and liver → release of digestion enzyme and
bile
Kidney
 Erythropoietin → bone morrow & production RBC
 Calcitriol → intestines → increase reabsorption of Ca 2+
Heart <3
 Anp – Atrial natriuretic peptide → kidney and adrenal cortex → increase Na and lower
BP
 Adipose tissue → Leptin → suppress appetite
Ovaries
o Estrogen → 2nd sex characteristics
o Progesterone → prepares uterus to receive fertilized eggs
o Inhibin → inhibits release of FSH
 Placenta = Hcg
 Testes → Testosterone → regulate sperm 2nd sex character
Endocrine Extra info.
 Hormones → chemical messenger of the endocrine system that are released into
the blood.
 Protein hormones → class of hormones that cannot pass through the cell
membrane; less likely to be stored in the body
 Steroid hormones → class of hormones that can pass through the cell membrane;
can be stored in the body
 Prostaglandins → local hormones that do not enter blood stream
 Positive feedback → process that amplifies a small change (reinforce change)
 Negative feed back → a response that opposes the original stimulus
 Hypersecretion → excessive hormone production by an endocrine gland
 Hyposecretion → deficient hormone production by an endocrine gland
 Endocrine system → function is to coordinate body processes through hormones
 Hyperthyroidism → overproduction of thyroid hormones due to a malfunction of
the negative feedback loop.
 Cushing syndrome → result of excessive production of cortisol.
 Hypercalcemia → overproduction of parathyroid hormone
 Luteinizing hormone LH → stimulate hormones are produced by anterior pituitary
gland.
 Parathyroid hormone → responsible for increasing calcium levels in the blood by
stimulation bone resorption.
 Lack of insufficiency of insulin → is produced by the pancreas can lead to diabetes
 Failure of the pituitary gland → that produce thyroid-stimulating hormone can
result in hyperthyroidism.
 Aldosterone → hormone responsible for regulating sodium levels in the blood.
 Adrenal glands → primary responsible for producing the hormones cortisol and
aldosterone and they are located on top of each kidney.
 Melatonin → hormone that regulates sleep and wake rhythm.
 Pineal → responsible for producing melatonin
 Pancreas → has exocrine function that aids in regulating levels of glucose in the
blood.
 Endocrine gland → produce the hormones insulin and glucagon, this regulates the
levels of glucose in the blood.
 Follicle → stimulating hormone is produced by the anterior pituitary gland.
 Pituitary = growth hormone
 Pineal = melatonin
 Pancreas = insulin
 Insulin and glucagon → have opposite effects on blood glucose but work together
to maintain homestasis.
 Insulin → decreases the level of the blood glucose during a fed state
 Glucagon → increase levels of glucose during a fasting state.
 Slow initiation, prolonged duration of response → the response elicited by signals
from endocrine glands
 Responses stimulated by the endocrine system take a longer time to initiate and
last for longer period of time.
 Responses to stimulation by the nervous system are quicker to initiate and are
shorter in duration.
 Hormones → chemical signals are secreted by endocrine glands and travel via
circulation to their target organs.
 Neurotransmitters → are chemical signals utilized by the nervous system
 Interleukins and cytokines → are chemical messengers of the immune system
 Type 1 diabetes → is an endocrine disorder characterized by the absence of insulin
 Positive feedback → stimulation of stretching of the cervix and uterine
contraction by oxytocin
 Insulin → decrease blood glucose
 Follicle stimulating hormone → stimulates development of follicles in females and
production of sperm in males.
 Pancreas → produce insulin
 Hypothalamus → integration center between the endocrine and nervous system
 Thyroid gland → produce insufficient amount of thyroid hormones (this is result
of deficient production of thyrotropin releasing hormone)
 Oxytocin → hormone stimulates cervical stretching and uterine contraction during
child birth.
 Positive feedback → is the mechanism of glandular secretion in which stimulation
results in continuous production of a hormone above normal level.
