Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1 Spring 2021 Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 1.1 Scope of Engineering Ethics 1.2 Accepting and Sharing Responsibility 1.3 Responsible Professionals and Ethical Corporation Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 2 Morals Professionalism Ethics Honesty Legal Integrity Virtue Courage Accountability Self-Respect Responsibility Character Obligation Ideals Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 3 • Morals: Concerns the goodness of voluntary human conduct that affects the self or other living things” Human Behavior” • Morals: (Latin mores) usually refers to any aspect of human action. • Morality: Standards or principles derived from society or person about the right or wrong, Or it can define also as synonymous with "goodness" or "rightness". • • • It concerns respect of persons, both others and ourselves. It involves being fair and just, meeting obligations and respecting rights Moral Framework: (Normative) An ethical framework is a set of codes that an individual 0r society uses to guide his or her behavior “Ex. Personal value, society believe” Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 4 • Ethics (Greek ethos) commonly refers only to professional behavior. It studies which actions, goals, principles, policies and lows are morally justified. • Ethical Framework: (Descriptive) An ethical framework is a set of professional guidelines “Ex: Code of Ethics, Company polices, Company Values” uses to guide professional behavior • Value: The personal beliefs on what right or wrong on our action and between each other • Ethical or Moral Issue: a working definition of an issue of moral or ethical concern is presented as any issue with the potential to help or harm anyone, including oneself, set to evaluate or solve several actions as right or wrong, ethical or unethical. • Ethical Responsibility: The ability to recognize, do obligation, interpret and act upon multiple principles and values according to the standards within a given field “Laws, Duties, and regulation set” Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 5 • Legal: Set of rules or action “Law” by the government or country. Morals Principles of right and wrong Ethics A set of moral principles guiding behavior and action Classification of Actions: Unethical Ethical Legal Illegal Legal Binding codes of conduct; formally recognized and enforced Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah Unethical but Legal Ethical but Illegal 1/17/2021 6 Which one of the following examples consider as Moral/ Immoral, Ethical/ Unethical, Legal/ Illegal: • • • • • • • • • Respecting parents Respecting collogues in the work Honesty Smoking inside the Airplane Smoking inside your company Smoking in an open area near to your house Your boss asks you to throw unharmful chemical material in the desert Produce a product with side effect while using Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 7 • Seven Themes Should be explain in detail to understand Scope of Engineering Ethics : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Engineering projects are social experiments that generate both new possibilities and risks, and engineers share responsibility for creating benefits, preventing harm, and pointing out dangers. Moral values permeate all aspects of technological development, and hence ethics and excellence in engineering go together. Personal meaning and commitments matter in engineering ethics, along with principles of responsibility that are stated in codes of ethics and are incumbent on all engineers. Promoting responsible conduct is even more important than punishing wrongdoing. Ethical dilemmas arise in engineering, as elsewhere, because moral values are myriad and can conflict. Engineering ethics should explore both micro and macro issues, which are often connected. Technological development warrants cautious optimism—optimism, with caution Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 8 • Engineering projects are social experiments possibilities and risks, to prevent risks: • • • • • • • • Engineers Engineers Engineers Engineers Engineers Engineers Engineers share responsibility for creating benefits, must prevent harm, must point out dangers. must expect all possible risks and hazards must put people life into consideration must monitor any project done must always be ready for any alert or danger that generate both new 1/17/2021 9 Preventive Ethics Case Study: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster 2003 Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah • The Space Shuttle Columbia disaster was a fatal incident in the United States space program that occurred on February 1, 2003 • Killed 7 astronauts • Happened because of insulation foams foam from the fuel tank Ethical issue: similar incident happened before with Challenger disaster in January 1986 and no extra evaluation done. • • Moral issues be ignored like escape plan “Exit”, Safety, and life of people • Ethical issues be ignored like Full evaluation for the joint, engineers' action. Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 10 Moral values are embedded at several stages in engineering projects, including: • • The basic standards of safety and efficiency The structure of technological corporations as communities of people engaged in shared activities • The character of engineers who spearhead technological progress • The very idea of engineering as a profession that combines advanced skill with commitment to the public good. • • Case Study: Students in a freshman course at Harvey Mudd College, “Design a chicken coop that would increase egg and chicken production” Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 11 • Student find themselves : They had to create safe access for the villagers They had to ensure humane conditions for the chickens They must find way for protection from local predators that could dig under fences • • • • In engineering, ethics involves • • • Much more than problems and punishment, duties and dilemmas. Ethics involves the full range of moral values in structuring our relationships and communities. the ancient Greeks, “arete” translates into English as either “excellence” or as “virtue.” Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 12 • Situations in which two or more moral obligations, duties, rights, or ideals come into conflict. • Situations in which moral reasons come into conflicts, or in which the application of moral values is problematic, and it is not immediately obvious what should be done. • Conflicting demands: • • • • Loyalty to company and colleagues Concern for public welfare Personal gain, ambition Ethical standards are usually relative and personal, there is seldom an absolute standard Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 13 • Personal Commitment includes: All engineering is about people as well as products • All engineers are required to meet the responsibilities specified in their code of ethics. • The personal commitments of individual engineers need to be aimed at and integrated with these shared responsibilities. • • Case Study: Artificial lung Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 14 • A team of engineers are redesigning an artificial lung marketed by their company. • They are working in a highly competitive market, with long hours and high stress without any contact with customers. • Change in mode by family's thanks and saving life • The workers were energized concrete evidence that their efforts Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah by 1/17/2021 15 Individual should be: Comply to Professional Standards and Avoid wrongdoing. There is a need for what we have referred to as “preventive ethics”, at preventing moral harm and unnecessary ethical problems. “Prevent wrongdoing.” The main emphasis in ethics should be supporting responsible conduct. Wild majority of engineers are morally committed. Underlining the connection between ethics and excellence Individuals and corporations should primarily be “value-driven,” rather than simply concerned with “compliance-based” procedures, to refer terms used in management theory • Case Study: Enron scandal, 2001 Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 16 • Enron became the largest bankruptcy in U.S. history, erasing about $60 billion in shareholder value. Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 17 The moral reasons might be obligations, rights, goods, ideals, or other moral considerations. Moral values are myriad, and they can come into conflict, requiring good judgment about how to reconcile and integrate them. This could be solved by 1. Code of Ethics 2. Ethical / Moral theories • Case Study: Manufacturing Chemical Product Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 18 Micro Ethical Issues: Concern the decision made by individuals and companies. Macro Ethical Issues: Concern more global issues, such as The directions in technological development The laws that should or should not be passed The collective responsibilities of groups such as engineering professional societies and consumer groups • Case Study: Ford explorer and Bridgestone/Firestone Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 19 Debates/argument about sport utility vehicle (SUVs), 300 people had died, and thousands were injured. Ford, Bridgestone/Firestone blamed each Other and led to breakup. As a result, hazard has multiple sources. Micro issues arose, concerning the Ford explorer and Bridgestone/Firestone who provided tires for Explorer that separated from others and has led to blowout. Poor quality control at a major manufacturing facility. Macro in the most harmful vehicle on the road SUV, (instability, reducing vision of drivers, gas-guzzling and Excessive Pollution) Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 20 Technology: Improve our life but increase risk. Ethically: Technology can be used widely, but carful about Safety Environment Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 21 Ethics is the study of morality. It studies which actions, goals, principles, policies, and laws are morally justified Engineering Ethics is the study of the decisions, policies and the values that are morally desirable in engineering practice and research. One descriptive sense, referring thereby to what specific individuals or groups believe and how they act, without implying that their beliefs and actions are justified. Another descriptive sense, social scientists study ethics when they describe and explain what people believe and how they act; written by professional societies. In its normative senses, “engineering ethics” is about Morality, right and wrong, good and bad, values and what ought to be done. Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 22 • It is important for contributing to safe and useful technological product and to engineers’ endeavor. • It is complex that call for serious reflection throughout a profession. • To responsibly confront moral issues raised by technological activity and to recognize and resolve moral dilemmas. • To achieve moral autonomy. Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 23 • Autonomy means “self-determining” or “independent • Autonomous individuals think for themselves and do not assume that customs are always right. • They seek to reason and live by general principles. • Their motivation is to do what is morally reasonable for its own sake, maintaining integrity, self-respect, and respect for others. • Moral autonomy can be viewed as the skill and habit of thinking rationally about ethical issues on the basis of moral concern Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 24 1. Moral awareness: Proficiency in recognizing moral problems and issues in engineering. 2. Cogent moral reasoning: Knowing, clarifying, and assessing arguments on opposing sides of moral issues. 3. Moral coherence: Forming consistent and comprehensive viewpoints based upon a consideration of relevant facts. 4. Moral imagination: Sensitive alternative responses to moral issues and receptivity to creative solutions for practical difficulties. 5. Moral communication: Precision in the use of a common ethical language, a skill needed to express and support one’s moral views effectively to others Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 25 6. Moral reasonableness: The willingness and ability to be morally reasonable. 