Jaipur Engineering College and Research Centre, Jaipur
Department of English & Humanities
LECTURE NOTES
UNIT-1
Elements of Communication
Chapter- 1
Communication: Meaning, Importance and Process
Meaning of Communication
The term, Communication, indicates a condition of flux and change. The relationships of people
engaged in communication continuously grow and develop. Communication can also be understood as
an exchange of meaning and understanding.
Meaning is central to communication, and transmission of meaning is the central objective of
communication. Communication begins with the sender sending out message cues, which are perceived
by the receiver who assigns meaning to them and responds to them as per the need. Communication
can’t be complete unless the message sent by the sender is properly decoded at the receiver’s end and
comprehended.
Moreover, communication can be considered effective only when the receiver’s response is matching
with the meaning the sender wanted to convey.
Communication
It is the process of expressing one’s ideas, thoughts, feelings, expressions, emotions, language,
knowledge etc. The process may involve Transaction, exchange, and sharing.
Communication is the base of human existence. Starting from the child’s cry which the first
communication by any human being. Communication is present in Home. It spreads out to society (the
people with whom we live and share our experiences on a daily basis). It is also instrumental is framing
our culture. Culture in a developed state of being becomes an integral part of religion. Communication is
also responsible in administration and control in the country.
Every aspect related to human being is dependent on communication. Either it is politics, economics,
sociology or technical things like evolution of Science and development & use of technology.
Particularly, in the present context communication assumes a lot of importance. We live in the world of
information technology. Communication is the nerve centre of information technology and I.T. enabled
services. The process of evolution from pre-historic age to modern age, every time human being has
given proof of existence through communication. From the beginning of civilization human being has
understood the need and importance of communication. Now let’s understand the nuances of
communication.
Meaning and Definitions
The word has been derived from Latin words ‘communis’ and ‘communicare’. The meaning of the first
word suggests making common and ‘communicare’ means to share or sharing.
Definition 1: It is the ability to speak, write or to express our ideas, feelings: clearly and convincingly.
Definition 2: It is the process of sending and receiving symbols for the purpose of understanding,
knowing, informing and in the broadest sense, improving the relation with the world.
Definition 3 (Robert Anderson): Communication is interchange of thoughts, opinions orinformation by
speech, writing or signs.
Communication also be symbolic because it is not limited to words or language. It can always be done
by the help of gestures and symbols or facial expressions. The symbols can be present with and without
language. Our ability to symbolize and express makes the process of communication possible.
Tools of Communication
There are various tools that help in the process of communication. These tools have been developed by
human beings from the dawn of civilization or before. They help us in communicating sometimes
universally sometimes within a group. Here are some of the tools discussed in brief:
(i)Language:
The main function of each and every language is to communicate. Each language has various forms. It
is one of the foremost and important tools of communication. It is the most clear and comfortable tool to
use. Each and every individual uses this tool in the process of communication. There are different
languages in this world.
We need to have knowledge of a particular language in order to communicate in that language. That’s
why depending on the use of various languages in the world there are different linguistic groups.
(ii) Script:
This is a group of symbols used to express the language in the written format.
They are also highly essential useful tools of communication.
One limitation with script is we have made a conscious effort to acquire knowledge about a particular
script. This consumes a lot of time. This is also regarded as the tool of the educated mass.
(iii)Drawing/Painting/Sculpture/Visual art:
Many individuals are blessed with creativity. They use their creativity to communicate in an artistic
manner. Their art is well accepted in the society and gives them high regard. These artistic creations
reflect nothing else but communication. They express themselves with the help of art. These arts may be
in the form of drawing (child) or painting (professional), they convey the same meaning. Artistic
creations are more stylish in nature in terms of communication. A small piece of art can convey
thousands of sentences by its form, size, colour combination, shades etc.
(iv)Body
Our body is one of the most important tools of communication. Whether we are using language or not it
is always present in the process of communication.
Without body cues our communication may be confusing. Our words must be supported by proper
actions reflected by the body. They may be in the form of gestures, postures, eye contact, spacing etc.
Every action or non-action is part of Body. This type of tool is otherwise known as body language.
(v) Silence
In particular situations silence can also act as an important tool for communication. There are many
instances where either we don’t use
Language/words or we are not in a position to use those. In such situations silence has the power to
convey the message effectively. The silence inside a temple indicates purity and nearer to godliness. The
silence inside an examination hall suggests discipline and law abiding.
(vi) Dress/costume
This is also an important tool for communication. Dress has been an integral part of every culture,
tradition, custom and practice. They give shape to our personality and individuality. Dress also reflects
culture and behavior. An individual’s behavior can always be guessed by the kind dress one is wearing.
It has the potential to convey many things without the use of words. School uniform, mask, traditional
attire etc. can convey the purpose. We can identify an individual from the dress.
(vii) Surrounding/Environment
Many a times just by reflecting to the environment we get a lot of message. Many things are
communicated by the environment itself. We need not engage in words to understand a particular
situation or context. The environment is powerful enough to communicate the message and convey us
convincingly.
Importance of communication
Importance of communication forprofessional or any other purpose
We refer of communication as a skill; it means we are going to apply this skill for some purpose. The
purposes can vary from simple social interactions to running governance; it can range from giving a
small presentation in the office to make headlines in the media. We use communication on a daily basis.
It is an important medium to achieve and acquire many personal and professional goals.
Interpersonal:
Communication helps us in maintaining proper inter-personal relationships.
Interpersonal skills are a must in this competitive professional world. This deals with handling people
and problems at various situations. This includes understanding, listening, empathizing, convincing,
persuading, negotiating, motivating, driving etc.
We have examples in history of great communicators who applied interpersonal communication skills to
the utmost which made them memorable personalities in the history.
E.g. Birbal (the minister with lots of wit with Emperor Akbar), Mahatma Gandhi (the father of the
nation who convinced people of India to adopt non-violence as their weapon for freedom
struggle),Tenali Raman (the clever minister in the court of King of Vijaynagar).
Mass Communication:
This is also an application of communication where communication is used to reach many people at one
go. This type of communication has developed with the development of human civilization and society.
Technological advancement has also added to the use of these types of communication. We live in a
society, we want to convey many important ideas, events, incidents, developments etc.to the world.
Mass communication helps us in reaching the maximum at the push of one button e.g.Newspaper,
journal, magazines, Internet, Advertisement, T.V. Channels etc.
Organizational (intra/inter):
An organization whether profit based or not, cannot exist without communicating within and outside the
organization. Organizations depend a lot on meetings, business presentation, discussions, deliberations,
reports, interaction, client response etc.
Each and every organization uses communication in their daily business. Similarly organizations need to
communicate with the outside world in the form of understandings, letters, proposals, contracts, deals,
partnerships etc.
Local/Regional/National/International:
Each and every stage of governance depends on communication. There are various agencies involved in
governance and control. Without proper communication there will be a lot of confusion and they cannot
survive. To maintain coordination among various stages of governance and various agencies,
communication is a must.
Various international treaties, pacts, understandings are only possible through communication. Different
organizations have come up in the years to maintain proper communication for various sectors.
E.g. United Nations Organization (UNO), World Health Organization (WHO), International Court of
Justice (ICJ) etc.
In today’s date one needs to master communication because it is both process as well as product.
In the contemporary world communication has adopted multiple roles. One needs to learn and practice
communication in order to be successful. In today’s date no profession is bereft of communication.
Artists and leaders could influence a big mass with their style, approach, language etc. But in all these
things communication plays an important role to make them popular.
Stalin, Roussau, Gandhi, Vivekananda, Churchill, Alexander,
Herodotus etc. are some of the masters of communication the world has ever produced. One must
understand that communication is ever changing and developing. It is in a constant state of
metamorphosis. In order to keep pace with this one must be skilled enough in all the technicalities of the
process of communication.
Process of communication
Communication is an interactive process. The two communication agents involved in the
communication process are the sender(s) and the receiver(r). Both the communication agents exert a
reciprocal influence on each other through inter-stimulation and response. The process of
communication consists of five steps that is ideation, encoding, transmission, decoding and feedback.
These steps take place only between the sender and receiver.
Ideation:
This is the initiation in the different stages of communication.
Ideation:
Ideation refers to the formation of the idea and we tend select the message to be communicated. We also
finalize the language for communication and the length and breadth of it. It consists of the ‘What’ of
communication and is concerned with the content of the specific message to be presented.
Ideation depends on the sender’s knowledge, experiences, and abilities, as well as the purpose of
communication and the context of the communication situation. However, ideation depends on various
factors.
Messages are generally of two types as far as content is concerned, i.e. logical and emotional. Logical
messages contain facts, figures and analysis whereas emotional messages consist of feelings. We
finalize on the topic to communication in this step.
Encoding:
It is the process of converting the idea into a particular language. The information to be sent is
transformed into a logical and coded message. It depends on the type of relationship the sender and
receiver enjoy. For example, if it is a formal situation then the sender has to keep various things in mind
e.g. Selection of language, level of competency of the receiver to understand the language, selecting a
medium of communication (speaking, writing or non-verbal means) and the form of communication
(face to face, telephonic, one to one, one-to-many, group communication etc.)
Transmission:
It refers to the transfer of message from sender to the receiver through a proper channel. It helps in
confirming the process of encoding and the keeps the channel free from interference. It decides the right
time, place and method for communication. Through transmission only the intended message reaches
the receiver without distortion and the listener is able to decode it in order to understand and
comprehend the message.
Decoding:
In order to understand the message the receiver has to decode the message in form and content. It is the
process of converting the message into thoughts by translating the received stimuli into an interpreted
meaning in order to understand the message communicated. One must understand that the message is
transferred not the meaning. It depends on the receiver to realize the meaning and understand it. The
process also involves interpretation and analysis of a message. In case of oral communication in
involves listening and understanding. As quick response is required in oral communication the decoding
musttake place rapidly, whereas, in case of written communication it involves reading and
understanding, hence, the time taken can depend on the ability of receiver. Effective decoding is very
much essential for successful communication to continue.
Feedback:
It is most important step in the process of communication. Without feedback the process of
communication won’t be complete. It makes the process of communication two-way.
This is the last stage in the process of communication but, one must keep in mind that, the
communication doesn’t end here. It just completes one loop in the communication cycle. The process of
communication continues in a cyclical order.