 Example of positive feedback → during child birth oxytocin causes uterine
contraction which stimulates the posterior pituitary gland to produce more
oxytocin
 Negative feedback → once the normal levels of product is attained production
slow down and stops
 Example of negative feedback → release of glucagon in response to decrease in
blood glucose
 If a person is stressed → mobilization of glucose from the liver into the blood
stream
URINARY System
 Function → remove toxins, waste, water from body as wells as maintaining the blood
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pressure and Ph.
Consist of → kidney, bladder, ureter, urethra
Kidney → filters blood to remove waste products to maintain fluid balance
▪ Kidney : receives blood from renal artery (extension of aorta)
▪ Kidney reabsorbs needed material
▪ Kidney excrete waste and water via urine
▪ Kidney filters blood
Renal cortex → outer layer
Nephron → functional unit of kidney, blood filtration, reabsorption
Renal arteries → what kidney receive blood from carry blood from heart via abdominal
aorta.
Glomerulus → capillary in nephron
Bowman’s capsule → condenses the glomerulus
Renal medulla → middle layer
 Proximal convoluted tubule → water, glucose, ions, and other organic molecules are
absorbed back into blood stream
 Distal convoluted tubule → urea and drugs are removed from blood pH blood is adjusted
with H+ ions.
 Renal pelvis → inner layer
 Renal pelvis → material arrive as urine from distal convoluted tubule
 Afferent arteriole → blood vessels that enter glomerulus
 Efferent arteriole → blood vessels EXIT glomerulus
 Renal problems → glucose in pee sign of diabetes, dark urine sign of dehydration, blood
urine is sign of hematuria (UTI/Kidney infection)
Urinary System Hormones
 Renin →
o decrease BP
o activates angiotensin
o increase ADH and aldosterone
o increase BP
 Angiotensin →
o activates by renin
o constricts arteriole vessels
o increase reabsorption of Na+ and Cl
o stimulates ADH secretion.
 Antidiuretic ADH
o Vasopressin
o Decrease blood volume
o Increase osmolality of blood
o Prevent fluid loss of maintain blood volume by reabsorbing water from renal
tubules
o Increase BP
 Aldosterone
o Decrease BP and increase K+
o Increase reabsorption of Na+ from renal tubules
o Causing more water to be reabsorbed via osmosis
o Increase BP
KIDNEY
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Three layers → renal cortex, renal medulla, renal pelvis
Renal cortex → composed of nephrons → filters kidneys
Nephron → contain a cluster of capillaries call glomerulus
Glomerulus → surround by cup shape Bowman’s capsule
Unabsorbed material → flow out from collecting tubules located in renal medulla to
renal pelvis as urine
 Urine → is drained from kidney through ureters to urinary bladder
 Urine is stored → in urinary bladder until expulsion from body through urethra.
Extra info.
 Correct order of transport urine from the collecting ducts to urethra → collecting
ducts, minor calyces, major calyces, renal pelvis, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra
 The basic function of the renal system includes filtration, secretion, reabsorption, and
excretion
 Creatinine → is secreted by the nephrons and can be found in the filtrate that is
eventually excreted
 Proteins, such as meat and eggs → foods that provide the most urea that would
have to be filtered out of the blood via kidneys
 Urea → is formed at the end of each series of reaction → which breakdown the
amino acids in proteins
 Urea is a major waste product of protein.
 Renin → hormone involved in RAAS is produced by the kidney
 Renin is produced by the kidney in response to change in blood pressure.
 Angiotensin → is produced upon the cleaving of angiotensinogen
 Aldosterone is produced by adrenal cortex
 Salts → the kidney removes from the blood during filtration
 The kidney filter waste from the blood, including salts. They do not filter gasses out
of the blood, nor do they filter out cells.
 Renal cortex → are where glomeruli and Bowman’s capsule are found
 Albumin → is not normally found in urine, and its presence may indicate a problem
with the kidneys
 Albumin is a plasma protein that in not normally present in urine.