7. Respect for persons: Genuine concern for the well-being of others as well as oneself 8. Tolerance of diversity: Within a broad range, respect for ethnic and religious differences, and acceptance of reasonable differences in moral perspectives. 9. Moral hope: Improved appreciation of the possibilities of using rational dialogue in resolving moral conflicts. 10. Integrity: Maintaining moral integrity Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 26 The Engineering It is a great profession, but: The Engineer cannot hide his mistakes in the grave like the doctors. The engineer simply cannot deny that he did it. The products of engineering are “out in the open”. Case Study: Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah Saving Citicorp Tower 1/17/2021 27 In 1972 well design building Citicorp design with huge columns and church in the corner under the building design by LeMessurier . 1977 Group of Master Students ask for welded connections and wind load Direction calculation for the wind load ignoring 16 years diagonal wind load that may collapse the building Shocking moments, Contractor change welding to bolts connection Fixing required mostly 2M $ for welding and done in night after building empty Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 28 Ethical Issue 1. Analysis of wind loads. Check all calculations and not rely just on building codes; these set minimum requirements and not the state of the art. 2. Design changes. In this case change from welded to bolted connections. Changes are considered in the overall design context and by everyone involved and not a spur of the moment decision. 3. Professional responsibility. To follow the codes of conduct for every chartered institution. LeMessurier did not consider the public safety first. 4. Public statements. In this case the public statements issued by LeMessurier and Citigroup set out to mislead the public deliberately. 5. Public safety. The public statement denied the public the right to ensure their own safety and to make their own critical decisions. 6. Advancement of professional knowledge. Concealing this problem for almost 20 years prevented ethical and engineering learning that could have taken place. Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 29 Obligation Incumbent and role responsibility • Types of actions that are morally mandatory. Some are: • Incumbent on each of us. (e.g. to be honest, fair and decent). • Role responsibilities such are parents, employees, or professionals. (e.g. safety engineering making regular inspection) Accountable • Means being responsible. • Means having the general capacities for moral agency, including the capacities for moral agency, including the capacity to understand and act on moral reasons. • Means being answerable for meeting particular obligations. • Example: being careful engineer Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 30 Conscientious, Integrity (virtue) • Morally admirable engineer who accept their obligations and are conscience in meeting them Blameworthy/Praiseworthy • When it is clear the responsibility of wrongdoing becomes synonym for blameworthy or responsibility of right conduct is synonym for praiseworthy. Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 31 Moral Causal • consists simply in being a cause of some event Job • consists of one’s assigned tasks at the place of employment Legal • whatever the law requires including legal obligations and accountability for meeting them Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 32 The sequence of tasks that leads from the concept of a product to its design, manufacture, sale, use, and ultimate disposal Iterative process, with some of the possible recursive steps indicated by the thin lines and arrows on either side of figure 1-2 Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 33 The underlying failing causes can have different forms. Lack of vision just follow traditional vision. Incompetence among engineers carrying out technical tasks. Lack of time and poor management. A silo mentality that keeps information rather than shared. The notion that there are safety engineers somewhere down the line to catch potential problems. improper use or disposal of the product. Dishonesty pressure by management to take shortcuts. Inattention to how the product is performing after it is sold and when in use. Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 34 Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 35 Advanced expertise Possesses specialized knowledge and skills Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah Selfregulation Belongs to and abides by the standards of a society Public good Serves an important aspect of the public good 1/17/2021 36 a profession is any occupation that provides a means by which to earn a living. Profession are those form of work involve: 1. Advanced expertise. Professions require complex skills (“knowing-how”) and theoretical knowledge (“knowing-that”). This requires technical studies as well as broader studies and continuing education and updating knowledge are also required. 2. Self-regulation. Well-established societies of professionals are allowed by the public to play a major role in setting, standards for admission to the profession, drafting codes of ethics, enforcing standards of conduct, a representing the profession before the public and the government. Often this is referred to as the “autonomy of the profession,” 3. Public good. The occupation serves some important public good, or aspect of the public good, and it does so by making a concerted effort by profession. Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 37 Companies place a high priority on concern for worthwhile products and ethical procedures. Larger corporations characterized by more intense competition and profit-making pressures face a greater challenge in maintaining an ethical climate. But many of them are finding ways to deal with these pressures. Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 38 Raised attention to product quality, the well-being of workers, the wider community, and the environment. The movement is reflected in what is called “stakeholder theory” Corporations have responsibilities to all groups that have a vital stake in the corporation, including employees, customers, dealers, suppliers, local communities, and the general public In order to ensure the confluence of good engineering, good business, and good ethics, it is essential for engineering and corporations, in their major dimensions, to be “morally aligned.” Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 39 All the senses we distinguished in connection with individuals also apply to corporations: 1. Responsibilities (obligations). corporations have internal structures consisting of policy manuals and flowcharts assigning responsibilities to individuals. 2. Accountable for meeting their obligations, so corporations are accountable to the general public, to their employees and customers, and to their stockholders. 3. Virtue of responsibility it makes sense to ascribe virtues such as honesty, fairness, and public spiritedness to certain corporations and not to others. 4. Wrongdoing or blameworthy/praiseworthy Causal responsibility, which consists simply in being a cause of some event. Legal responsibility, which is simply what the law requires. Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 40 Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 41 Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 42 Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 43 Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 44 Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 45 Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 46 Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 47 Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 48 Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 49 Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 50 Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/17/2021 51 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hamadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1 Spring 2021 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 2.1 Resolving Ethical Dilemmas 2.2 Making Moral Choices 2.3 Codes of Ethics Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 2 • “Borrowing” nuts and bolts, office supplies from employer • Copying of Videos or CD’s • Plagiarism • Using the copy machine at work • Software piracy • Expense account padding • Copying of homework or tests Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 3 Ethical (or moral) dilemmas are situations in which moral reasons come into conflict, or in which the applications of moral values are unclear, and it is not immediately obvious what should be done. Even routine moral decision making in engineering requires weighing and balancing conflicting moral values. How do we do this? Reasonable Solution to Ethical Dilemma has to be clear, informed, and well-reasoned Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 4 • Steps in Resolving Ethical Dilemma: 1. Moral Clarity 2. Conceptual Clarity 3. Informed about the Facts 4. Informed about the Options 5. Well-Reasoned Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 5 A chemical engineer working in the environment division of a computer manufacturing firm learns that her company might be discharging unlawful amounts of lead and arsenic into the city sewer. The city processes the slug into a fertilizer, the city imposes restrictive laws on the discharge of lead and arsenic. Preliminary investigations convince the engineer that the company should implement stronger pollution controls, but her supervisor tell her the cost of doing so is prohibitive and the technically company is compliance with the law. She is also scheduled to appear before town officials to testify in the matter. What should she do? Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 6 • Identifying the Relevant Moral Values: • Identifying the moral values and reasons applicable in the situation and keeping them in mind as we investigate further – these include obligations, duties, rights, goods, ideals, and other moral considerations. • Resources for this: 1. Talking with colleagues 2. Interpreting moral frameworks 3. Applying professional codes of ethics Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 7 Clarify Key Concepts • Making sure the relevant concepts are clear in any case “e.g.” • a) Holding paramount b) Safety Welfare d) Threat e) Danger f) Truthful, etc. c) 1/23/2021 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 8 • Professionalism requires being a faithful agent of one's employer, but does that mean doing what one's supervisor directs or doing what is good for the corporation in the long run? These might be different things, in particular when one's supervisor is adopting a short-term view that could harm the long-term interests of the corporation. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 9 • Obtain Relevant Information • Gathering information that is relevant with respect to the applicable moral values (ref. a) moral clarity). • This usually means being as certain as possible about the facts of the case. • Sometimes the primary difficulty in resolving moral dilemmas is uncertainty about the facts, rather than conflicting values. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 10 Certainly in the case at hand, the chemical engineer needs to check and recheck her findings, perhaps asking colleagues for their perspectives. Her corporation seems to be violating the law, but is it actually doing so? We, like the engineer, need to know more about the possible harm caused by the minute quantities of lead and arsenic over time. How serious is it, and how likely to cause harm? Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 11 Consider all Options • • Being careful to consider not just the obvious or usual options, but all potential options for resolving the dilemma. • Openly listing all options and sub-options, regardless of how unlikely they may seem, is a good way of making sure you’ve covered all important options. • Either bow to a supervisor's orders or blow the whistle to the town authorities. A closer look often reveals additional options. (Sometimes writing down the main options and sub options as a matrix or decision tree ensures that all options are considered.) • Unless an emergency develops, these and other steps should be attempted before informing authorities outside the corporation Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 12 • A reasonable Decision • Arriving at a carefully reasoned judgment by weighing all the relevant moral reasons and facts. • This is not a mechanical process but rather a deliberation that takes all reasons, facts and values into account in a morally reasonable manner. • Codes and theories of ethics can help, but they will not resolve all dilemmas or apply perfectly to every circumstance; and sometimes two codes, canons, or principles will conflict. In these cases the ability to reason well is crucial. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 13 We might divide ethical dilemmas into two broad categories. A. Right or wrong dilemmas: "Right" means that one course of action is obligatory and failing to do that action is unethical (immoral). B. Better-Worse: Unfortunately, many dilemmas have multiple solutions, none of which are mandatory but one of which must be chosen. The task here is to decide which one is better than the rest, any of which might be morally permissible. The best one is the one that will bring about more good than the others. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 14 In most instances (Right or wrong dilemmas) a code of ethics specifies what is clearly required: Obey the law and heed engineering standards, do not offer or accept bribes, speak and write truthfully, maintain confidentiality, and so forth. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 15 Engineer A, an environmental engineer, is retained by a major industrial owner to examine certain lands adjacent to an abandoned industrial facility formerly owned and operated by the owner. Owner’s attorney, Attorney X, requests that as a condition of the retention agreement that Engineer A sign a secrecy provision whereby Engineer A would agree not to disclose any data, findings, conclusions or other in-formation relating to his examination of the owner’s land to any other party unless ordered by a court. Engineer A signs the secrecy provision. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 16 Engineer Ais employed by a software company and is involved in the design of specialized software in connection with the operations of facilities affecting the public health and safety (i.e., nuclear, air quality control, water quality control). As part of the design of a particular software system, Engineer A conducts extensive testing, and although the tests demonstrate that the software is safe to use under existing standards, Engineer A is aware of new draft standards that are about to be released by a standard setting organization—standards which the newly designed software may not meet. Testing is extremely costly and the company’s clients are eager to begin to move forward. The software company is eager to satisfy its clients, protect the software company’s finances, and protect existing jobs; but at the same time, the management of the software company wants to be sure that the software is safe to use. A series of tests proposed by Engineer A will likely result in a decision whether to move forward with the use of the software. The tests are costly and will delay the use of the software at least six months, which will put the company at a competitive disadvantage and cost the company a significant amount of money. Also, delaying implementation will mean the state public service commission utility rates will rise significantly during this time. The company requests Engineer A’s recommendation concerning the need for additional software testing. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 17 • Case Study: Aluminum Cans: • US Company start to manufacturing in 1925 and control the market, even asking other company always to consult with them • Case of monopoly “Crime in US” • Judge ask the company ask company A to be divided into sub company • All Companies start competent in the market • Manager invite hi colleagues in small picnic, during this calibration he forget to bring can opening and ask the employee to solve, Gradually decision • 1980, start with environmental protection Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 18 • Moral decision-making is similar to engineering design process, which is an important reason why we are teaching basic design and ethics in the same course (the other main reason is that many ethical dilemmas in design arise within the context of design). • Both design and ethical decision making involve the following: a) engaged participation • We are agents and actors in the process, not passive or detached spectators (as we might be if we were watching a court case on TV) b) process similarities I. alternative solutions to problems, more than one of which is satisfactory II. multiple moral factors are involved and must be balanced; in many cases one possible solution is better in some ways, but another is better in other ways III. some solutions are clearly unacceptable, and there are ‘background constraints’ that limit the range of reasonable options IV. uncertainties and ambiguities are always present V. the problem, is dynamic – not one finite problem, but a cluster of problems that evolve over time; solving one part of the problem creates other problems Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 19 • Codes of ethics state the moral responsibilities of engineers as seen by the profession, and as represented by a professional society. They express the profession’s collective commitment to ethics: they identify engineers’ ethical responsibilities as well as his freedom to exercise these responsibilities (which implies that professional judgment is crucial). • Example of Code of Ethics: A. NSPE B. IEEE C. AIChE D. ASCE E. ASME F. ACM/IEEE/CS Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 20 NSPE Code of Ethics: six basic canons which can be applied widely to ensure ethical behavior in virtually any engineering situation: The first five canons outline engineers’ public/social obligations The sixth canon outlines engineers’ obligations to the engineering profession itself. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 21 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public Perform services only in areas of their competence. Issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner. Act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees. Avoid deceptive acts Conduct themselves honorably, responsibly, ethically, and lawfully so as to enhance the honor, reputation, and usefulness of the profession Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 22 Codes have eight essential roles: a) Serving and Protecting the Public Professionals act to protect and serve the public (they are involved in a ‘fiduciary relationship’), which means that the public gives its trust to engineers, and engineers promise to be trustworthy. Codes of ethics function as a written commitment by the profession as a whole that engineers will serve the public health, safety and welfare. This is the primary function of codes of ethics, and the remaining functions (below) all contribute to this one. b) Guidance Codes give helpful but general (therefore flexible) guidance to engineers, and also outline their main responsibilities. Sometimes these more general guides are supplemented by more specific guidelines, statements, and interpretations. c) Inspiration Codes provide for motivation to act ethically, since they outline a collective commitment shared by all engineers to protect and ensure the public good. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 23 d) Shared Standards The diversity of moral viewpoints among engineers (and all people) makes it essential that professions establish explicit standards – these are minimum standards (you can perform better than these, but not worse), but usually the standards are high (because the responsibilities are serious). e) Support for Responsible Professionals Codes allow engineers to refuse to do something wrong on the grounds that their professional codes forbid it. This can be a helpful and convincing argument to make when someone pressures an engineer to act unethically. Beyond this, the code provides legal support when the engineer is charged with not living up to his workrelated obligations (due to the fact that those actions violate the code). f) Education and Mutual Understanding Codes are publically available and accordingly can help encourage a shared understanding among professionals, the public, and government organizations about the moral responsibilities of engineers. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 24 g) Deterrence and Discipline Codes allow for formal investigation of unethical conduct, which is a strong deterrent to immoral behavior. h) Contributing to the Profession’s Image Codes that highlight ethical responsibilities contribute to an overall image of engineering as a profession ethically committed to the public’s best interests. This can also help engineers argue for more powers of self-regulation and less imposition of standards and regulations set by the government. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 25 a) not acted upon Published and approved but not taken seriously or not enforced. This just makes the public cynical of the profession and ultimately hurts engineers themselves. b) stifling of dissent If taken as absolute rules, rather than flexible principles, codes can stop engineers and the public from discussing code provisions and engineer’s duties, and restricting honest disagreement about whether certain provisions or practical actions are appropriate or not (possible for engineers to hide immoral activities behind a code statute). Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 26 c) restricting honest moral effort If codes are not taken seriously, they can be used to project an image of morality while unethical behaviors proliferate behind the scenes. They can also be ‘protected’ to the point that engineers are afraid to tarnish the profession’s image by admitting to failures that do not live up the standards of the ethical codes. d) restraining of commerce Codes can sometimes force high levels of fees, for example, by requiring that engineers do not compete on the basis of fees charged to clients. This can have the effect of weakening smaller and less well-known engineering companies because they are not able to compete in other ways (don’t have as much experience as bigger firms, don’t have the depth of employee resources, etc.) Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 27 Vague warding (Unclear warding of code) Conflict between code entries Proliferation (close meaning to this is: multiple-conflict between different codes of ethics of different disciplines) Code can be flawed (Flawed=Imperfect)(respect literal meaning of words without changing to favour certain outcomes) Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 28 The view that actions are morally right within a particular society when, and only because, they are approved by low, customs, or other conventions of that society Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 29 1. Subjective Relativism (Subjectivism) The view that actions are right or wrong relative to individual preference. 2. Cultural Relativism (Conventionalism) The view that an action is right if one’s culture approves it. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 30 3. Emotivism - The view of moral judgements cannot be either true or false, but are instead expressions of emotions or attitude - Moral statements are used to express emotions and to try to influence other people’s behaviour, but are not supportable by valid moral reasons. 4. Ethical Objectivism States that some moral judgements are universal (valid for everyone). Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 31 5. Ethical Pragmatism This approach of understanding code of ethics is based on recognize and record ethical obligations that are already practiced by the profession. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 32 A. Clarity and coherent B. Systematic and comprehensive C. Compatible with moral conviction Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 33 Genetic Engineering and Cloning: You have been offered a full scholarship to study Genetics Engineering by ABC biological company and eventually you will be working for ABC biological company. The company works in multiple projects that involves cloning, stem research, and genetic engineered product. The company is involved in agricultural, medical and defense projects. Should the engineer accept the job offer. Discuss the above point. Make sure you list: Ethical Dilemma Relevant Facts Involved Parties/factors Relevant code of ethics Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/23/2021 34 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hamadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1 Spring 2021 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 Ethical Theories Based on Philosophical Scholarship: 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Utilitarianism Rights Ethics Duty Ethics Virtue Ethics Self-Realization and Self-Interest Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 2 1/30/2021 • An ethical theory is a comprehensive perspective on morality that clarifies, organizes, and guides moral reflection. A good ethical theory should provide a framework for making moral choices and resolving moral dilemmas – not a simple formula, but rather a comprehensive way to identify, structure, and integrate moral reasons. • Ethical theories also ground the requirements in engineering codes of ethics by reference to broader moral principles. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 3 • We will discuss five types of ethical theories (and traditions) that have been especially influential Utilitarianism a)Act-utilitarianism b)Rule-utilitarianism Self-realization ethics a)Egoistic Duty ethics Rights ethics Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah a)Self-Realization and Personal Commitments Virtue ethics 1/30/2021 4 as Moral Frameworks • Utilitarianism says that we ought to maximize the overall good for the most people, taking into equal account all people those affected by our actions. • Rights ethics says we ought to respect human rights. • Duty ethics says we ought to respect individuals' rational autonomy. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 5 as Moral Frameworks • Virtue ethics says that good character is central to morality. • Self-realization ethics emphasizes the moral significance of self-fulfillment. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 6 Utilitarianism is the view that we ought always to produce the most good for the most people, giving equal consideration to everyone affected. Right conduct is nothing more than the maximization of good consequences. a) Complexity • This seems simple and sensible. Engineers should ‘hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public’. Welfare essentially means overall good (‘utility’). But what exactly is the good to be maximized? Should it be the good accomplished through individual action, or through general rules (laws, regulations, policies, principles, codes of ethics, etc.). Depending on how good (utility) is defined, utilitarianism takes different forms. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 7 • Cost-benefit analysis: identifies the good and bad consequences of some action or policy, usually in terms of dollars. • Risk-benefit analysis is the comparison of the risk of a situation to its related benefits. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 8 b) Comparison to cost-benefit analysis • Cost-benefit analysis weighs good against bad consequences, usually in monetary terms. On the surface this looks like utilitarianism, but in practice it is often different. The big difference involves whose good and bad is considered, and how good and bad are measured. In cost-benefit analysis, it is usually corporate good, not everyone’s good. that is considered. And it is usually a shortterm calculation (this financial quarter, the next election, etc.) • Utilitarianism considers the costs and benefits to everyone affected: the interests of each person is weighed equally, rather than holding a corporation’s or government’s interests as more important than any other interest. Utilitarianism normally takes a long-term view, and seldom reduces it’s evaluation of good and bad consequences to measurement of monetary impacts Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 9 • Designed to compete with foreign import models that had better gas mileage. Designing rushed to have it available to the public faster. • Cost analysis showed that the cost • Ford knew that the gas tank would of installing the part to be higher than the damage resulting from fatalities damage. • Problem could have been avoided if • Ford eventually did recall the Pinto explode if hit at >20mph from rear. a rubber bladder to cushion impact was installed that cost $5.08 installed. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah voluntary to try and save their reputation to reputation 1/30/2021 10 • • • Act-utilitarianism: maximize the overall good for each action, in each situation. This approach focuses on each situation and the alternative actions possible in the situation. An particular action is right if it is likely to produce the most good for the most people in a given situation, compared to alternative choices. The right action is the one that produces the most overall good. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 11 This standard can be applied at any moment, and according to act-utilitarians, it should be. The problem is that actually thinking though every situation and all possible actions is almost impossible. So we tend to rely on ‘rules of thumb’ to provide guidance (e.g. ‘complete your work on time’). Two problems” i. ii. these rules are based on past experience, and therefore cannot always handle novel situations these rules are very general and although they ‘usually’ work, they have to be broken sometimes It is usually a good idea to finish your work on time, but it might be a better idea to take care of your sick mother than to spend all your available time finishing up your house work: the best action often depend on the specific situation 1/30/2021 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 12 • Rule-utilitarianism: says live by a set of rules that maximize the overall good • This approach says we should in fact take rules more seriously than actions, because justifies rules are morally authoritative and not just loose rule-of-thumb guidelines. They are also more important than any specific isolated action. The right action is the one required by the rule that does the most good most of the time for the post people. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 13 This might sound like act-utilitarianism, but it isn’t. If following a generally good law actually, in a specific situation, causes more net ham than good: i. ii. act utilitarians will say you should break that law in that situation; rule-utilitarians will say you should not. However, because rules interact with each other, rules cannot be considered independently – they have to be considered as part of a set of rules: an optimal moral code. This is a set of rules (like an engineering code of ethics) which maximizes the public good more than any alternative codes would. Remember: if this code really optimal, it means that its rules should be followed even when an exception might happen to be beneficial. 1/30/2021 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 14 1/30/2021 • Case: Is paying bribe to win a contact for the company which will benefits all the employee acceptable or not? • Rule-utilitarianism: maximize the good through following rules that maximize good consequences, rather than through isolated actions. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 15 Historically (in the 20th century), rule-utilitarianism was developed to correct some problems in act-utilitarianism: i. act-utilitarianism allows some actions that we know are immoral. Stealing something from someone very wealthy would do very little harm to that person, and relatively more good to the thief. Actutilitarianism would say the theft was okay. But we consider theft immoral. Rule-utilitarianism demonstrates how the overall good is maximized if everyone refrains from theft; something actutilitarianism cannot do. ii. act-utilitarianism allows injustice to individuals as long as overall social good is maximized. If someone who is difficult to work with is fired for something they did not do, overall morale in a company might improve since no-one has to deal with that difficult individual any more. However, such a firing would still be immoral. iii. act-utilitarianism is unreasonably difficult to put into practice. If overall good is maximized by everyone with wealth giving it away to poor people, then the wealthy person’s well-being might be reduced slightly, but the poor’s well-being would be increased substantially more. This is asking too much of most people. Rule-utilitarianism solves this problem by developing ‘reasonable’ rules: e.g. give away as much as you can to help others, but keep enough so that you and your family are still comfortable. 1/30/2021 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 16 • What is the standards of good is another disagreement between utilitarianism • Act-utilitarianism seems that it permit immoral action • (injustice & require too much). Stealing a computer Social good at the expense of individual expense Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 17 Suppose that stealing a computer from my employer, an old one scheduled for replacement anyway, benefits me significantly and causes only miniscule harm to the employer and others. We know that the theft is unethical, and hence act-utilitarianism seems to justify wrongdoing. Rule utilitarianism was developed as way to correct several problems with act-utilitarianism. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 18 Another issue within utilitarianism involves how ‘good consequences’ should be measured? Intrinsic good is something good regardless of consequences; instrumental (consequential) good is good judged by what it achieves. But which ones are ‘intrinsic’ and how do we decide? The classis answer is that pleasure is intrinsically good. I. Rational desires this view argues that intrinsic goods are those that we can affirm after a full examination of all information about the world and our own needs. Self-destructive desires (the ‘pleasures’ of eating too much, for example) can be shown to be irrational, therefore not intrinsically good. Only things alike love and creativity can be counted intrinsically good. II. preference theory this view argues that what is intrinsically good is simply what individual prefer, as manifested by their choices (often market choices) regardless of the consequences (good or bad) those choices might have. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 19 • The general idea behind utilitarianism is pretty simple, you should do the thing that results in the greatest overall good. • The problem and the criticism are simple - how do you know what’s going to end up producing the greatest overall good? • The answer isn’t easy - essentially, you need to use your previous experience to guess at what will increase happiness. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 20 Answer by (True) or (False) T 1) Cost benefits analysis identifies the good and bad consequences of some action or policy in terms of dollars. T 2) Utilitarianism says the sole standard of right action is good consequences. T 3) There is only one general moral requirement for utilitarianism which is producing the most good for the most people, giving equal consideration to everyone affected. F 4) ___ Rule-utilitarianism seems to justify wrongdoing. Act Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 21 • Right Ethics regards human rights as fundamentals. • Duty Ethics regards duties of respect for autonomy as fundamentals. • Both theories emphasize respect for individuals’ dignity and worth, in contrast with utilitarian's emphasis of the general good. • Rights Ethics and Duty Ethics are mirror images of each other: because you have a right to life, I have duty not to kill you; and if I have duty not to deceive you then you have a right not to be deceived. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 22 • Right Ethics regards human rights as fundamentals. • Rights are moral entitlements (when you have the right to do or have something) and valid moral claims that impose duties on other people • All ethical theories leave some room for rights, but the ethical theory called rights ethics is distinctive in that it makes human rights the ultimate appeal the moral bottom line. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 23 Engineering: Rights enter into engineering in several ways. Holding paramount the health, welfare and safety of the public implies respect for a whole range of publics rights: right to life (not to be killed by engineering works) right to privacy (not to have personal matters exposed by engineering systems) III. right to safety (not to be injured by products) IV. right to liberty (not to have information about engineering risks withheld – i.e. informed consent) (etc.) I. II. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 24 Human rights as absolute All ethical theories pay attention to rights, but rights ethics makes human rights the ultimate appeal and criterion of ethical action: morality is about respecting the inherent dignity and worth of individuals as they exercise their liberty. In rights ethics, we can make moral demands on others to respect our choices, as long as we allow others to make such demand on us. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 25 Influence Rights ethics has been hugely influential: politics (cf. US Declaration of Independence: “all men are endowed … with certain unalienable rights… ) II. women’s liberation movement I. III. civil rights movement IV. farm workers (laborers) movement V. cross-cultural ethics (etc.) Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 26 legal rights Note that human rights are basic rights we have as humans, regardless of whether or not they are supported in the law as legal rights; this is another example of where moral imperatives are not always identical to legal imperatives Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 27 1- Liberty rights Negative rights: the right to exercise one’s liberty (and the duty of others ‘not’ to interfere). Liberty rights are the basis for libertarianism, in which the emphasis is on individual freedoms, the protection of private property, the minimization of government regulation (because this limits individual freedom), and the elimination of all forms of welfare. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 28 2- Welfare rights Positive rights: the right to those benefits needed for a decent human life, especially in situations where one cannot earn these (because of disability of handicap, etc.). Thus welfare rights directly imply communities of people; and therefore these rights have to be determined contextually by reference to what the community believes is moral and what the community is able to provide to its members Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 29 Most rights ethicists agree that both kinds of rights (liberty, welfare) exist and should be respected. In addition, there a re special rights, and limitations on rights a) special moral rights These are rights that not all people have. These are grounded in human rights, but have a highly specific character. Engineers have certain rights (control over the engineering profession, for example) that others do not enjoy. These rights are normally given by legislation, but other special rights are conferred by promises and contracts (most products come with an implied contract or an explicit guarantee that the product will be safe and useful). b) limitations of rights Very few rights are absolute or unlimited in the sense of having no exceptions. Rights of freedom to pursue one’s own interests imply the right to be informed if products have risks (informed consent), and this right to free choice does not give engineers the freedom to design dangerous products. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 30 • Duty ethics regards duties of respect for individual autonomy as fundamental. Like rights ethics (and unlike utilitarianism, which emphasizing general good), this approach emphasizes respect for individuals. Duty ethics is the mirror of rights ethics: because you have a right to life (rights ethics), I have a duty not to kill you (duty ethics). Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1/30/2021 31 One duty ethicist suggests the following list of important duties: Do not kill 2) Do not cause pain. 3) Do not disable. 4) Do not deprive of freedom. 5) Do not deprive of pleasure. 6) Do not deceive. 7) Keep your promises. 8) Do not cheat. 9) Obey the law. 10) Do your duty [referring to work, family, and other special responsibilities. 1) Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept. UAE University 32 Lists like these (above) are familiar, but how do we know that these really are our duties? Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) makes the following points. a) Autonomy: All these duties actually derive from a single fundamental duty: respect others; people deserve respect because they are moral agents with the capacity to recognize and respond to moral duty (they are morally ‘autonomous’). Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept. UAE University 33 b) Mere means and ends We are immoral if we treat others as means to an end (as objects) rather than as ends themselves (as morally autonomous subjects). Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept. UAE University 34 c) Self and other We have a moral duty to respect others, but we also have a duty to respect ourselves. d) Universality These moral principles apply universally – i.e. to all humans without exception. Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept. UAE University 35 e) Categorical imperative These moral duties are injunctions or commands that we impose on ourselves and others; they are categorical in the sense that we are required to follow – to do what is right -- because it is right, and with no special incentives. Being honest might benefit us most of the time, but we should be honest because being honest is a way of respecting the autonomy of others: it is a duty, not an option. Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept. UAE University 36 f) Absolutism These basic duties or moral rules (e.g. do not lie, etc.) are absolute in the sense that no exceptions are justified; this particular idea is usually rejected by ethicists, generally because in human life (and engineering practice) we tend to encounter situations where duties come in to conflict … so they cannot be absolute (if they were, they would be irrational and not binding on us). Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept. UAE University 37 Kant thought that everyday principles of duty, such as “Do not lie” and “Keep your promises,” are absolute in the sense of never having justifiable exceptions. In doing so, he conflated three ideas: 1) Universality moral rules apply to all rational agents 2) Categorical imperatives moral rules command what is right because it is right 3) Absolutism moral rules have no exceptions Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept. UAE University 38 a) Exceptions The Latin term prima facie literally means ‘on the face’, but in the sense used here, it means ‘might have exceptions’ (contrary to Kant, see item f) above). Practically, most duties are prima facie in the sense that they have reasonable permissible or obligatory exceptions. Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept. UAE University 39 b) Balance Although most duties are obvious, it is not always obvious how to balance them and find the best solution to a particular moral problem (i.e. how to find our actual duty in that case). One solution is to notice which duties are more pressing than others (we can be fairly confident that ‘do not kill’ will normally take precedence over ‘do not lie’, etc.) Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept. UAE University 40 c) Contextualism Usually, however, things are not this simple. Our last recourse, then, is to reflect carefully on particular situations (contexts), weighing all relevant duties in light of all the facts, and try to arrive at a sound judgment. Sometimes this takes intuition, but in general it is safer to rely on rational dialogue and reflect on the best ways to interpret and apply general rules with specific application. Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept. UAE University 41 When I am in a situation, as perhaps I always am, in which more than one of these prima facie duties is incumbent on me, what I have to do is to study the situation as fully as I can until I form the considered opinion (it is never more) that in the circumstances one of them is more incumbent than any other; then I am bound to think that to do this prima facie duty is my duty sans phrase in the situation [i.e., my actual duty, all things considered]. Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept. UAE University 42 Engineers have a duty to maintain confidentiality about information owned by their corporations, but that duty can be overridden by the paramount duty to protect the safety, health, and welfare of the public Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept. UAE University 43 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hamadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1 Spring 2021 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 Ethical Theories Based on Philosophical Scholarship: 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Utilitarianism Rights Ethics Duty Ethics Virtue Ethics Self-Realization and Self-Interest Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 2 2/6/2021 • An ethical theory is a comprehensive perspective on morality that clarifies, organizes, and guides moral reflection. A good ethical theory should provide a framework for making moral choices and resolving moral dilemmas – not a simple formula, but rather a comprehensive way to identify, structure, and integrate moral reasons. • Ethical theories also ground the requirements in engineering codes of ethics by reference to broader moral principles. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 3 • We will discuss five types of ethical theories (and traditions) that have been especially influential Utilitarianism a)Act-utilitarianism b)Rule-utilitarianism Self-realization ethics a)Egoistic Duty ethics Rights ethics Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah a)Self-Realization and Personal Commitments Virtue ethics 2/6/2021 4 • Virtue Ethics emphasizes character more than duties and rights. • Character is the pattern of: • Virtues (morally desirable features) • Vices (morally undesirable features) in individual. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 5 • Virtue Ethics : We should develop and manifest good characters as defined by the virtues-desirable habits or tendencies in action, commitment, motive, attitude, emotion, ways of reasoning and ways of relating to others. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 6 • The most important virtue is practical sense, that is, morally good judgment, which enables us to discern the mean for all the other virtues. • The most comprehensive virtue Professionalism engineers is Responsible ________________________. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah of 2/6/2021 7 • The most comprehensive virtue in engineering is responsible professionalism. We know from previous topics that this idea of professionalism involves several criteria: Vocation Expertise Self-governance Public duty Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 8 • Types (umbrella) of virtues Ethics: 1) Public well-being: Public-spirited virtues 2) Professional competence: Proficiency virtues 3) Cooperative practices: Teamwork virtues 4) Personal integrity: self governance virtues Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 9 Public well-being: Public-spirited virtues: Virtues focused on the good of clients and the wider public, including not harming others (general); actively preventing or removing harm to others and promoting public safety (professional); generosity in volunteering and helping others (community); and promoting justice in corporations and government (social) Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 10 Professional competence: Proficiency virtues: Virtues involved the mastery of the technical skills that characterize good engineering; these obviously contribute to engineering competence and excellence, but they also have moral implications: competence, preparation, diligence, and creativity are ways of morally activating technical proficiency – virtues. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 11 Cooperative practices: Teamwork virtues: Virtues that are especially important in enabling professionals to work successfully with other people: collegiality, cooperativeness, loyalty, and respect for legitimate authority, leadership, responsible exercise of authority, ability to motivate others. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 12 Personal integrity: self governance virtues: Virtues required to exercise moral responsibility: selfunderstanding, good judgment, commitment, application, selfdiscipline, integrity, honesty, truthfulness, trustworthiness Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 13 As with the previous ethical theories (rights ethics, duty ethics, and utilitarianism), there are several forms of virtue ethics. Among other things Samuel Florman, for example, focuses on loyalty to employers while Aristotle (next section) focuses on loyalty to community. For Florman, the essence of engineering is found in the virtue of being conscientious. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 14 A. Conscientiousness: On this view, engineers who do their jobs well are morally good engineers. As such they have the following virtues: competence, reliability, inventiveness, loyalty to employers and respect for laws and democratic processes. Engineers should be accountable to laws and regulations, not to their own personal consciences. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 15 Competence Florman believes that competence and loyalty are the two most important of these virtues: Loyalty • This means performing with requisite skill and experience, which means exercising due care, persistence, diligence, attention to detail, and often also creativity and innovative thinking • Florman says that 98% of engineering failures re caused by incompetence; 2%% are caused by greed, fraud, dishonestly, and other ‘everyday’ wrongdoing, often combined with sloppiness. • This means working in the best interests of the employer, since it is competition among corporations that makes technological progress possible … and there is no viable competition without engineers working loyally inside a corporation. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 16 B. Problems In the end, Florman believes that duty to employers comes before everything else, including professional codes that require engineers to hold paramount public safety, health and welfare. Besides the problem that engineers following this approach would have their licenses revoked in certain cases, such an attitude can encourage engineers to passively accept any company directive and relying on the law alone to protect the public Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 17 Defined the moral virtues as habits of reaching a proper balance between extremes in conduct, emotion, desire, and attitude. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 18 a) Golden mean: Aristotle defined the moral virtues as habits of reaching a proper balance between extremes of conduct, emotion, desire and attitude. The ‘golden mean’ is this balance between excess (too much) and deficiency (too little). What would ‘truthfulness’ be? It would be the middle ground between revealing everything in violation of tact and confidentiality) and revealing nothing (being secretive or lacking in candor) Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 19 b) Practical wisdom This is the virtue Aristotle thought was most important: practical wisdom is morally good judgment which lets you determine the ‘golden mean’ for all the other virtues. Practical wisdom basically comes out of the development of good habits as achieved through proper training within families and communities. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 20 c) Community and self If we have these virtues, then we can help the community achieve the public good it needs, and also fulfill our personal needs as human beings (i.e. find the golden mean of ‘happiness’ between community needs and our own needs) Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 21 d) Social practices Recently Alasdair MacIntyre has applied Aristotle’s ideas to the idea of professions as valuable social activities engaged in social practices – cooperative human activities through which good is realized by trying to achieve relevant standards of excellence. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 22 Some definitions: Internal goods • Good things that are so essential to a social activity that they basically define it (e.g. the products, activities, and experiences related to engineering) public goods benefits provided to the community personal goods benefits connected with meaningful work External goods • Goods that can be earned through engaging in social practices: money, power, selfesteem, prestige these are important, but they can also threaten internal goods: they may even corrupt institutions and undermine social practices Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 23 Some definitions: Standard excellence progress of • These enable internal goods to be achieved without compromising internal goods; in engineering these standards include technical guidelines (specify current ideas of best practice) and professional codes of ethics (which apply to all engineers) these encourage engineers to keep high standards of practice and conduct, and usually include penalties for failure to perform to the standards • Human progress is made possible though social practices, as these practices (including those in engineering) expand our understanding, improve human life, and more generally let us achieve public and private goods Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 24 e) Problems No ethical theory is without flaws, and virtue ethics needs to be refined to take care of two basic challenges I. (Dis-) unity of the virtues: this is the idea that all virtues consistently spring from the single virtue of ‘wisdom’. But we know that virtues can come into conflict, so they are not unified at all (the virtue of honesty can conflict with the virtue of sensitivity, if telling someone something might hurt there feelings). also, in reality, we all have strengths in certain virtues (e.g. we are very honest) and weaknesses in other ones (maybe we are not so selfdisciplined), so again virtues are not unified Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 25 e) Problems No ethical theory is without flaws, and virtue ethics needs to be refined to take care of two basic challenges II. Incompleteness: virtue ethics is too vague if used by itself – if the virtues are not spelled out with rough guidelines, they do not provide much practical guidance. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 26 Although all ethical theories leave a certain amount of room for self-interest, self-realization ethics makes doing good for oneself and developing personal commitments the most important ethical concerns. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 27 Utilitarianism: says that self-interest should enter into our calculations of the overall good. Rights ethics says we have rights to pursue our legitimate interests. Duty ethics: says we have duties to ourselves. Virtue ethics: links our personal good with participating in communities and social practices. Self-realization fulfilment. ethics: says right actions consists in seeking self- Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 28 Two versions of Self-Realization Ethics & Self-Interest : Ethical egoism: is a more individualistic version of selfrealization ethics that says each of us ought always and only to promote our self-interes Community-oriented: the self to be realized is understood in terms of caring relationships and communities. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 29 Ethical egoism says that each of us should promote only our own self-interest – our sole duty is to maximize our own wellbeing a) long-term Self interest is understood to mean what is best for our long term well-being (good, happiness), rather than why is simply immediate and short-term (instant gratification like eating too much at a party) b) conflict with engineering Ethical egoism does not imply or assume community interest or caring for others; in engineering this would mean only thinking about oneself … which makes this an impractical ethical theory for a discipline that must serve the public good as its first priority Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 30 Argument (1): self‐respect, and then portrayed altruism toward others as incompatible with valuing oneself. This argument contains important truth: includes recognition of our vulnerabilities and interdependencies, and certainly it is compatible with caring about other persons as well as about ourselves Independence is a value of great importance. Self-respect Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 31 Argument (2): the world would be a better place. Heroic individuals who by pursuing their self‐interest indirectly contribute to the good of others. This argument contains important truth: ethical egoism since it indicates that the ultimate goal is the good of others. Nevertheless, this argument does not support Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 32 Argument (3): psychological egoism and that all people are always and only motivated by what they believe is good for them in some respect. This argument contains important truth: based on seductive and simple confusion. Also many action have multiple motives. It is difficult to refute however most of this view is Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 33 One practical reality that follows from ethical egoism is that self- interest is indeed a very strong motive. However, self-interest isn’t all that people care about. Everyone’s motives (including those of engineers) involve both self and other, since even our self-interest includes love, friendship, and community involvement. a) Predominant egoism Ethical egoism reminds us that the strongest desire of most people is to take care of themselves before others Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 34 b) Mixed motives however, while self-interest is important, most of the time people believe in helping others, so actions are usually involve a combination of selfconcern and concern for others as engineers we have various types of motives: 1) Proficiency motives, center on excellence in meeting the technical standards of a profession, together with related aesthetic values of beauty. 2) Compensation motives are for social rewards such as income, power, recognition, and job or career stability. 3) Moral motives include desires to meet ones responsibilities, respect the rights of others, and contribute to the well-being of others. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 35 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 36 This theme is expressed by F. H. Bradley (1826-1924): "The 'individual' apart from the community is an abstraction. It is not anything real, and hence not anything that we can realize .... I am myself by sharing with others." Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 37 Another branch of self-realization ethics takes this ‘community’ idea into account more fully than ethical egoism does. This version says that each individual should pursue self-realization, but it emphasizes the importance of caring relationships and communities in defining the ‘self’ to be fulfilled. a) linkage to communities since we are social beings, our identities and meaning are linked to communities Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 38 b) Particular commitments An individual’s character is partly formed and defined by the relationships and commitments they enter into (humanitarianism, environmental, religious, political, aesthetic, family, etc.); c) Limits to commitments In professional life, there are limits to how these commitments are exercised; major limitations are provided by codes of ethics, but also by basic ideals of justice and decency. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 39 d) Professional issues All these commitments play a role in everyday life, but we often forget that they also affect the way we do our jobs or practice our profession (we may have certain ideas about weapons development that would tell us to refuse or embrace weapons engineering; we may believe in volunteering our professional skills to community work, etc.) Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 40 For many people, religious beliefs and spiritual attitudes are the most important personal commitments, and they are relevant to all aspects of our lives, including professional work. a) Specific religious commitments Principles of engineering design might be derived from a religious perspective. The Dutch Calvinist beliefs of Egbert Schuurman suggested to him that beyond functional, technical or broadly social requirements, the following issues should be considered in design: openness, harmony, stewardship, justice, caring, trustworthiness. Mark Pesce who invented the dial-up networking. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 41 b) General implications Religious beliefs can support morally responsible conduct in other general ways: motivation for acting ethically II. stimulating moral reflection III. offering practical guidance IV. setting a high standard for conduct I. (ihsan, piety and/or pursuit of excellence, in Islam) Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 42 Ethical theories are attempts to provide clarity and consistency, systematic and comprehensive understanding, and helpful practical guidance in moral matters. Sound ethical theories succeed in meeting these aims. Clear and coherent. They rely on concepts (ideas) that are sufficiently clear to be applicable, and their various claims and principles are internally consistent. 2. Organize basic moral values in a systematic and comprehensive way 3. Provide helpful guidance that is compatible with our most carefully considered moral convictions 1. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 43 How to choose? All the theories discussed here generally meet these criteria, although they differ on what they emphasize. Like codes of ethics, these theories are only resources or guides, not absolutes. What we have to do is not decide which one is best overall, but use them collectively to help our moral reasoning in concrete situations. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/6/2021 44 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hamadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 1 Spring 2021 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 Engineering as Social Experimentation: 4.1 Engineering as Social Experimentation 4.2 Engineering as Responsible Experimenters 4.3 Challenger 2/13/2021 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2 ▪ All products of technology present potential dangers, regardless of how carefully they are designed, produced and used. Engineering should be considered inherently risky, and even consider experimental. ▪ Because this experimentation happens at the social level (and not purely at the technical level), there is always a need for a mechanism or procedure for escape from harm in the event of a product failure: a ‘safe exit’. 2/13/2021 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 3 ▪ Engineering projects are experiments that involve technology development and humans ▪ Experiment on social scale involving human subjects 2/13/2021 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 4 • Experimentation is playing an essential role in the design process. • The normal design process is thus iterative (doing something again and again, usually to improve it), carried out on trial designs with modifications being made on the basis of feedback information acquired from tests. • At the production stage further tests are run, until a finished product evolves. • Beyond those specific tests and experiments, however, each engineering project taken as a whole may be viewed as an experiment. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 5 In many ways, engineering procedure is like standard experimentation: a) Ignorance • any project is carried out in partial ignorance and uncertainties in the following, and talent in engineering is partly defined by the ability to accomplish tasks safely with only partial knowledge: i. ii. iii. The abstract models used for design calculations (cannot perfectly simulate real-world conditions) The precision of materials processing and fabrication (variations are introduced in the manufacturing process) The nature of the stresses the finished product will encounter (actual field conditions are often unanticipated) Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 6 b) Unpredictability • The final outcome of engineering projects, as with standard experiments, are generally unknown; sometimes even the various possible outcomes are unknown: i. ii. iii. iv. The design may fail to fulfill its intended purpose The design may produce unintended consequences The design may be used for unanticipated purposes There may be entirely unexpected side effects Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 7 c) Novelty ▪ Effective engineering relies on knowledge gained before and after a product is released; this is especially true for new or unusual designs: i. ii. New products may not perform as expected (they need to be monitored over time to see how they actually perform) Products may not perform in the field as they do in the lab (they need to be tested under client use) Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 8 Ignorance They are carried out in partial ignorance. b) Unpredictability They have uncertain outcomes c) Novelty They require monitoring and feedback d) Informed Consent They mandate obtaining informed a) Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 9 Engineers need to learn from past successes and failures, but for several reasons this sometimes doesn’t happen: a) Problems i. ii. iii. iv. v. lack of established channels of communication Misplaced pride in (not) asking for information Embarrassment at failure Fear of litigation Simply neglecting to study previous situations Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 10 b) i. ii. iii. iv. Solutions: Learn from workers (who have a much different and more practical perspective than handbooks and software) Do quick ‘back of envelope’ calculations (to check lengthy complex calculations) Stay alert and well-informed at all stages of the project (including the history of the project) Freely exchange ideas with colleagues Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 11 Examples: 1) The Titanic lacked a sufficient number of lifeboats decades after most of the passengers and crew on the steamship Arctic had perished (pass away completely) because of the same problem Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 12 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 13 2) "Complete lack of protection against impact by shipping caused Sweden's worst ever bridge collapse on Friday as a result of which eight people were killed." Thus reported the New Civil Engineer on January 24, 1980. Engineers now recommend the use of floating concrete bumpers that can deflect ships, but that recommendation is rarely heeded as seen by the 1993 collapse of the Bayou Canot bridge that cost 43 passengers of the Sunset Limited their lives. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 14 3) In June 1966 a section of the Milford Haven Bridge in Wales collapsed during construction. A bridge of similar design was being erected by the same bridge builder (Freeman Fox and Partners) in Melbourne, Australia, when it, too, partially collapsed, killing 33 people and injuring 19. This happened in October of the same year, shortly after chief construction engineer Jack Hindshaw (also a casualty) had assured worried workers that the bridge was safe. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 15 4) Valves are notorious for being among the least reliable components of hydraulic systems. It was a pressure relief valve, and a lack of definitive information regarding its open or shut state, which contributed to the nuclear reactor accident at Three Mile Island on March 28, 1979. Similar malfunctions had occurred with identical valves on nuclear reactors at other locations. ▪ The Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah required reports had been filed with Babcock and Wilcox, the reactor's manufacturer, but no attention had been given to them. 2/13/2021 16 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 17 • To be sure, engineering differs in some respects from standard experimentation. Some of those very differences help to highlight the engineer’s special responsibilities. • Exploring the differences can also aid our thinking about the moral responsibilities of all those engaged in engineering. • Contrasts with Standard Experiments • 1) Experimental Control • 2) Informed Consent • 3) Knowledge Gained Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 18 i) control • In a typical standard experiment, one group is subjected to a test, treatment or special situation (experimental subjects), while another group is held to the all the same conditions except for the special procedures being tests in the experimental group (control subjects). • In engineering, social ‘experimentation’ happens in the real world where no rigorous measures of control are possible. No control Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 19 ii) randomization • Because specific and often self-selected populations are ‘experimented on’ in engineering, no randomization is possible Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 20 Viewing engineering as an experiment on a societal scale places the focus where it should be-on the human beings affected by technology, for the experiment is performed on persons, not on inanimate objects. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 21 Similarly, to other professional fields (like medicine), in engineering subjects have a right be informed of potential risks, for the following reasons 1. 2. 3. 4. Real persons are involved, and we have a moral duty of care to protect their safety and welfare We must ensure the freedom of choice of the subject involved Subjects have fundamental more and legal rights to know about risks and possible consequences This amounts to an ethical responsibility to respect people’s rights to: knowledge (having all the available information, which requires the cooperation of superiors and colleagues) ii. Voluntariness (choosing to participate without being forced, therefore interest and receptivity by subjects) ➢ Voluntarily undertaken risks: higher risk are tolerated if they are chosen ➢ Involuntary risks: lower risks are tolerated if forced on people i. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 22 Basic features of valid informed consent: 1. Consent must be given voluntarily 2. Consent is based on all required and requested information 3. Consenter is competent (not too young, not mentally unfit) to make the decision to participate or not 4. All information has been presented clearly and distributed widely 5. If group consent is involved, the proxies fairly represent the like subjects Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 23 • Although standard experiments are conducted to generate new knowledge, engineering experimentation seeks to prepare for unexpected outcomes. i. Science: ideally we discover something entirely new (in large part this is what the Nobel Prize rewards, although these discoveries are expected to have beneficial applications) ii. Engineering ideally the best outcome is one where we discover nothing new and essentially have our knowledge confirmed. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 24 Scientific experiments are conducted to gain new knowledge, whereas "engineering projects are experiments that are not necessarily designed to produce very much knowledge. “The best outcome in engineering activity is one that tells us nothing new but affirms that we are right about something”. Taft Broome Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 25 ▪ Engineers share responsibility for technology with management, government and the public; however, because of their expertise, engineers are uniquely positioned to monitor projects, identify risks, and provide information needed for responsible public decisions. Basic engineering responsibilities involved in social experimentation Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 26 ▪ From the perspective of engineering as social experimentation, four features characterize what it means to be a responsible person while acting as an engineer: ▪ A conscientious commitment to live by moral values ▪ A comprehensive perspective ▪ Autonomy ▪ Accountability ▪ Or, stated in greater detail as applied to engineering projects conceived as social experiments. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 27 ‘Style of Engineering’ 1. Conscientiousness: A primary obligation to protect the safety of human subjects and respect their right of consent . 2. Comprehensive Perspective: A constant awareness of the experimental nature of any project, imaginative forecasting of its possible side effects, and a reasonable effort to monitor them. 3. Moral Autonomy: Autonomous, personal involvement in all steps of engineering project . 4. Accountability: Accepting accountability for the results of a project . A Balance Outlook on Law & Industrial Standards Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 28 ▪ People act responsibly to the extent that they conscientiously commit themselves to live according to moral values, instead of a consuming preoccupation with a narrowly conceived self‐interest. ▪ By conscientious moral commitment we mean sensitivity to the full range of moral values and responsibilities relevant to a given situation, and the willingness to develop the skill and expend (to use or spend especially time, effort or money needed to reach a reasonable balance among those considerations. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 29 ▪ Conscientiousness implies consciousness: open eyes, open ears, and an open mind (i.e., moral vision, moral listening, and moral reasoning) ▪ The contemporary working conditions of engineers tend to narrow moral vision solely to the obligations that accompany employee status Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 30 ▪ Conscientiousness information. is blind without relevant factual ▪ Hence showing moral concern involves a commitment to obtain and properly assess all available information that is pertinent (relating directly to the subject being considered) to meeting moral obligations. ▪ This means, as a first step, fully grasping the context of one's work, which makes it count as an activity having a moral import. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 31 ▪ People are morally autonomous when their moral conduct and principles of action are their own. ▪ Viewing engineering as social experimentation can help overcome this tendency and restore a sense of autonomous participation in one’s work. ▪ As an experimenter, an engineer is exercising the sophisticated training that forms the core of his or her identity as a professional. ▪ Responsible people accept moral responsibility for their actions. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 32 ▪ Too often "accountable" is understood in the overly narrow sense of being culpable (deserving to be blamed or considered responsible for something bad) and blameworthy for misdeeds. ▪ But the term more properly refers to the general disposition (a natural tendency to do something, or to have or develop something) of being willing to submit one's actions to moral scrutiny the careful and detailed examination of something in order to get information about it)and be open and responsive to the assessments of others. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 33 a) Problems: ▪ There is a tendency to separate causal influence from moral accountability in engineering, as well as in other professions and businesses. ▪ We know that causal responsibility and moral responsibility do not always fall on the same individuals (children may bee causally responsible for a danger, but their parents are generally morally accountable for the consequences); in most engineering cases, however, causal influence leads to moral accountability Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 34 ▪ Several reasons why their tends to be a ‘psychological’ split between these (i.e. feeling they are separate, when in fact they are not): i. Because large-scale engineering work is fragmented, and any engineer only works on a small part of it, engineers tend to lose a sense of responsibility for the work he does, as well as for the overall work of the team ii. Personal accountability tends to get lost in a large diffuse organization where hierarchies of authority (wrongly) seem accountability is held ‘higher up’ or ‘elsewhere’ to suggest that iii. Pressures of a schedule often encourage moving on to new projects before the’ old’ one is properly observed iv. Sometimes a preoccupation with legalities (because of litigation fears) substitute for a proper conscientious regard for moral reflections, and for taking moral (and maybe legally liable) stances beyond one’s own narrow institutional role Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 35 b) Remedies ▪ There is only one: engineers must embrace and endorse the idea that engineering is social experimentation in order to be engaged and not divorced from personal responsibility for their work Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 36 ▪ The legal regulations that apply to engineering and other professions are becoming more numerous and more specific all the time. ▪ We hear many complaints about this trend, and a major effort to deregulate various spheres of our lives is currently under way. ▪ Nevertheless, we continue to hear cries of "there ought to be a law" whenever a crisis occurs, or a special interest is threatened. ▪ This should not be surprising to us in the United States Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 37 ▪ We pride ourselves on being a nation that lives under the rule of law. ▪ We even delegate many of our decisions on ethical issues to an interpretation of laws. ▪ And yet this emphasis on law can cause problems in regard to ethical conduct quite aside from the more practical issues usually cited by those who favor deregulation. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 38 ▪ For example, one of the greatest moral problems in engineering , and one fostered by the very existence of minutely detailed rules, is that of minimal compliance. ▪ This can find its expression when companies or individuals search for loopholes (a small mistake in an agreement or law which gives someone the chance to avoid having to do something) in the law that will allow them to barely keep to its letter even while violating its spirit. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 39 ▪ Or, hard‐pressed engineers find it convenient to refer to standards with ready‐made specifications as a substitute for original thought, perpetuating the "handbook mentality“ and the repetition of mistakes. ▪ Society's attempts at regulation have indeed often failed, but it would be wrong to write off rule‐making and rule‐following as futile. ▪ Good laws, effectively enforced, clearly produce benefits. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 40 ▪ They authoritatively establish reasonable minimal standards of professional conduct and provide at least a self‐interested motive for most people and corporations to comply. ▪ Moreover, they serve as a powerful support and defense for those who wish to act ethically in situations where ethical conduct might be less than welcome. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 41 ▪ Moreover, it suggests the following conclusions: Precise rules and enforceable sanctions are appropriate in cases of ethical misconduct that involve violations of well‐established and regularly re‐examined engineering procedures that have as their purpose the safety and well‐being of the public. ▪ Little of an experimental nature is probably occurring in such standard activities, and the type of professional conduct required is most likely very clear. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 42 ▪ In areas where experimentation is involved more substantially, however, rules must not attempt to cover all possible outcomes of an experiment, nor must they force engineers to adopt rigidly specified courses of action. ▪ It is here that regulations should be broad, but written to hold engineers accountable for their decisions. Through their professional societies engineers should also play an active role in establishing (or changing) enforceable rules as well as in enforcing them. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 43 ▪ Engineering as social experimentation can provide engineers with a proper perspective on laws and regulations in that rules that govern engineering practice should not be devised or construed as rules of a game but as rules of responsible experimentation. ▪ Such a view places proper responsibility on the engineer who is intimately connected with his or her "experiment" and responsible for its safe conduct. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 44 Conclusion Reasonable laws and sanctions are appropriate components of engineering, but laws set the rules for minimal compliance rather than providing the full substance of engineering ethics Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 45 Standards are explicit specifications that are intended to ensure that stated criteria for interchangeability and quality will be attained; they serve the purposes of allowing interchange of components and substituting for lengthy design specifications (as such, they can decrease design and production costs) Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 46 ▪ Examples range from automobile tire, sizes and load ratings to computer protocols. ▪ Standards are established by companies for in-house use and by professional associations and trade associations for industry- wide use. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 47 Types of standards: criterion purpose examples: a) Uniform physical properties accuracy and interchangeability weights, bolts, film specs. ii. Safety and reliability prevention of injury, death, loss fire safety codes iii. Product quality fair value for price plywood grades, bulb life iv. Personnel or service quality task competence accreditation and licenses v. Use of accepted procedures sound design and communication test procedures vi. Separability freedom form interference broadcast frequencies vii. Quality procedures (ISO, etc.) international acceptability products, education, work i. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 48 49 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 b) Sources of standards In-house standards developed by companies ii. Professional societies and trade associations iii. Laws and government regulations i. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 50 Value of standards c) i. Help manufactures achieve quality, saleable products while still remaining competitive ii. Allow clients to own and operate safe and reliable products Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 51 Problems with standards: as useful as standards are, they sometimes cause trouble: d) i. Overly specific: they can stifle innovation ii. Serve special interests: they can include special provisions that serve only some manufacturers, exporters, etc. iii. Unimaginative: sometimes written before all likely dangers are foreseen iv. Seductive: we might believe that standards exist or are comprehensive (therefore products are safe), when they do-not (and therefore are-not … necessarily) Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 52 ▪ The question of safe exits will be discussed in more detail in the lecture notes of safety, but it is already clear that engineered products can involve significant and unexpected risks, not all of which can be accounted for or mitigated in the design process. There must be provision for a safe exit once a product has entered the public domain. ▪ Safe Exits: design and procedures ensuring that if a product fails it will fail safely and the user can safely avoid harm from the failed product. Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 53 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 54 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 55 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 56 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 57 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 58 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 59 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 60 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 61 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 62 Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 63 https://www.history.com/news/how-the-challenger-disaster-changed-nasa Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah 2/13/2021 64