It is considered the reaction/response to the message. The feedback is given by the receiver, but when
the receiver is giving the feedback he/she becomes the sender and the sender becomes the receiver.
That’s why it is also known as the reverse flow of communication.
Feedback denotes whether the receiver has understood the message or not. The effectiveness of the
process of communication depends on feedback.
Factors that influence the process of Communication:
There are various factors that influence the process of communication. Without having a proper
understanding of the factors one cannot involve in the process of communication effectively. They
control and regulate the process of communication.
The factors are sender &receiver, code, channel, topic, message, context, feedback, noise, barriers and
filters.
Sender &Receiver:
They are the two participants essential for the process of communication to take place. The flow of
information takes place between these two sides. Sender initiates the process of communication.
Code:
It is a system of symbols used for the purpose of communication. Language is the most prominent code
used by human beings. Each language uses various symbols in the form of letters which are represented
by different script in different languages for written communication and different sounds for oral
communication. For the communication to be complete both sender and receiver must be well versed
with code they use. In case of non-verbal communication we use gestures/body language as code.
“Code” is also a set of rules which we follow while using a particular language. Each language has
different rules e.g.Grammar, sounds (phonetics) and syntax(sentence structure).
Channel:
It refers to the medium through which the information passes. There are basically two types of channels.
a) Auditory channel: The message in the transmission is converted into sounds and the sound wave
passes through air to reach the receiver. b) Visual channel: In case of written communication we read
symbols with the help of vision. This type of channel is also used while sending or receiving non-verbal
messages. As most of the communication involves a mixture of verbal and non-verbal messages hence,
both the channels are active in any process of communication.
Topic:
The topic is the idea converted into a message. The topic should suit both the sender and receiver. They
must enjoy some rapport with each other to undertake the process of communication and must have
some understanding on the topic to be communicated. The topic can range from an event, action, object,
person, experience, feeling, emotion, subject, theory, analysis, law, regulations, etc. The topic should be
of mutual interest for the communication to be sincere and continuous. The participants in the process of
communication finalize on the degree of involvement in a particular topic after initial exchange of ideas.
There are some topics which are participant dependent e.g. entertainment, sports, behavior, attitude etc.
whereas, some topics are topic dependent e.g. Science, technology, policies, economic theories,
administrative functions etc. Hence, in topic dependent topics passive form of communication is used.
Message:
In verbal communication it is the form in which the information is sent or received by the participants.
It can be words/group of words or sentences/group of sentences. In case of non-verbal communication it
depends on the situation or context. In non-verbal communication the message becomes signal sent by
means of signs, symbols, gestures, postures etc. The message depends of five factors. They are
precision, confusion, exclusion, emotion and style.
a) Precision:
The accuracy and strictness of the message need to be maintained in order to send it in proper content as
it was devised in ideation.
b) Confusion:
It should be free of mistakes and misconceptions. Mistakes may lead to misunderstanding of the
message as a result the process may get disturbed or diluted.
c) Exclusion:
Omission of unnecessary details is highly essential for the message to be clear and specific. We should
also try to segregate the information in such a manner that no extra information is provided.
d) Emotion:
The message should reflect proper sentiment and excitement. But one must keep in mind that it should
not be an overflow of emotion which may distort the process.
e) Style:
It is individual specific. The encoders understanding, social position, context, cultural background and
knowledge affect the style of a message.
f) Context:
It is the setting in which the communication takes place. The context is dependent on factors like time of
communication, place, sender/receiver, channel, code and topic etc. For complete communication to
take place both the participants should be sensitive towards the context or else the message may be
wrongly comprehended and the result can be disastrous.
In case of written communication the context is less visible.
Feedback:It is most important step in the process of communication. Without feedback the process of
communication won’t be complete. It makes the process of communication two-way.
This is the last stage in the process of communication but, one must keep in mind that, the
communication doesn’t end here. It just completes one loop in the communication cycle. The process of
communication continues in a cyclical order.
It is considered the reaction/response to the message. The feedback is given by the receiver, but when
the receiver is giving the feedback he/she becomes the sender and the sender becomes the receiver.
That’s why it is also known as the reverse flow of communication.
Feedback denotes whether the receiver has understood the message or not. The effectiveness of the
process of communication depends on feedback.
Noise:
Any interference in the message sent and the message received leads to the production of ‘noise’. Noise
doesn’t refer to the concept of sound but a break or disturbance in the communication process. If noise
occurs because of technological factors, it is not too much of a problem as it can be removed or rectified
by correcting the fault. But, if it is a result of human error, then both the participants should take
corrective measures. It is an unplanned interference in the communication setup. This affects the
transmission of the message. It can be of two types channel noise and semantic noise. Channel noise
refers to the interference in the mechanics of the medium used, e.g. faulty connection, technical fault etc.
In written communication it refers to illegible handwriting. Semantic noise is generated internally,
resulting from internal problems/errors in the message itself. Sometimes semantic noise occurs because
of misunderstanding of a given word/sentence/phrase by any of the participants.
Grammatical error, faulty pronunciation, ambiguous sentence structure, misspellings etc. are other
examples of semantic noise.
Barriers:
Barriers create obstruction in the process of communication. This controls the progress or movement of
the process. It breaks the rhythm that is expected in a desired outcome. It stops the process of
communication by partially sending the message. There can be different types of barriers e.g. physical
barriers and emotional barriers. Physical barriers include medium, crowd, physical object, distance,
noise etc. Emotional barriers include intra personal behavior; inter personal behavior, categorical
thinking, wrong assumptions etc.
Filters:
Filters are like barriers but the only difference is they filter the process of communication. They
channelize or clean the process as a result the message is not properly received by the receiver. It mainly
occurs at the psychological level or individual level e.g. Social status, skill, orthodox thinking, content,
culture, gender etc.
Both barriers and filters distort the process of communication. The participant has to be conscious of
their presence and act accordingly. If they want the process of communication to be fruitful they must
eliminate as much as possible the barriers and filters from the process.
The above factors are not limiting or end of the list in the process of communication. Some other factors
do creep in as a factor that can influence the process of communication from time to time
e.g. Mother tongue influence, pronunciation, cross-cultural situation etc.
Audience:
Before one begins the process of communication one must ask few questions to oneself. ‘Why am I
communicating?’, ‘With whom I am going to communicate?’ the obvious answer is we are going to
communicate with another human being like us not with animals.
Whether we are trying to persuade command, motivate, and entertain or to train we are communicating
with an audience. The sole purpose of our communication revolves round the audience.
Our communication should always strive to be audience oriented, for the process of communication to
successful and complete.
We must understand that without the receiver’s attention and interest the process will fail. The sender
must give due importance to the receiver. Before beginning the process of communication the sender
must clear the objective of the communication in his mind. Then only, he will be able to make it clear to
the audience (receiver).
The sender must keep the following things in mind to keep the communication audience specific.
i)
Always respect the receiver’s point of view.
ii)
Sender must knowreceiver’s interests, tastes, preferences, background, education, culture etc.
in advance.
iii)
iv)
v)
Never underestimate the receiver. There must be a sense of respect for the receiver (viceversa).
Communication should be a collaborative activity between sender and receiver.
Effective planning is required. The planning involves 3 things. a) Language skills and
intelligence, b) Knowledge and understanding of the topic/subject and c) relationship/rapport
enjoyed by both the sender and receiver with each other.
Purpose:
As we have already discussed in the previous chapters that communication is a human need.
Communication is instrumental or directly satisfies certain needs like physical, emotional, social,
psychological etc...
For that reason each and every communication has a definite purpose. The purpose is linked with both
the sender and the receiver.
Without purpose any communication can be rendered useless. A statement of purpose not only describes
what we want to accomplish, but also helps us know at the end of the communication whether it has
been achieved. The purpose can be classified into two broad categories i.e. General or specific. General
purposes can be to entertain, to inform, to attract, to regulate, to instruct etc.
Specific purposes involve influencing, to motivate, to enquire, to persuade etc.
The listeners of communication play an important role in the communication process because they
influence the medium of communication. When communication is targeted towards audience with a
purpose it yields desired result.
We must understand that some purposes are sender related and some purposes are receiver related.
To inform:
Any sentence that is informative in nature. e.g. i) this road leads to the main hall of the compound. ii)
I’m a student of Ist year B.Tech. from CET.
To entertain:Cracking a joke or delivering a dialogue which amuses the audience or listeners.
To attract
In this purpose the listeners or audience or receivers are attracted to listen or give attention to the
speaker. The listeners might not have a direct interest or role in what the sender is telling but the
communication is such designed that they get attracted e.g. Advertisement-hoardings, Advertisements
on TV channels.
To regulate:
This purpose generally serves rules and regulations, sometimes maintaining discipline in a particular
environment. No smoking here.
To instruct:
This purpose has a greater role in training, teaching, directing, and administrating.
To influence:
This purpose is specific in nature, where we try to influence an individual’sdecision, attitude, thought
and impression.
To motivate:
This purpose gives attention to particular individual or group to get some work done or to do better in
life, like sermonizing etc.
To persuade:Here the sender is trying to extract some work or job by continuously involving in
conversation with the receiver. This purpose requires a lot of skills. This may also take some time to get
fulfilled.
To enquire:
When we try to extract information from someone on a specific issue or with a specific motif we use this
purpose. What is your name? Where do you read? etc.
Human beings are social beings. Though we claim that we cannotexist without communication but in
reality we use communication for achieving our own selfish motifs.
Hence, we may conclude that all communication taking place in this world revolves around some
purpose or the other.
Objectives of Communication
Good communication is as stimulating as black coffee and just as hard to sleep after. Communication is
a process by which information is transmitted and understood between two or more people. It should
include both transference and the understanding of meaning.
Communication is the life blood of social as well as corporate world. We exist because we
communicate. Even our silence communicates a lot. We all have a layman’s idea of what
communication is , but let us try to understand the concept fully so that we can use it effectively.
Communication is the process by which we exchange meanings , facts , ideas ,opinions or emotions with
other people. It is an essential condition of our existence and the most important activity of ours. The
word communication has been derived from Latin word “ communicare/communis’ that means to
‘share’ or ‘participate’ . Everybody knows that most of the time, through speech or writing or any other
means like exchange of a common set of symbols; we are sharing information with other human beings.