 Filtration of blood occurs in the renal corpuscles
 Vasa recta → is a capillary loop in the renal medulla running parallel to the loop of
Henle.
 Renal corpuscle → glomerulus, bowman’s capsule, and glomerular basement membrane
 Correct path of blood from abdominal aorta to the inferior vena cava → abdominal
aorta → renal arteries → segmental arteries → interlobar arteries→ arcuate
arteries → interlobular arteries → afferent arteries → glomerulus → efferent
arteries → peritubular capillaries → interlobular veins → arcuate veins → interlobar
veins → renal veins → inferior vena cava
B
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Renal pelvis → upper expanded region of the ureter
The kidney → is the site of blood filtration in the human body
Lungs → primary organ for exchange of gas or know as respiration
Small intestine → is responsible for the absorption of nutrients and minerals from
food.
Pituitary gland → secretes the antidiuretic hormone
In the presence of ADH or vasopressin water is mostly reabsorbed in the Proximal
convoluted tubule of the nephron.
Collecting ducts → reabsorb water in the presence of ADH but it only absorbs around
10% of water in filtration
Angiotensin II → vasoconstriction and elevation of BP
Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) → activation of angiotensin to angiotensin II
 Renin → cleavage of angiotensinogen to angiotensin I
 Blood vessels enter and exit the kidney at the same point as the renal pelvis
becomes the ureter which is the renal hilum.
 Proximal convoluted tubule → segment of nephron that glucose is reabsorbed.
 Branches of the abdominal aorta that supply the kidneys are called renal arteries.
 Ureter → is the duct through which urine passes from the kidney to the bladder
 Renal capsules → are thin membranes that cover outer surface of each kidney
 Renal columns → extensions of renal cortex between the renal pyramids to help the
cortex be better anchored.
 Glomerulus → gathering of capillaries that filter large plasma proteins and blood
cells.
 Bowman’s capsule → house the glomerulus.
 Function of the kidneys is like the washing machine of the body.
o A : Acid base balance
o W: water removal or waste
o E: Erythropoiesis
o T: Toxin removal
o B: blood pressure control
o E: electrolyte balance
o D: D vitamin activation
o (A WETBED)
IMMUNE System
★ Function → protect the body against invading pathogens
★ Pathogens → bacteria, viruses, fungi, protist
★ Pathogens are infection agent
★ Lymphatic system → lymph, lymph capillaries, lymph vessels, lymph nodes
★ Skeletal muscle contraction move the lymph one way through the lymph system to
lymphatic ducts
★ Dump back into venous supply via lymph nodes
★ RBM → produce blood cells
★ Leukocytes → WBC
★ Lymph nodes → in neck, armpit and groin
★ Lymph nodes → small swelling in lymphatic system where lymph is filtered, and
lymphocytes are formed
★ Lymph tissue → tonsils, adenoids, thymus, spleen and peyer’s patch
★ Tonsil are in pharynx
★ Tonsil → protect against pathogens enter via mouth or throat
★ Thymus → maturation chamber of immune T cells from in bone marrow
★ Spleen → cleans blood of dead cells and pathogens
★ Peyer’s patch → located in ileum of small intestine
★ Peyer’s patch → protect GI Tract from pathogens
General Immune defense
★ Skin → primary barrier (intact)
★ Ciliated mucous membranes → cilia protect respiratory system
★ Glandular secretion → exocrine → destroy bacteria
★ Gastric secretion → gastric acid → destroy pathogens
★ Normal bacterial populations → complete with pathogens in gut and Vagina
★ Pathogens and inflammation → response mobilize white blood cells and chemical reaction
to stop infection
★ Plasma protein act as → the complement system to repel bacteria and pathogens
3 Types of WBC
★ Macrophage, T Lymphocytes, B Lymphocytes
★ Macrophage → phagocytes that alert T-cells to the presence of foreign substance
★ Macrophage → largest and longest living phagocyte, engulf and destroy pathogens and
found in lymph
★ T Lymphocytes → directly attack cells infected by virus and bacteria
★ T lymphocytes → helper T, Killer T, Memory T, and Suppressor T
★ B Lymphocytes → target specific bacteria for destruction
★ Plasma cells → antibodies production
★ Help Body defense → memory cells, suppressor T, helper T
Other Immune Cells
★ Helper T cells → activate B cells to make antibodies and other chemicals
★ Suppressor T cells → stop other T cells when the battle is over
★ Memory T cells → remain in blood an alert incase of invader attacks again
★ Killer/ cytotoxic T cell → destroy cell infected with a pathogen virus or tumor
★ Leukocytes → WBC produce in Red marrow
★ Leukocytes → T &B lymphocytes → Natural killer cell
★ Monocyte → macrophage → dendritic cell → present antigen to T Cell
★ Granulocyte → Neutrophil → Basophil → eosinophil
★ Neutrophil → short living phagocyte → quick response to antigen
★ Basophil → alert body invasion
★ Eosinophil → large, long living phagocyte, defend against multicellular invader
★ Antibody mediated response → response to antigen
★ Cellular mediated response → response to an already infected cell
★ Antigen → drug or toxin
★ Antigen → foreign particle that stimulates the immune system
o Typically, protein on the surface of bacteria, virus or fungi
★ Antibody → a blood protein that counteracts a specific antigen
Steps of Immune System
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Macrophage engulf antigen and present fragments of antigen on surface
A helper T cell joins the microphage
Killer/cytotoxic T cell and B cells are activated
Killer/cytotoxic T cell search and destroy cell presenting same antigen
B cell differentiate into plasma cell and memory cells
★ Innate immune system → born with it → to protect at birth
o Examples → skin, hair, mucus, earwax, secretion, normal flora, phagocytes
★ Adaptive immune system
o Responds to specific antigen
o Vaccination or previous encounter reaction → cytotoxic cells → kill pathogens
o Prevention → B cells produce antibodies
o Activated by antigens and helper T cell
o Helper T cells activate by antigen presenting cells
★ Natural acquired active immunity
o Antibodies are passed from mother to child
o Provides protection from infancy to childhood
★ Artificially acquired active immunity → build immunity via vaccination
★ Artificially acquired passive immunity → immunization given during outbreak or
emergency → quick short lived protection → antibodies come from another person or
animal
★ Immune system → is lymphatic system, red marrow and WBC
★ Tissue fluid enters lymph capillaries → which combine to form lymph vessels
★ Skeletal muscle contact move lymph one way through the lymphatic system to
lymphatic ducts
★ Lymphatic ducts → dump back into venous blood supply into lymph nodes
★ Lymph nodes → are situated along the lymph vessels and filter of pathogens
★ Lymph tissue 2304393 tonsils, adenoids, thymus, spleen, peyer’s patch
★ Thymus → maturation chamber for the immature T cells are formed in bone marrow
★ Immune response → can be antibody mediated when response to antigen
★ Cell medicated response → is the already infected cells
★ Leukocytes → are classified as monocytes, granulocytes, T Lymphocytes, B Lymphocytes
and killer cells
★ Macrophages → found traveling in lymph or fixed in lymphatic tissue
o Are largest long living phagocytes that engulf and destroy pathogens
★ Dendritic cells → present antigens (foreign particles) to T-cell
Extra info.
★ Natural killer cells → responsible for destroying various unhealthy host cells, including
those infected with a virus or bacteria.
★ Dendritic cells → responsible for initiating immune responses by presenting antigens of
T – cell
★ T cell and B cells → are cells of the adaptive immune system that directly attack
antigens and produce antibodies
★ Active immunity → newborn babies are given several types of vaccines in order to
protect them from acquiring diseases. Active immunity is responsible for the immunity
process in newborns.
★ Vaccination → is active immunity which involves exposure to kill or weakened form of
the disease in order to trigger production of antibodies.
★ Passive immunity → temporary protection from diseases brought by introduction of
antibodies from another person.
★ Innate immune system → is comprised of nonspecific barriers and cellular responses
that acts immediately following infection.