It is, therefore, first and foremost a social activity. Man as a social animal has to communicate.
Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more persons.
General communication is different from business communication / Administrative communication.
According to William Scott in his book organizational theory “Administrative communication is a
process which involves the transmission and accurate replication of ideas ensured by feedback for the
purpose of eliciting actions which will accomplish organizational goals”
Communication is the process of sending and receiving messages. However it is said to be effective only
when the message is understood and when it stimulates action or encourages the receiver to think in
new ways.
Communication is the lifeblood of an organization. It is the vehicle that ensures proper performance of
organizational functions and achievement of organizational goals. As a separate field of study, business
communication has the following objectives:
To exchange information:
The main objective of business communication is to exchange information with the internal and
external parties. Internal communication occurs within the organization through orders, instructions,
suggestions, opinions etc.
To develop plans:
Plan is the blueprint of future courses of actions. The plan must be formulated for attaining
organizational goals. In order to develop a plan, management requires information. In this regard, the
objective of communication is to supply required information to the concerned managers.
To implement the plan:
Once a plan is prepared, it is to be implemented. Implementation of a plan requires timely
communication with the concerned parties. Thus, communication aims at transmitting a plan throughout
the organization for its successful implementation.
To facilitate policy formulation:
Policies are guidelines for performing organizational activities. Policies are also termed as standing
decisions to recurring problems. Every organization needs to develop a set of policies to guide its
operation. Preparing policies also require information from various sources. Therefore,the objective of
communication is to collect necessaryinformation for policy formulation.
To achieve organizational goal:
Collective efforts of both managers and workers are essential for achieving organizational goals.
Communication coordinates and synchronizes the efforts of employees at various levels to achieve the
stated goals of the organization.
To organize resources:
Various kinds of resources are available in organization such as human resources, material resources,
financial resources etc. In organizing these resources in an effective and efficient way is a key challenge
to the managers. Communication is the vehicle to overcome this challenge.
To coordinate:
Coordination is a basic management function. It involves linking the various functional departments of
large organizations. Without proper and timely coordination, achievement of organizational goals is
impossible. Therefore, the objective of communication is to coordinate the functions of various
departments for the easy attainment of organizational goals.
To direct the subordinates:
The job of a manager is to get the things done by others. In order to get the things done, management
needs to lead, direct and control the employees. The performance of these managerial functions depends
on effective communication with subordinates.
To motivate employees:
A pre-requisite of employee motivation is the satisfaction of their financial and non-financial needs.
Financial needs are fulfilled thorough monetary returns. However, in order to satisfy non-financial
needs, management must communicate with employees on a regular basis both formally and informally.
To create consciousness:
Employees of an organization must be conscious regarding their duties and responsibilities.
Communication supplies necessary information and makes them conscious about their duties and
responsibilities.
To increase efficiency:
In order to increase employee efficiency, they should be provided with necessary information and
guidelines. Communication supplies such information and guidelines for them.
To bring dynamism:
Organizations should be dynamic to cope with the internal and external changes. Bringing dynamism
requires finding new and better ways of doing things. For this purpose, communication helps to seek
new ideas and suggestions from the internal and external parties.
To improve labor-management is relationships:
Harmonious relationship between workers and management is a prerequisite for organizational success.
In this regard, the objective of communication is to ensure the free and fair flow of information and to
create good understanding between them.
To increase job satisfactions:
Communication enhances job satisfaction level of employees. It creates a friendly environment where
employees can express themselves. As a result, they become more satisfied with their job.
To convey employee reaction:
Communication conveys employees’ reactions, opinions, suggestions and complaints to their superiors
about the plans, policies, programs and strategies of the company.
To orient employee:
Communication orients the new employees with the company’s policies, rules, regulations, procedures
etc
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Chapter- 2
Media and Types of Communication
The importance of communication in business becomes even more apparent when we consider an
organization’s communication activities from an overall perspective. These activities of communication
are classified under different classes of communication which are explained in detail below:
Verbal Communication:
It is the ability to communicate by using words that separates human beings from the rest of the animal
kingdom. Our verbal ability also enables us to learn from the past -to benefit from the experience of
others.
Oral Communication:
Oral communication is one of the most common functions in business. Consider, for example, how
limiting it would be if a manager could not attend meetings, ask questions to colleagues, make
presentations, appraise performance, handle customer complaints, or give instructions.
Oral communication is different from written communication in that it allows more ways to get a
message across to others. You can clear up any questions immediately; use nonverbal clues; provide
additional information; and use pauses, emphasis, and voice tone to stress certain points.
For oral communication to be effective, a second communication skill -listening -is also required. No
matter how well-craftedthe content and delivery of an oral presentation; it cannot achieve its goal if the
intended audiences do not have effective listening skills. Some research has found that nearly 60% of all
communication problems in business are caused by poor listening.
Written Communication:
Writing is more difficult than speaking because you have to get your message correct the first time; you
do not have the advantage of immediate feedback and non-verbal clues, such as facial expression to help
you achieve your objective. Examples of typical written communication, in industry include the
following:
•Memo: A memo is a written message sent to someone working in the same organization.
•Letters:A letter is a written message sent to someone outside the organization; it also can be sent by
computer via commercial electronic mail networks, such Types of Business Communication / as MCI or
CompuServe.
•E-mail (electronic mail): E-mail is a message transmitted electronically over a computer network most
often connected by cable, telephone lines, or satellites.
The recipient's computer receives and stores the message almost instantaneously after it is sent. The
recipient may read, respond to, file, or discard the message -all without the use of paper.
•Reports: A report is an orderly and objective presentation of information that assists in decisionmaking and problem solving. Examples of common business reports include policies and procedures,
status reports, minutes of meetings, financial reports, personnel evaluations, press releases, and
computer printout.
• Miscellaneous:Other examples of written communication include contracts, sales literature,
newsletters, and bulletin -board notices. Writing is crucial in the modern organization, because it serves
as the major source of documentation. A speech may make a striking impression, but a memorandum
leaves a permanent record for others to refer to in the future in case memory fails or a dispute arises.
For written messages to achieve their goals, they must be read. The skill of efficient reading is becoming
more important in today's technological world. The abundance of widespread computing and word
processing capabilities, along with the proliferation of convenient and economical photocopying and
faxing has created more paperwork rather than less. Thus, information overload is one of the unfortunate
by-products of our times. These are other implications of technology on business communication are
discussed throughout this text.
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Definition (CBC): “nonverbal communication involves those nonverbal stimuli in a communication
setting that are generated by both the source [speaker] and his or her use of the environment and that
have potential message value for the source or receiver [listener] (Samovar et al). Basically it is
sending and receiving messages in a variety of ways without the use of verbal codes (words). It is both
intentional and unintentional. Most speakers / listeners are not conscious of this. It includes — but is
not limited to:
o touch
o glance
o eye contact (gaze)
o volume
o vocal nuance
o proximity
o gestures
o facial expression ? pause (silence)
o intonation
o
o
o
o
o
dress
posture
smell
word choice and syntax
sounds (paralanguage)
Broadly speaking, there are two basic categories of non-verbal language: nonverbal messages produced
by the body; nonverbal messages produced by the broad setting (time, space, silence)
Function of Communication
A very significant role is played by communication in the management of modern large organizations.
Such organizations are being designed on the basis of specialization and division of labor and have large
number of people working together. Since they are functionally related to each other, there is high need
of coordination among them. This coordination requires mutual understanding of the organizational
goals, the mode of their achievement and the relationship between the works being performed by various
individuals. All this can be achieved by effective communication. Communication, thus, becomes an
essential ingredient for effective management. Often it is said that management and communication are
so closely related that they are almost synonymous. The role of communication in management can be
identified by identifying the various functions that are performed by communication. Such functions are
information function, command and instructive function, influence and persuasive function, and
integrative function. Let us see how these functions are important and are performed by communication.
Information Function
Information is vital for the functioning of any living system—people or organization. Living systems
can achieve some viability in their environments only to the extent that they have some appropriate
means of acquiring and processing information about themselves and their environments. This
information is used as the basis for orientation to those environments and for determining their
behaviour. The technology of communication has greatly enhanced man's information-generating
capacities. It is our ability to affect each other communicatively which has so greatly increased the
importance of the information giving and receiving aspect of our existence. As a consequence, we can
create purposive organizations of people variously committed to some common endeavor. It is
particularly the existence of such purposive organizations which give rise to the importance of
information-giving and receiving. No organization can fulfill its purpose except to the extent that its
communication process furthers its movement towards its specific goals in some way.
Command and Instructive Function
Communication performs command and instructive function. Those who are hierarchically superior—
whether in family, business, civil, or military—often initiate communication not only for the purpose of
informing their subordinates but often for the purpose of telling them what to do, directing them,, or
commanding their behaviour in some way. The command and instructive function of communication is
more observable in formal organizations than it is in informal organizations. Individuals who are
hierarchically superior within an organization structure are both privileged and obligated to command
and control certain task-related behaviours of theirsubordinates. Those same subordinates have a similar
obligation and privilege vis-à-vis their own subordinates, and so on from the top to the bottom of the
organizational hierarchy. Orders, directives, requests, procedures, even performance appraisals all
function as command messages.
Influence and Persuasive
Function of all that has been written about communication over the years, perhaps more has been written
about the persuasive function of communication than about any other aspect. There are those who take
the position that all communication is persuasive in character. However, in management, influence and
persuasion taken together represent one of the several functions as other functions are equally important.
Managers can influence others either coercively or communicatively. Since influence through coercion
has its limitations in organizational setting, managers can do well to influence others through effective
communication. In fact, leadership is more effective than exercise of authority in getting the maximum
from the employees. Leadership, to a very great extent, depends upon how the manager communicates
with his employees and others who may be related with the organization in one way or the other.