★ Autoimmune disease → condition of immune cells function abnormal and attack molecular
components of the body’s own organs.
★ Inflammation → nonspecific response to tissue damage characterized by redness, pain,
heat, swelling and loss of function in the injured area
★ T- lymphocytes mature and become functional in Thymus.
★ Function of Lymph nodes → filter fluid from intercellular space and remove foreign
substance and debris
★ Filtration of blood occurs in spleen
★ Production of blood cells (hemopoiesis) occur in bone morrow
★ Damage to spleen → excessive loss of blood
★ Macrophages → responsible for engulfing bacteria and cellular debris
★ Vaccine → is a biological preparation that improves immunity against a particular
disease.
★ Pathogen → agents that cause disease such a bacteria, viruses and parasites
★ Interferons → signaling molecules released to elicit antiviral immune response.
★ Activation of B and T lymphocytes and production of memory lymphocytes are specific
cellular which is the internal aspect of the adaptive immune system.
★ Helper T cells → antigen specific immune cells produce cytokines which facilitate various
immune reactions
★ Autoimmune disease → abnormal functioning of the immune system where immune cells
attack molecular components of the body’s own organs
★ Vibrio cholerae is a bacteria that causes the disease cholera.
★ Disease causing agent such a V. Cholerae is referred as pathogen.
★ Commensal microorganism → normal flora living in a host organism without causing
harm or benefit.
★ Innate system → consist of non-specific barriers and cellular responses
★ B – cells → responsible for producing antibodies
★ Cytotoxic cells are immune cells responsible for destroying pathogens
★ Helper – T cells → produce cytokines
★ Histamine → produce mast cells in response to infection or injury
★ Shows relationship between the immune system and another system of the body →
destruction of a pathogen by hydrochloric acid in the stomach
★ Main function on hydrochloric acid → is not for immunity but for digestion
★ Innate immune system → responds quick after infection
★ Memory cells → responsible for vary rapid response upon subsequent exposure to the
same antigen
★ Macrophage cells → white blood cell that primary engulfs and ingest pathogens
★ Vaccines → stimulate the production of antibodies
★ Passive immunity → is a temporary immunity against specific diseases introduced via
placenta, breast milk or serum containing antibodies.
★ Elevated white blood cells → person with infection
SKELETAL System
 206 bones
 Axial skeleton →
vertebral column, rib
cage, sternum, skull and
hyoid bone
 Vertebral column → 33
vertebrae as cervical,
thoracic lumbar and
sacral vertebrae
 Sternum → consist of
manubrium, corpus sterni,
and xiphoid process
 Skull → cranium and facial
bones
 Ossicle → are bones in the middle ear
 Axial skeletal → protects vital organs including brain, heart and lungs
 Appendicular skeletal → pectoral girdle, pelvic and appendages
 Pectoral girdle → scapulae (shoulder) and clavicle (collar bones)
 Pelvic girdle → 2 pelvic hip bones which att ach to sacrum
 Upper appendages → arms include the
humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals,
and phalanges.
 Lower appendages → legs, femur, patella,
fibula, tibia, tarsals, metastarsals, and
phalanges
 Joints → two or more elements of skeleton
connect
 Synarthrosis → skull or teeth
o Immovable movement (cant move)
o Fibrous or cartilaginous
 Amphiarthrosis → discs, distal tibiofibular
joint
o Slight movement
 Diarthrosis → free movement and wrist, knee, shoulder
Types of Joints
 Synovial → contain lubricating
synovial fluid
o Pivot → neck
o Ball and socket → hip
o Hinge → knee
 Fibrous → held together by
ligaments
o Not moveable
o Bones in skull
 Cartilaginous → two bones
meet at connection
o Made of cartilage
o Partially moveable
o Vertebrae in spine
 Insertion → is the bone that moves as muscle contracts or relaxes.