Integrative Function
Communication performs the integrative function by relating various components of the organization
and maintaining equilibrium among them. In the broadest sense, the integrational aspect includes all
behavioral operations which (i) serve to keep the system in operation, (it) serve to regulate the
interactional process, and (iii) relate the particular context to the larger context of which the particular
interaction is but a special situation. The communication that occurs has the consequence of energizing,
organizing and channelizing the behaviour of living systems. However, if the messages we create in
order to comprehend our environment are not cumulative and self-organizing in some way, it would be
impossible to gain or to maintain the necessary degree of equilibrium or stable state relations with
various aspects of environment. For example, at the larger than face-to-face human groups, some
formalization takes place and integrative functions are provided in part by bureaucratization,
institutionalization, etc. In fact, when a social system exceeds the integrative limits of face-to-face
interactions, the necessary integrative mechanisms become embedded in the social system's literature,
art folklore, mythology, beliefs, mores, institutional practices, etc. Scope and Importance of
Communication in Organizations
When one walks through the halls of a contemporary organization he sees
managers and other employees reading reports, drafting electronic mail on their computers, attending
meetings, conducting interviews, talking on the telephone, conferring with subordinates, holding
business lunches, reading mail, dictating correspondence, and making presentations. In short, he sees
people communicating.
In an organization, we spend more time communicating than doing anything else. An organization can
be defined as a group of people working together to achieve a common goal. Communication is an
important tool towards achieving the goal. How does one know that there is a common goal? Therefore,
communication must have occurred before a common goal could even be established. And a group of
people working together must interact; that is, they must communicate their needs, thoughts, plans,
expertise, and so on.
Communication is the means by which information is shared, activities are coordinated, and decisionmaking is enhanced. Understanding the working of communication and the process of communicating
competently within an organization helps people participate more effectively in every aspect of business.
Therefore, good communication skills are crucial for the success of any organization. From an
individual’s point of view proficiency in writing and speaking skills helps the individual to acquire a
job, perform well, and earn promotions. If one decides to go into business, writing and speaking skills
will helps him promote his product, manage his employees among other things. The same skills also
help him achieve his personal and social goals.
The Formal Communication Network
Within the organization, information may be transmitted from superiors to subordinates (downward
communication), from subordinates to superiors (upward Types of Business Communication among
people at the same level, on the organizational chart (horizontal communication), and among people in
different departments within the organization (cross-channel communication). These four types of
communication make up the organization's formal communication network.
Downward Communication:
In most organizations the largest numbers of vertical communications move downward -from someone
of higher authority to someone of lower authority. For example, at Anuro’s Systems, Rohit Mishra sends
a memo to NeelimaShrikhande about a computer report; she, in turn, confers with Eric Fox.
Through written and oral channels, information regarding job performance, policies and procedures,
day-today operations and other organizational information is communicated. Higher -level management
communicates with lower-level employees through such means as memos, conferences, telephone
conversations, company newsletters, policy manuals, bulletin-board announcements, and videotapes.
One of the problems with written downward communication is that management may assume that what
is sent downward is received and understood. Unfortunately, that is not always the case.
Upward Communication:
Upward communication is the flow of information from lower-level employees to upper-level
employees. For example, Jean Tate sends a monthly status report to the president regarding human
resources actions for the month, and Neelima responds to Rohit's memo regarding the computer report.
Upward communication can take the form of memos, conferences, reports, suggestion systems,
employee surveys, or union publications, among others.
Upward communication is important because it provides higher management with the information
needed for decision-making. It also cultivates employee loyalty by giving employees an opportunity to
be heard, to air their grievances, and to offer suggestions. Finally, upward communication provides the
feedback necessary to let supervisors know whether subordinates received and understood messages that
were sent downward.
Horizontal Communication:
Horizontal communication is the flow of information among peers within the same work unit. For
example, the administration division holds a weekly staff meeting at which thethree managers (jean,
Larry, and Eric) exchange information about the status of their operations.
Horizontal communication is important to help coordinate work assignments, share information on plans
and activities, negotiate differences, and develop interpersonal support, thereby creating a more cohesive
work unit. More the Individuals or departments within an organization interact with each other to
accomplish their objectives; the more frequent and intense will be the horizontal communication.
The most common form of horizontal communication is the committee meeting, where most
coordination, sharing of information, and problem solving take place. Intense competition for scarce
resources, lack of trust among coworkers, or concerns about job security or promotions can sometimes
create barriers to the free flow of horizontal information.
Cross-Channel Communication:
Cross-channel communication is the exchange of information among employees in different work units
who are neither subordinate nor superior to each other. For example, each year a payroll clerk in Jean
Tate's department sends out a request to all company employees for updated information about the
number of exemptions they claim on their tax forms.
Staff specialists use cross-channel communications frequently because their responsibilities typically
involve many departments within the organizations. Because they lack line authority todirect those with
whom they communicate, they must often rely on their persuasive skills, as, for instance, when the
human resources department encourages employees to complete a job -satisfaction questionnaire.
The Informal Communication Network
The informal communication network (grapevine) transmits information through nonofficial channels
within the organization. The informal communication network (or the grapevine, as it is called) is the
transmission of information through nonofficial channels within the organization.
Carpooling to work, waiting to use the photocopies, jogging at noon, in the cafeteria during lunch, or
chatting at a local PTA meeting -wherever workers come together, they are likely to hear and pass on
information about possible happenings in the organization. Employees often say that the grapevine is
their most frequent source of information on company plans and performance. In one recent survey of
451 executives, 91% reported that employees typically use the grapevine for information on company
"bad news" such as layoffs and takeovers. Office politics was cited as a grapevine topic by 73%,
whereas only 41% said their employees turned to the grapevine for "good news."
•Most of the information passed along the grapevine (about 80%) is business related, and most of it
(75% to 95%) is accurate.
•The grapevine is pervasive. It exists at all levels in the organization -from corporate boardroom to the
assembly line.
•Information moves rapidly along the grapevine.
•The grapevine is most active when change is taking place and when one's need to know or level of fear
is highest -during layoffs, plant closings, acquisitions, mergers, and the like.
•The grapevine is a normal, often vital, part of every organization.Rather than trying to eliminate the
grapevine (a futile effort), competent managers accept its existence and pay attention to it. They act
promptly to counteract false rumors. Most of all, they use the formal communication network (including
meetings, memos, newsletters, and bulletin boards) to ensure that all news-positive and negative -gets
out to employees as quickly and as completely as possible. The free flow of information within the
organization not only stops rumors; it's simply good business.
INTERNAL COMMUNICATION
Internal-operational communication consists of the structured communication within the organization
that directly relates to achieving the organization's work goals.
By structured we mean that such communication is built into the organization's plan of operation. By
organization's work goals we mean the organization's primary reason for being—to sell insurance, to
manufacture nuts and bolts, to construct buildings, and the like.
Types of Business Communication
The Typical Company, to use a familiar example, has as its major work goals the making and selling of
what sits. To achieve these work goals, it has an established plan of operation, in which communication
plays a major role. More specifically, each typical employee has an assignment within the plan. In order
for the plan to work, some communicating must be done. Some of the assignments require certain
working information. In order for all assignments to be performed as a harmonious and unified effort,
certain coordinating information must be communicated. All of this information flow is internaloperational communication.
Specifically, internal-operational communication is carried out through any number of structured
activities.
In the Typical Company, for example, much of the internal-operational information is entered into the
company computer from executive workstations to become part of typical database. From the database,
programmed reports are developed to give each operations department the information it needs. Then
the reports are communicated back to specific workstations; for example, sales reports and inventory
records combine to communicate production needs to the production planning department. Finally, the
production planning department communicates these-needs to the various production departments
through a strategically planned work schedule.
Within each production unit and among production units, of course, additional communicating must go
on. Superiors make decisions and transmit them to subordinates. Departments exchange information,
and workers communicate working information with one another. Memorandums are written, reports are
prepared, and conversations are held—all in the process of coordinating efforts and supplying the
information needed for achieving the organization's goals. In every company division and in every
activity, similar internal-operational communication occurs.
EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION
External-operational communication is that part of an organization's structured communication
concerned with achieving the organization's work goals that is conducted with people and groups
outside the organization. It is the organization's communication with its publics —suppliers, service
companies, customers, and the general public.
Into this category fall all of the organization's efforts at direct selling—sales representatives, sales spiels,
descriptive brochures, telephone call backs, follow-up service calls, and the like. Also included are all of
the organization's advertising efforts —for what is advertising but a deliberate, structured
communication with an organization's public. Radio and television messages, newspaper and magazine
space advertising, and point-of-purchase display material obviously play a role in the organization's plan
for achieving its work objective. Also in this category is everything the organization does to enhance its
public relations. These activities include the organization's planned publicity, the civic-mindedness of its
management, the courtesy of its employees, and the condition of its physical plant. All these and many
more communication efforts combine to make up the organization's external-operational
communication.
The extreme importance of an organization's external communication hardly requires supporting
comment. Certainly it is obvious that any business organization depends on outside people and groups
for its success. It is an elementary principle of business because a business organization's success
depends onits ability to satisfy customers' needs, the organization must communicate effectively with
these customers. It is equally elementary that in today's complex business society, organizations depend
on one another in the manufacture and distribution of goods as well as the sale of services. This
interdependence necessarily creates needs for communication. Like internal communications, these
outside communications are vital to an organization's operation.
Thus by studying various types of business communication and their role in an industry, we come to
know how important it is to have effective businesscommunication which acts as a tool to make progress
in any business endeavor. Communication is the lifeline of day to day living as well as business. Any
Successful organization creates a formal communication structure to enable smooth functioning. New
employees are indoctrinated on the various aspects of organizational communication.
MASS AND MEDIA COMMUNICATION
The simplest definition of mass communication is “public communicationtransmitted electronically or
mechanically.” In this way messages aretransmitted or sent to large, perhaps millions or billions of
people spreadacross the world.
Means of communication is also called channel of communication. Masscommunication can therefore
also be defined as ‘who’, ‘says what’, ‘inwhich channel’, ‘to whom’, ‘with what effect’.
‘Who’: refers to the communicator.
Says ‘what’? Here ‘what’ means the message? What the communicatorhas written, spoken or shown is
the message.‘In what channel’:
This refers to the medium or channel like the newspaper,radio, or television.‘To whom’:
This refers to the person receiving the message or the receiver.In whichchannel?
Mass Communication“With what effect”:
This refers to the impact of a message on a channel ormedium. Let us assume that you have been
informed about an event in anewspaper, or on radio of a social message. If this has changed your
attitudetowards a social evil like dowry or if a film song on television has entertainedyou, it may be
called “the effect”.
People who make films, write news, produce radio and televisionprogrammes or advertisements are all
communicators who have a messagefor you. The medium through which messages are communicated
such asnewspaper, radio or television are the channels. That brings us to the functionsof mass
communication.
Objectives of Mass Communication
Contact with families and friends:
With the help of mass communication many people can communicate with heirs’ families or with their
friends. Actually people travel around the world and by this reason they need a good way in order to not
lose the contact with their families in their native country. The studies reveal that approximately 95% of
the population use electronic devices for their communication for example: Mobile phones, Telephones,
Computers etc.
Universality:
This refers to the extensiveness or commonness of a medium and acceptability of messages. A person
does not need to be literate or educate in a particular language before listening to a radio program or a
watch television program in that native language.
Permanency:
This refers to the period for which a medium can hold its message thereby making the message
reviewable. A reader of a book, newspapers and magazines can read and re-read and store it for a long
term.
Launching business and introducing new products:
Mass communications are used to make wide circulation of senses regarding forming and launching a
business and introducing new products of the organization.
Wide cover:
The audiences of mass communication are spread over a vast or a wide geographic area in a given time.
It can spread the product and business news of the organization over a large part of the country and the
world.
Rapid and continuous dissemination:
In mass communication, information rapidly reaches and continuous disseminate to large and vast
number of heterogeneous audiences.
Interpretation:
Interpretation is the function of mass media that provides a context for new information and
commentary about its significance and meaning. Traditionally, newspapers provided such interpretation
in their editorial and commentary sections, reserving news pages for supposedly neutral information.
Cultural transmission or exchange:
This function entails the passing on or the transfer of a nation’s (or society) social values and heritage
from one generation to another. Cultural transmission function as the preservation of past heritage
culture from one ethnic group to another, one nation to another and from generation to generation for the
purpose of promoting and even integrating culture. Television and film have the greatest potential for
socialization because they seem to be the most realistic.
Entertainment:
One of the most popular functions of mass communication is entertainment. Entertainment always has
been part of society and higher percentage of audience prefers entertainment to information. Those in
this category include students, youths, teenagers, sport lovers, kids (cartoons). Through sound
recordings, film, radio and television, entertainers have been able to attract audiences around the globe.
International Trade:
Mass communication is only the tool for creating foreign market of a product. In a market economy,
mass communication reaches the product message across the world and creates a market.Creating new
market: Mass communication helps to create a new market of a new product and services. It uses mass
media to convey the product message across the world and creates a market
Increasing business goodwill and image:
Mass communication helps to increase business goodwill and image the country and the world. It
communicates with the people about mission, social activities, educational promotion etc. Which create
a favorable organizational image.
Advertising product and services:
Mass communication plays an important role in advertising product and services. Mass media like radio,
television, newspaper and internet are the main vehicles of advertisement.
Interdepartmental coordination:
Generally, large organizations have various departments like procurement, production, marketing,
administration, human resource; accounts etc. Through the help of mass communication, managers of
this department cooperate and coordinate each other.
Inform market price, demand and supply:
Mass communication helps to inform market price, demand and supply of product and services for
home and abroad.
Media Technology- An interesting Topic
Now-a-days Media is most important agent in defining or solving many political and social
irregularities. So we should understand the basic terms and definitions of media to gain proper
knowledge about media. The term 'media' is incorrect one, and media is considered as a singular and
plural word at the same time. Simply media is an 'agent'.It removes social irregularities and social
evils. We live in a society which need communication for better arrangements. For communication
we find out equipment for better communication. Mass communication is a word which has a large
in
depth
meaning
in
the
media
terms. We can explore through simple technical study of media technology.
Media is a term referring to those organized means of dissemination of fact, opinion, entertainment,
and other information such as newspapers, magazines, films, radio, television, internet, books,
Cd's,DVDs,
and
all
other
forms
of
publishing.
Academic programs for the study of mass media are usually referred to as mass communication
programs.
There
are
interactive
medias
also.
Mass Media is a media that talks to a large number of people simultaneously. It is the public
communication reaching a large audience. News media is a section of mass media. Sometimes, it is
called
as
corporate
media
also.
Massive duplication of materials was the great invention in the 2oth century, which leads the era of
newspapers in all over the world. The invention of printing technology led to physical mass
duplication in large scale. It became a big industry today. Some consider the concentration of media
ownership to be a grave threat to democracy. Mass Media are the tools or technologies that facilitate
dissemination of information and entertainment to a vast number of consumers. they are the tools of
large-scale
manufacturing
also.
Mass Media can be used for many social purposes, such as advocacy, both for business and social
concerns, entertainment and education, journalistic activities, public service announcements etc.
Classification of Media
The various types of Mass media are the following
Television
Television first came to India named as Doordarshan on 1959. The first telecast started on 1959 in New
Delhi. After a gap of 13 years, a second television station was established in Mumbai in 1972. The
Ramayana and mahabharatha were the first programmes telecasted through Doordashan.In 1992
government liberated the brodcasting rules and many private channels came. Asianet communication
limited was the first private cable channel in kerala. Now there are hunderds of channels in the cable
network like Soorya, We tv, kairali, DD Malayalam, Manorama,India vision, Asianet Plus, Amrita, Jai
Hind, reporter, ACV etc. Live telecasting using OB Van became a new trend in Kerala to repot
important issues. Zee Tv was the first private owned Indian channel to broadcast over cable. Now the
LCD Television Sets came into the Market. It offers more clarity in the video and audio.
Content of the channels
Public Television in India has some social objectives like national integration, preservation of ecological
balance,stimulation of agricultural activities, and also to promote interest in sports and games.
Radio
Radio Broadcasting began in India with the formation of a private radio service in Madras in 1924.in
1936, the Indian broadcasting unit had been renamed as All India Radio(AIR). National Integration was
the aim of the AIR after Independence. There are AM, SW, MW, FM type of broadcasting. FM
broadcasting introduced in Madras in1977 and later in Jalandhar in 1992 and now common in kerala like
Radio Mango, Club FM etc.
Newspapers
The first Newspaper in India is the Bengal gazette, later renamed as Hicky'sgazette. The first Newspaper
in Kerala was the Rajyasamacharam published from Thalassery.Now there are Malayalamanorama,
Mathrbhumi,
mangalam,
Deshabhimani,
keralakoumudi, Madhyamam,Deepika, Veekshanam, metro vartha etc.
Electronic
Electronic media means the media which can be operated by electricity, but in large sense,is the
electronically transferred data. Internet, Email, Fax,Mobile are some examples. This is considered as the
era of electronic media, such as internet.
Social Network is the one of the best utilities of the internet. Description of Mass Media here is
concluding, because it is a vast subject like sea. It never ends. I would like to say that this is only a brief
introduction of the subject. If you like to know more about the subject you can further study at
journalism courses in kerala. This is an interesting subject also.
Thus Mass media is communication—whether written, broadcast, or spoken—that reaches a large
audience. Mass media is a significant force in modern culture ranging its effect from television, radio,
advertising, movies, the Internet, newspapers to magazines etc.
CHAPTER 3
Verbal and non-verbal Communication
Communication
Communication is a process of exchanging information, ideas, thoughts, feelings and emotions through
speech, signals, writing, or behavior. In communication process, a sender (encoder) encodes a message
and then using a medium/channel sends it to the receiver (decoder) who decodes the message and after
processing information, sends back appropriate feedback/reply using a medium/channel.
Types of communication
People communicate with each other in a number of ways that depend upon the message and its context
in which it is being sent. Choice of communication channel and your style of communicating also
affects communication. So, there are varieties of types of communication.
Types of communication based on the communication channels used are:
1. Verbal communication
2. Nonverbal communication
Verbal communication
Verbal communication refers to the form of communication in which message is transmitted verbally;
communication is done by word of mouth and a piece of writing. Objective of every communication is
to have people understand what we are trying to convey. In verbal communication remember the
acronym kiss (keep it short and simple).
When we talk to others, we assume that others understand what we are saying because we know what
we are saying. But this is not the case. Usually people bring their own attitude, perception, emotions and
thoughts about the topic and hence creates barrier in delivering the right meaning.
So in order to deliver the right message, you must put yourself on the other side of the table and think
from your receiver’s point of view. Would he understand the message? How it would sound on the other
side of the table?
Verbal communication is further divided into:
 Oral communication
 Written communication
Oral communication
In oral communication, spoken words are used. It includes face-to-face conversations, speech,
telephonic conversation, video, radio, television, voice over internet. In oral communication,
communication is influence by pitch, volume, speed and clarity of speaking.
Advantages of oral communication are:
It brings quick feedback.
In a face-to-face conversation, by reading facial expression and body language one can guess whether
he/she should trust what’s being said or not.
Disadvantage of oral communication
in face-to-face discussion, user is unable to deeply think about what he is delivering, so this can be
counted as a Principles of oral communication.
The principles of oral communication are discussed below:
1. Clear pronunciation: clear pronunciation of message sender in the main factor or oral
communication. If it is not clear, the goal of the message may not be achieved.
2. Preparation: before communicating orally the speaker should take preparation both physically are
mentally.
3. Unity and integration: the unity an integration of the speech of the message sender is a must for
successful oral communication.
4. Precision: precision is needed to make oral communication effective. The meaning of the words
must be specific.
5. Natural voice: the speaker’s must not be fluctuated at the time of oral communication. On the other
hand artificial voice must be avoided.
6. Planning: organized plan is a must for effective oral communication. The speaker should take
proper plan for delivering speech.
7. Simplicity: the speaker should use simple an understandable words in oral communication. It
should be easy and simple.
8. Legality: the speaker’s speech should be legal and logical at the time of oral communication.
9. Avoiding emotions: at the time of oral discussion, excessive emotions can divert a speaker from
main subject. So, the speaker should be careful about emotion. The speech must be emotionless.
10. Acting: many people lose concentration after listening for a few minutes. So speech must be
emotionless.
11. Efficiency: speakers efficiency and skill is necessary for effective oral communication.
12. Vocabulary: words bear different meanings to different people in different situations. In oral
communication, a speaker should use the most familiar words to the receiver of the message to
avoid any confusion in the meaning of the words.