 Yellow bone marrow → store fat’
 Long bones → support weight of
body and facilitate movement
o Femur, tibia, fibula, ulna,
humerus, and radius
 Short bones → stability for some
movement → wider than they are
long
o Carpals, tarsals, clavicle
 Flat bone → protect internal
organs
o Not hollow but contain morrow
o Sternum, scapula, knee, elow
 Irregular bone → nonsymmetrical shape
o Vertebrae, skull, knee, elbow
 Ligament → articulates bone to bone
 Tendon → muscle to bone
 Hyaline cartilage → surface of bones
 Spongy bone → end of bones
o Contain bone marrow
o RBC & Lymphocyte production
 Compact bone → support body
o Store calcium
o Denser than spongy
 Osteocytes → bone cells
o Regulate osteoblast and osteoclasts
 Osteoclast → remove and absorb bone tissue during growth and healing
o Multinucleate
 Blast = build
 Clast = cleave
 Osteon → cylindrical structure and comprise
synthesize and compact bone
 Harversian canal → provide nutrient to bone
cell
 Volkmann canal → connect harversian canals
 Periosteum → fibrous sheath that covers bone and contain nerve and blood vessels
 Collagen → primary structure protein of connective tissue
 Canaliculi → small channel or duct in ossified bone
 Cartilage → tough, elastic connective tissue found in ear
 Lamellae → layers of bone, tissue, cell walls
 Lining cells → flattened bone cells that come from osteoblast
Bone diseases
 Osteoporosis → brittle, fragile bones lack calcium
 Osteogenesis imperfecta → brittle bone disease affect collagen
 Osteoarthritis → degenerative
joint disease – loss of cartilage
 Rheumatoid arthritis →
progressive disease that causes
joint inflammation and pain
Extra info.
 Osteoblast → causes bone matrix synthesis and calcification
 Osteoclast → remove the calcified bone matrix during bone growth and remodeling
 Hydroxyapatite → is the crystal mineral formed during bone calcification to which
collagen and proteoglycans will later be embedded.
 Osteoporosis → is an imbalance in bone remodeling, where bone resorption exceeds
bone formation, resulting in porous and fragile bones
 Spongy bone is lighter than compact bone
 Osteoarthritis → is an inflammatory conditions of the joints brought on by the
gradual wear and tear of cartilage that lines the articular end of bones.
 Brittle bone disease → is a congenital disorder of defective or deficient collagen
synthesis due to genetic mutations.
 Rheumatoid arthritis → is a chronic inflammation of joints due to autoimmune
destruction of articular cartilage
 Flat bone = scapulae
 Blood vessels that supply nutrients and oxygen enter the bone and tissue through
the Volkmann canals.
 Osteons → are the structural unit of compact bone characterized by concentric bone
layers surrounding a central canal
 Lamellae → are concentric rings of hard, calcified extracellular matrix in compact
bones
 Lacunae → are small spaces containing osteocytes found between concentric lamellae.
 Bone resorption and deposition are in equilibrium.
 Hypocalcemia → is the result of inhibition of bone resorption and prevention of
calcium removal from the bone.
 Muscle atrophy → is the wasting away of muscle due to poor mobility or other
underlying conditions
 Achondroplastic dwarfism → is abnormal bone development brought by a defect in
endochondral ossification
 Kyphosis → is an abnormal curvature of the vertebral column due to poor stature or
weakening of the bone
 Cartilage → responsible for the growth in length of a bone
 The yellow marrow containing space found within adult bone diaphysis is called
Medullary cavity.
 Volkmann canals → are channels that transmit arterial blood supply to the bone
tissue
 A chronic inflammation of joints due to autoimmune destruction of articular cartilage
is called Rheumatoid arthritis.
 Patellae → sesamoid bones develop from tendons
 Osteoclasts → causes bone matrix resorption during bone growth and remodeling
 When someone is immobile, they may experience loss of bone density due to
Demineralization.