FORMS OF ORAL COMMUNICATION
Oral communication has been described as:
The process of people using verbal and non-verbal messages to generate meanings within and across
various contexts, cultures, channels and media. It encompasses various sets of skills including the ability
to speak coherently and persuasively, understanding of communication theory and processes, knowledge
of verbal and non-verbal cues, audience analysis, listening skills as well as communication ethics.
In this section, we will describe seven forms that oral communication often takes:
a. Intrapersonal communication
b. Interpersonal communication
c. Small group communication
d. Public Communication
e. MassCommunication
f. CorporateCommunication
g. Intercultural communication
(a) Intrapersonal communication is self-talk or a conversation you hold with yourself under certain
circumstances – for example, when you need to make an important decision or learn something about
yourself. You may wonder whether intrapersonal communication is just another way of describing the
thinking process. In a way, that would be correct.
Intrapersonal communication is a form of thinking that goes on inside us which relies on language to
express itself. It is similar to the Shakespearean “soliloquy” where the character in question engages in
self-talk to reflect on events that have transpired (please refer to Figure 1.6). Intrapersonal
communication often increases self-awareness and mindfulness, and hones critical thinking skills.
(b) Interpersonal communication is communication between several people. This form of
communication may range from the impersonal to the very personal. Impersonal communication is when
you talk with a person you do not really care about – there is often coldness or indifference in your
attitude when you engage in this kind of communication.
Then, there is social communication where you engage in niceties with people you meet in a social
context. The most personal type of communication occurs when you talk with people who are close to
you, for example, your best friend, family members and colleagues. Such relationships are
interdependent, meaning that the actions of one party very often directly affect the other party.
Interpersonal communication can take place face to face as well as through electronic channels like
video-conferencing, chat rooms, e-mail and Twitter.
(c) Small group communication takes place in a group; usually comprising five to 10 people (please
refer to Figure 1.7). This form of communication serves relationship needs (like companionship, family
bonding and affection or support) as well as task-based needs, for example, deciding on disciplinary
action or resolving conflict in the workplace.
In academic institutions, students often form small groups which meet regularly for study discussions or
to work collaboratively on projects. At the workplace, small groups may meet to discuss issues related to
work, or for problem-solving or team-building purposes. Learning to communicate effectively in teams
contributes to success and advancement in many careers. Small group communication allows you to
interact with others, be it at home, in school, at the workplace or in public. You learn to exchange ideas,
solve problems and share experiences.
(d) Public communication, also known as public speaking, involves communication between a speaker
and an audience. This audience may range from just a few people to thousands or even millions of
people. The aim of the speaker is usually to inform or to persuade the audience to act, buy, or think in a
certain way. A teacher may address an assembly of students on codes of behaviour or school rules. A
politician may make speeches on how he will be dealing with certain issues in order to win their votes.
An executive may give a business presentation to get more sales. It is important to understand some of
the basic principles of effective public speaking so that you are able to influence, persuade as well as
entertain your audience when you communicate with them.
(e) Mass communication is communication that is sent out from a source to many receivers all over the
world. It takes place through media like films, radio, videos and television. Modern avenues of mass
communication like the Internet and blogs can be very powerful indeed as information is disseminated
instantly.
(f)Corporate communication is communication that takes place among members of an organization,
within that organization. Interacting in teams, conferencing with co-workers, talking with a supervisor or
manager, giving employees explanations and directions, interviewing and making presentations are
some examples of corporate communication. Effective corporate communication skills enhance
corporate image and impact positively on morale, commitment, and productivity in corporations.
(g) Intercultural communication is communication between people of diverse cultures and ethnicity.
The world is increasingly becoming a global village and every country has people of various ethnicities.
Thus, it is important to note differences in the communication practices of different cultures if
intercultural harmony and understanding is to be maintained. For example, in many Asian countries,
students will seldom contradict or disagree with a teacher in the classroom as this shows disrespect. In
Western academic institutions, however, it is the norm for students to think for themselves and engage
their teachers in debate and discussion. It is important to make efforts to recognize and respect the
communication practices of people from different cultures and nationalities.
Written Communication
In written communication, written signs or symbols are used to communicate. A written message may
be printed or hand written. In written communication message can be transmitted via email, letter,
report, memo etc. Message, in written communication, is influenced by the vocabulary & grammar used,
writing style, precision and clarity of the language used.
Written Communication is most common form of communication being used in business. So, it is
considered core among business skills.
Memos, reports, bulletins, job descriptions, employee manuals, and electronic mail are the types of
written communication used for internal communication. For communicating with external environment
in writing, electronic mail, Internet Web sites, letters, proposals, telegrams, faxes, postcards, contracts,
advertisements, brochures, and news releases are used.
Advantages of written communication:
Messages can be edited and revised many time before it is actually sent.
Written communication provides record for every message sent and can be saved for later study.
Written communication helps in laying down apparent principles, policies and rules for running of an
organization.
It is a permanent means of communication. Thus, it is useful where record maintenance is required.
Effective written communication develops and enhances an organization’s image.
It provides ready records and references.
A written message enables receiver to fully understand it and send appropriate feedback.
Disadvantages of written communication:
Unlike oral communication, Written communication doesn’t bring instant feedback.
It takes more time in composing a written message as compared to word-of-mouth. and number of
people struggles for writing ability.
Written communication does not save upon the costs. It costs huge in terms of stationery and the
manpower employed in writing/typing and delivering letters.
Also, if the receivers of the written message are separated by distance and if they need to clear their
doubts, the response is not spontaneous.
Written communication is time-consuming as the feedback is not immediate. The encoding and sending
of message takes time.
Effective written communication requires great skills and competencies in language and vocabulary use.
Poor writing skills and quality have a negative impact on organization’s reputation.
Too much paper work and e-mails burden is involved.
Forms of written communication
 Email
 Internet websites
 Letters
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Proposals
Telegrams
Faxes
Postcards
Advertisements and
Brochures
Email:
Short for electronic mail, e-mail or email is information stored on a computer that is exchanged between
two users over telecommunications. More plainly, e-mail is a message that may
contain text, files, images, or other attachments sent through a network to a specified individual or group
of individuals.
Internet websites:
The internet websites are very good source to search anything.You can find a lot of stuff there (not
everything) and sometimes it can be really difficult to actually find what you need as researchers.
Letters
Letter writing is the exchange of written or printed messages A traditional and still often used method of
communication in the business world is letters. Contrary to popular belief, letter writing is not a lost art,
but a viable tool in today's corporate society. Small businesses need to take advantage of this valuable
asset when creating promotions, addressing concerns, announcing positions and seeking aid.
A letter is a written message from one party to another containing information. Letters guarantee the
preservation of communication between both parties. They bring friends or relatives closer together,
enrich professional relationships and provide a satisfying mean of self-expression. Letters contribute to
the protection and conservation of literacy, which is the ability to write and read.
Proposals
It is very important to know how to write a proposal. A proposal or a presentation for your business can
be the key to success. Making yourself and your business look good attracts customers and can help you
to boost sales or win a big client.
A proposal is a written offer of products or services from a seller to a consumer. A good proposal can
not only make a consumer buy a product, but it can also attract new consumers. Therefore, it is essential
to know how to write a proposal if you want to grow your business.
Telegrams
A telegram is a communication sent over a telegraph. Typically, a telegraph operator receives the
communication, and then writes it out for the recipient. Telegrams can also be transmitted over the
phone. Before the widespread use of phones and the Internet for communication, telegrams were the
best way to convey information in a hurry; today, telegrams are quite rare in most parts of the world, and
people in the West can sometimes actually have trouble finding a company which can send and receive
telegrams.
Faxes
A fax machine is a device that is used to send documents electronically over a telephone network.
The transmissions it sends are called “faxes” and these can be between two fax machines, or between a
fax machine and computer or online fax service that is equipped to send and receive faxes.
A device that sends and receives printed pages or images over telephone lines bydigitizing the material
with an internal optical scanner and transmitting the information aselectronic signals.
Postcards
A postcard is a piece of thin cardboard or thick paper intended for writing and mailing without
using an envelope. People use postcards to send messages and pictures to their loved ones anywhere.
Postcards are also used by businesses to send messages to customers.
Postcards can also be used as a means of communication. There are two aspects of communication
within a postcard. The front of the postcard contains the picture, which visibly shows where a person
was. Most importantly, the back includes the writing. Postcards can be used to send a note to check up
on someone or just say hello. Another use of postcards is as a collector’s item.
Advertisements
Advertising, the techniques and practices used to bring products, services, opinions, or causes to public
notice for the purpose of persuading the public to respond in a certain way toward what is advertised.
Most advertising involves promoting a good that is for sale, but similar methods are used to encourage
people to drive safely, to support various charities, or to vote for political candidates, among many other
examples. In many countries advertising is the most important source of income for the media (e.g.,
newspapers, magazines, or television stations) through which it is conducted.
Advertising is a form of marketing communication used to promote or sell something, usually a
business's product or service. Advertising by a government in favor of its own policies is often
called propaganda.
Brochures
A brochure is a common marketing tool used to advertise a service or product offering. It takes the form
of a pamphlet or flyer that is used to distribute information about something. Brochures allow businesses
to introduce new products and services to existing customers or increase their reach by advertising to
new prospects. They can be handed out in person, mailed, or left at specific businesses that are willing to
help you reach their customers.
Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication is the sending or receiving of wordless messages. We can say that
communication other than oral and written, such as gesture, body language, posture, tone of
voice or facial expressions, is called nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication is all about
the body language of speaker. Nonverbal communication helps receiver in interpreting the message
received. Often, nonverbal signals reflects the situation more accurately than verbal
messages. Sometimes nonverbal response contradicts verbal communication and hence affect the
effectiveness of message.
Paralanguage—How the Voice Communicates. The way in which a message is spoken is often as
important as what is said. Paralanguage describes the vocal qualities, such as tone, inflection, volume,
emphasis, and pitch, of a spoken message. Notice how the significance of the following message shifts
according to the word emphasized:
Although the words are the same, the receiver perceives different messages when voice emphasis
changes. Paralanguage often reveals the emotions, conscious and unconscious, underlying our words.
Dynamic speakers and successful business leaders capitalize on paralanguage to reinforce their words.
Because their voice patterns complement their words, they avoid sending conflicting messages.
Kinesics— How the Body Communicates. Body Language, the best-selling book by Julius Fast,
popularized the concept of nonverbal communication. It would be inaccurate, however, to suggest that
specific positions and movements are infallible indicators of underlying motivation. Such simplicity,
of course, belies reality. Although we may not be able to catalog every body movement and indicate
its hidden meaning, we should be aware that facial expression, eye contact, posture, and gestures exert
a significant effect on viewer perception.
Facial Expression: Experts estimate that we can make and recognize nearly 250,000 distinct facial
expressions. The most common expressions are interest, enjoyment, surprise, distress, shame,
contempt, anger, and fear. In conversations, facial expressions are a principal source of feedback.
Alert communicators display and interpret facial expressions accurately; they modify their messages
to produce the effect they intend. For example, the appearance of frowns, yawns, or smirks on the
faces of listeners in the audience should signal Clark Kent, a sales representative, to alter his
presentation because he's not obtaining his desired result.
Eye Contact: Often described as the "windows of the soul," eyes are the most expressive element in
face-to-face communication. Among North Americans, individuals who maintain direct eye contact
are usually considered to be open, honest, and trustworthy. "Shifty" eyes suggest dishonesty; and a
downward gaze may be interpreted as a sign of submission, inferiority, or humility. In this culture it's
difficult to have confidence in a speaker who is unable to "look you in the eye." It must be
remembered, of course, that the interpretation of much nonverbal communication is culture dependent.
Posture: The way you stand and hold your body also sends messages about your self confidence.
Stooped or bowed shoulders may signal that you are burdened, self conscious, lacking confidence,
submissive, beaten, guilty, or afraid. A straight back with squared shoulders typifies strength and
responsibility. Hunched shoulders suggest anxiety or weariness.
Gestures: Some hand gestures are recognized and easily interpreted.
For most North Americans a circle formed with the index finger and thumb signals satisfaction,
shaking the index finger indicates a warning, and showing the palm symbolizes a peaceful greeting.
Other gestures are not so easily translated. Do crossed arms mean "I will not let you in"? Does rubbing
the nose with a finger represent disapproval? Does
patting the hair mean approval? Does forming a "steeple" with the fingertips indicate superiority? The
interpretation of these gestures and others depends greatly on the situation and also on the culture.
Image—How Appearances Influence Communication. The image an individual projects and the
objects surrounding that person can communicate nonverbally. Clothing, for example, tells a great
deal about an individual's status, occupation, self-image, and aspirations. A researcher testing the
perceptions of individuals conducted an experiment in which two men dressed in inexpensive and
expensive clothing on alternate days. Their task was to enter stores of all types and select
merchandise. When it was time to pay, they searched their pockets and announced that they had left
their wallets at home. Then they tried to pay by check. When dressed in expensive clothing, the men
were able to cash twice as many checks as they did when wearing inexpensive clothes. Clothing
apparently communicated a nonverbal message indicating worth, integrity, and trustworthiness.
Appearances definitely affect perceptions. If you look successful, you are often perceived to be
successful.
In addition to clothing, a person's possessions and ornaments send messages. In a business office, the
condition of an individual's desk, the appearance (or lack) of personal decorations, the kind of
paintings on the wall, the quality of the furniture, and the books or magazines in view suggest the
occupant's status, work habits, personal habits and interests, education, and personality traits. An
office visitor forms opinions, conscious and unconscious, from such nonverbal clues.
Proxemics— How Space Influences Communication. Proxemics refers to the amount of space that
individuals naturally maintain between each other. Sociologists report four territorial zones: intimate
space (up to 1 1/2 feet), personal space (1 to 2 1/2 feet), social space (4 to 7 feet), and public space (10
feet or more). When our territorial space is invaded, we resent and resist the intrusion. Business
conversations may take place in personal or social space, but never in intimate space. Meetings are
usually conducted in public space. Although effective communicators probably could not name these
four zones, they instinctively understand and observe spatial requirements.
Manipulation of space illustrates another form of nonverbal communication. The arrangement of
furniture in an office, for example, communicates a variety of information about the occupant. Richard
Snyder, human resources director, places a visitor's chair close to his desk, suggesting that he is open,
approachable, and genuinely interested in getting to know his visitors personally. On the other hand,
Victoria Santos, branch manager, places visitors' chairs across the room from her desk and keeps a
coffee table in front of the chairs. The nonverbal message is that she is distant, aloof, and uninterested
in visitors.
There is a proverb “Actions speak louder than words.” In essence, this underscores the importance of
non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication is especially significant in intercultural
situations. Researches in communication suggest that many more feelings and intentions are sent and
received non-verbally than verbally. Meharabian and wiener following suggested that only 7 % of
message is sent through words, with remaining 93% sent non-verbal expressions (depending on author,
verbal part goes up to 35%).
Advantages Nonverbal Communication
It has multiple advantages or functions:
1. Complementary: Non-verbal cues complement a verbal message by adding to its meaning. You
can pat someone you offended at the back as you say sorry to him or her.
2. Easy presentation: Information can be easily presented in non-verbal communication through using
visual, audio-visual and silent means of non-verbal communication.
3. Substituting: Non-verbal message may substitute for the verbal message especially if it is blocked
by noise, interruption, long distance etc. for example: gestures-finger to lips to indicate need for
quite, facial expressions- a nod instead of a yes.
4. Accenting: Often used to accent a verbal message. Verbal tone indicates the actual meaning of the
specific words.
5. Repeat: Used to repeat the verbal message (e.g. point in a direction while stating directions.)
6. Help to illiterate people: This type of communication use gestures, facial expressions, eye contact,
proximity, touching etc. and without using any spoken or written word. So, it is very much helpful
for illiterate people.
7. Help to handicapped people: Non-verbal cues of communication greatly help in handicapped
people especially to deaf people. Deaf people are exchange message through the movements of
hands, fingers, eye ball etc.
8. Attractive presentation: Non-verbal communication is based on visual, picture, graph, sign etc. that
can be seen very much attractive.
9. Reducing wastage of time: The message of non-verbal communication reached the receiver very
fast. For this reason it reduces the wastage of valuable time of the communicator.
10. Quick expression of message: Non-verbal cues of communication like sign and symbol can also
communicate some messages very quickly than written or oral messages.
Disadvantages or limitations of non-verbal communication:
Despite of advantages of non-verbal communication, it is not free from its limitations or disadvantages
which are:
1. Vague and imprecise: Non-verbal communication is quite vague and imprecise. Since in this
communication there is no use of words or language which expresses clear meaning to the
receiver. No dictionary can accurately classify them. Their meaning varies not only by culture and
context but by degree of intension.
2. Continuous: It is possible to stop talking in verbal communication, but it is generally not possible
to stop nonverbal cues. Also, spoken language has a structure that makes it easier to tell when a
subject has changed, for instance or to analyze its grammar. Nonverbal does not lend itself to this
kind of analysis.
3. Multi-channel: while watching someone’s eyes, you may miss something significant in a hand
gesture. Everything is happening at once and therefore it may be confusing to try to keep up with
everything. Most of us simply do not do so, at least not consciously.
4. Culture-bound: Non-verbal communication is learnt in childhood, passed on to you by your parents
and others with whom you associate. A few other gestures seem to be universal. Evidence suggests
that humans of all cultures smile when happy and frown when unhappy. However, most nonverbal
symbols seem to be even further disconnected from any “essential meaning” than verbal symbols.
Gestures seen as positive in one culture (Like the thumbs-up gesture in the USA) may be seen as
obscene in another culture.
5. Long conversations are not possible: In non-verbal communication, long conversation and
necessary explanations are not possible. No party can discuss the particular issues of the messages.
6. Difficult to understand: Difficult to understand and requires a lot of repetitions in non-verbal
communication. Since it uses gestures, facial expressions eye contact, touch etc. for
communicating with others which may not be understandable for the simple and foolish people.
7. Not everybody prefers: Everybody not prefers to communicate through non-verbal communication
with others. Sometimes it cannot create an impression upon people or listeners. It is less influential
and cannot be used everywhere. It is cannot be used as a public tool for communication.
8. Lack of formality: Non-verbal communication does not follow any rules, formality or structure like
other communication. Most of the cases people unconsciously and habitually engaged in nonverbal communication by moving the various parts of the body.
9. Costly: In some cases non-verbal communication involves huge cost. For example, neon sign,
power point presentation, cinema etc are very much costly compared to others form of
communication.
10. Distortion of information: Since it uses gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, touch, sign,
sound, paralanguage etc. for communicating with others, there is a great possibility in distortion of
information in non-verbal communication.
CHAPTER 4
Formal and Informal Channels of Communication
Types of Communication Based on Purpose and Style
Based on style and purpose, there are two main categories of communication and they both bears their
own characteristics. Communication types based on style and purpose are:
1. Formal Communication
2. Informal Communication
Formal communication refers to interchange of information officially. The flow of communication is
controlled and is a deliberate effort. This makes it possible for the information to reach the desired place
without any hindrance, at a little cost and in a proper way. This is also known as ‘Through Proper
Channel Communication.’
Characteristics
Following are the chief characteristics of the formal communication:
(1) Written and Oral:
Formal communication can both be written and oral. Daily works are handled through oral
communication, while the policy matters require written communication.
(2) Formal Relations:
This communication is adopted among those employees where formal relations have been established by
the organisation. The sender and the receiver have some sort of organisational relations.
(3) Prescribed Path:
The communication has to pass through a definite channel while moving from one person to another.
For example, to convey the feelings of a worker to the manager, the foreman’s help has to be sought.
(4) Organisational Message:
This channel is concerned with the authorised organisational messages only and the personal messages
are out of its jurisdiction.
(5) Deliberate Effort:
This channel of communication is not established automatically but effort has to be made for its
creation. It is decided keeping in view the objectives of the organisation.
Advantages
The formal communication has the following advantages:
(1) Maintenance of Authority of the Officers:
Formal communication maintains constant relations among the superiors and the subordinates as a result
of whom the dignity of the line superiors is maintained. Consequently, it is convenient to control the
subordinates and fix their responsibility which is absolutely needed for effective and successful control.
(2) Clear and Effective Communication:
In formal communication, there is a direct contact among the managers and the subordinates. Both
understand the capability, habits, feelings, etc. of one another. Managers know as to when and under
which conditions their subordinates need information. In this way, this communication is capable of
making available timely information. Hence, it is clear and effective.