 Brittle bone disease → fragile bones to production of deficient or defective collagen
as a result of a genetic defect
 Tetany → characterized by spastic muscle contraction due to calcium deficiency
 The site where two or more bones meet is called joint
 Tendon → is a fibrous tissue that attaches muscle to bone
 Ligament → connects bones, cartilage and joints
 Cartilage → tough tissue that supports the bone and facilitates movement
 Axis → bones is responsible for side to side movement of the head
 Atlas → bones that move head up and down
 The mineralization of bone matrix will be haltered → if inhibition of activity or
function of osteoblast at epiphyseal plate
 Hinge joint → allows motion around a single axis and only permits flexion and extension
 Suture joints → bones of skull
 Tendons → connect bone and muscle together and serves to move the bone
 Periosteum → is the tough connective tissue that covers the bone surface
 Synovium → is the membrane that lines synovial joints
 Sutures → are thin layers of dense irregular connective tissue that connect bones of
skull
 Hyoid bone → is a component of the axial skeleton that don’t not form a joint with
other bones
 Mandible → facial bone that forms lower jawbone and is connected to the rest of the
skull
Cell
 Basic organizational unit of all living things
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Cell membrane → phospholipids
Cytoplasm → fills the cell with fluid
Organelles → complex molecule to help cell survive
Organisms → plan or animal → fungi, protist or bacteria
Organisms → exhibit structural or organization on the cellular and organism level
DNA & RNA → synthesize proteins
Tissue → grouped together in organs
Organism → compete individual
Ribosomes → synthesizing proteins from amino acids
Ribosomes → embedded in rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Golgi apparatus → synthesizing material → proteins transport out of cell
Vacuoles → sacs for storage, digestion and waste removal
Cytoskeleton → have microtubules → help support cell and made of protein
Cytosol → liquid material in cell
Endoplasmic reticulum
o rough = has ribosomes
o smooth = no ribosomes
 Mitochondria = generate ATP (ENERGY)
o Contains own DNA
o Function → cell energy, cell signaling, cellular differentiation, cell cycle, and
growth regulation. “POWER HOUSE”
 Aerobic respiration → occurs in mitochondria
Animal Cell
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Centrosome → mitosis and cell cycle
Centrioles → cellular division
Lysosome → digest proteins, lipids, and carbs
Cilia → causes cell to move
Flagella → tail like → help cell move
Nuclear part of
Cell
 Nucleus → regulates DNA →
passing genetic traits between
generations
 Chromosome → holds DNA → stores
info about plant or animal
 Nucleolus →protein → protein
synthesis, store RNA.
 Nuclear envelope → made of lipids
 Cell cycle → reproduce → cell growth → mitosis → meiosis
 Mitosis → daughter cell
 Meiosis → daughter cell divided → have different genetic code
 Gastrulation → embryonic development
 Mitosis → prophase → metaphase → anaphase → telophase (PMAT)
 Cytokinesis → splitting of cell occurs in telophase
 Meiosis → four daughter cells → different set of chromosomes
 Daughter cells → are haploid. (half genetic)
 Meiosis = MY-OH-SIS
Tissues
 Epithelial → cells join tightly (skin)
 Connective → dense, loose, fatty
o Bone tissue, cartilage, tendon, ligaments, fat, blood, lymph
 Blood → transport oxygen to cell and removes waste carries hormones
 Bone → hard tissue → support and protects bone marrow and produce RBC.
 Muscle → support and move body
 Nervous → neurons → response to
change
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Direction Terms
 Medial → midline (right)
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o Anatomical → fingers are medial
Lateral → Further away from midline –
(right)
o Thumb is lateral to little finger
Proximal → closer to center of body (up)
o Hip is proximal to knee
Distal → further away from center of
body (down)
o Knee is distal to hip
Anterior → in front
Dorsal → back or down
Posterior → behind
Cephalad/cephalic → towards head
Caudad → towards tail
Superior → above
Inferior → below
Sagittal plane → divides left to right
Transverse plane → divides body to upper and lower
Frontal plane → divides front to back
Midline → in the middle
PLEASE STILL STUDY
CHEMISTRY
GENE
DNA