(3) Orderly Flow of Information:
The information has to pass through a definite route from one person to another. Hence, the flow of
information is systematic.
(4) Easy Knowledge of Source of Information:
In this type of communication, the source of each information can be easily located.
Limitations
Following are the disadvantages or limitations of the formal communication:
(1) Overload of Work:
In a modern business organisation much information, many messages and other things have to be
communicated. Under formal communication, they are routed through a definite channel and this
consumes much of the time of the superiors and thus some other important works are left unattended.
(2) Distortion of Information:
This method can be a hindrance in the flow of information. Sometimes the distance between the sender
and the receiver is so big that the information has to pass through many hands and by the time it reaches
the receiver it is distorted. Thus it fails to serve its purpose.
(3) Indifferent Officers:
The officers do not pay much attention to the suggestions and complaints of the subordinates. In such a
case a subordinate may come lose his faith in the effectiveness of communication.
Types of Formal Communication (flow of information)
Formal communication is of two types:
(i) Downward Communication
(ii) Upward Communication
(iii) Horizontal Communication
(i) Downward Communication:
The communication by top hierarchy with their subordinates is called downward communication. This
communication includes orders, rules, information, policies, instructions, etc. The chief advantage of the
downward communication is that the subordinates get useful timely information which helps them in
their work performance,
(ii) Upward Communication:
This is quite the reverse of the downward communication. This flows from the subordinates to the
superiors. The subject-matter of this communication includes suggestions, reactions, reports, complaints,
etc. This sort of communication helps the superiors in taking decisions.
(iii) Horizontal Communication
Horizontal communication takes place when two individuals of the same level exchange information.
Horizontal communication is used by the same level officers to solve the problems of similar nature and
profit by the experience of other people. The subject-matter of horizontal communication includes
information, requests, suggestions, mutual problems and coordination-related information.
Formal Communication Network
The way in which formal communication is done, is known as formal communication network. Formal
communication can be done in different ways-it may be vertical communication or horizontal
communication. The different forms of formal communication network have been shown in the
following diagram:
(1) Chain Communication:
Chain communication refers to the communication between a superior and a subordinate. All the people
in an organisation from top to bottom are linked with the help of a scalar chain as has been shown in
diagram (1). A is placed at the highest rank, B is a subordinate of A, C is the subordinate of B, D is the
subordinate of C and E is the subordinate of D.
(2) Wheel Communication:
In this form of communication, all the subordinates of a superior talk to one another through his
medium. The superior works as a hub of a wheel. In the diagram (2), A is the superior and B, C, D and E
are the subordinates. All the four subordinates communicate through the medium of A.
(3) Circular Communication:
This communication takes place among the members of a group. Every member of a group can
communicate with the nearest two members. In the diagram (3), A can have communication with B and
E. Similarly, B can have communication with A and C. The same applies to all the members of the
group. In this case the communication moves at a slow speed.
(4) Free Flow Communication:
This form of communication also takes place among the different members of the group. Its special
feature is that every member of the group can talk to all the other people in the group.
This has been clarified in diagram (4). A can talk directly to B, C, D, E. In the same way B can talk
directly to A, C, D, and E. The same applies to all the members of the group. In this case, the
communication moves at a rapid pace.
(5) Inverted ‘V’ Communication:
In this form of communication, a subordinate is permitted to communicate with the boss of his boss. In
this form of communication the messages move at a rapid speed, fn the diagram (5), C and D are the
subordinate of B who, in turn, is a subordinate of A. Here C and D can talk directly to A who happens to
be the boss of B.
2. Informal Channel of Communication / Grapevine:
The informal channel of communication is often discouraged or looked down upon in an “organization,
and is not officially sanctioned. It is popularly referred to as grapevine. This is because it runs in all
directions irrespective of the formal structure.
The origin of the term grapevine can be traced to the way the botanical vine grew over telegraph wires,
making telegraphic messages go in unintended directions. In business life, grapevine owes its existence
to man’s gossipy nature.
Humans tend to speak loosely or lightly with their associates wherever they may be. Time to time they
feel the need to get freed from the necessity to stick to logic or truth.
As people go about their work, they have casual conversation with their friends in the office. These
conversations deal with both personal and business matters. This results in the generation of a rumour
mill, which is a grapevine.
Grapevine is classified into four categories:
Single strand: Each one tells another.
Group or gossip chain: One tells all persons in his/her group.
Probability chain: Each randomly tells a number of people.
Cluster chain: Some tell selected others.
Grapevine satisfies the social needs of members, leads to more relaxed human relations (partly through
the release of fantasy), serves to fill the possible gaps in the formal communication and links even those
people who do not fall in the official chain of command.
Other characteristics of grapevine are:
(i) It is more people-oriented then issue-oriented.
(ii) May not be totally authentic and dependable.
(iii) Grapevine transmission flows in all directions in an organisation.
(iv) Grapevine information travels very fast.
(v) Its responsibility cannot be fixed.
Factors leading to grapevine:
A rumour mill becomes active when the following factors exist in an organisation:
(i) A lack of sense of direction, especially in times of crisis. The more the uncertainty, the greater the
rumour mongering.
(ii) The formation of favoured groups of employees by the management. This breeds insecurity among
other employees leading to rumours.
(iii) A lack of self-confidence amongst employees leads to the formation of groups. These groups often
run rumour mills.
Advantages:
(i) Speed:
Speed is the most remarkable characteristic of this channel of communication. It is possible to transmit
information remarkably fast since there are no formal barriers and no stopping. A rumour, thus, may
spread like a wildfire.
(ii) Feedback:
The feedback through this channel is much faster than a formal channel of communication. The channel
is like the pulse of an organisation. The reaction to the decisions, policies, directives and directions often
reach managers faster through this channel than through the formal one.
(iii) Parallel function:
The informal channel does not have official sanction, but is an inevitable parallel to the formal channel.
It works as a supplementary channel of communication in an organisation. Good managers have been
known to use the informal channel to their benefit for transmitting information otherwise unfit for
formal channels.
(iv) Support system:
A grapevine is an informal support system developed by employees within an organisation. It brings
them closer and gives them immense satisfaction.
Disadvantages:
(i) Less credible:
A grapevine is less credible than a formal channel of communication. It cannot be taken seriously as it
involves only the word of mouth. It is, therefore, likely to be contradicted.
(ii) Selective information:
Informal channels usually fail to carry the complete information. As a result, the receiver does not get
the essence of the whole message. Mischief mongers or vested interests may use the channel for
transmitting selective information.
(iii) Creates trouble:
A grapevine can foster trouble within an organisation as there is no control over the information sent,
received, its portrayal and perceptions. Information gets distorted. A grapevine can be synonymous with
the spreading of false or wild stories.
(iv) Leakage:
Information may get leaked at the wrong time. The term ‘open secret’ in an organisation can often is
attributed to such leaks.
Effective use of informal channels of communication:
(i) The higher authorities should ensure that employees are well informed of the working of the
organisation. This will reduce the tendency for distortion.
(ii) Activities that update knowledge should be frequent. This will prevent the generation of rumours.
(iii) The higher authorities should not indulge in favouritism.
(iv) A manager should conduct regular meetings with the employees.
(v) The manager should make efforts to identify popular employees who can serve as leaders for other
employees.
(vi) As far as possible, employees should be involved in the decision-making process.
(vii) Managers should not indulge in loose talk.
(viii) A manager should be a good listener.
(i) A manager should try to get regular reviews about his style of work.
CHAPTER-5
BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
There are many reasons why interpersonal communications may fail. In many communications, the
message (what is said) may not be received exactly the way the sender intended. It is, therefore,
important that the communicator seeks feedback to check that their message is clearly understood.
The skills of Active Listening, Clarification and Reflection may help but the skilled communicator also
needs to be aware of the barriers to effective communication and how to avoid or overcome them.
There are many barriers to communication and these may occur at any stage in the communication
process. Barriers may lead to your message becoming distorted and you therefore risk wasting both time
and/or money by causing confusion and misunderstanding. Effective communication involves
overcoming these barriers and conveying a clear and concise message.
Common Barriers to Effective Communication:
 The use of jargon. Over-complicated, unfamiliar and/or technical terms.
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Emotional barriers and taboos. Some people may find it difficult to express their emotions and
some topics may be completely 'off-limits' or taboo.
Lack of attention, interest, distractions, or irrelevance to the receiver. Differences in
perception and viewpoint.
Physical disabilities such as hearing problems or speech difficulties.
Physical barriers to non-verbal communication. Not being able to see the non-verbal cues,
gestures, posture and general body language can make communication less effective.
Language differences and the difficulty in understanding unfamiliar accents.
Expectations and prejudices which may lead to false assumptions or stereotyping. People
often hear what they expect to hear rather than what is actually said and jump to incorrect
conclusions.
Cultural differences. The norms of social interaction vary greatly in different cultures, as do
the way in which emotions are expressed. For example, the concept of personal space varies
between
cultures
and
between
different
social
settings.
A skilled communicator must be aware of these barriers and try to reduce their impact by
continually checking understanding and by offering appropriate feedback.
A Categorization of Barriers to Communication
Language Barriers
Language and linguistic ability may act as a barrier to communication.
However, even when communicating in the same language, the terminology used in a message may act
as a barrier if it is not fully understood by the receiver(s). For example, a message that includes a lot of
specialist jargon and abbreviations will not be understood by a receiver who is not familiar with the
terminology used.
Regional colloquialisms and expressions may be misinterpreted or even considered offensive.
Psychological Barriers
The psychological state of the communicators will influence how the message is sent, received and
perceived.
For example, if someone is stressed they may be preoccupied by personal concerns and not as receptive
to the message as if they were not stressed.
Stress management is an important personal skill that affects our interpersonal relationships.
Anger is another example of a psychological barrier to communication, when we are angry it is easy to
say things that we may later regret and also to misinterpret what others are saying.
More generally people with low self-esteem may be less assertive and therefore may not feel
comfortable communicating - they may feel shy about saying how they really feel or read negative subtexts into messages they hear.
Physiological Barriers
Physiological barriers may result from the receiver’s physical state.
For example, a receiver with reduced hearing may not grasp to entirety of a spoken conversation
especially if there is significant background noise.
Physical Barriers
An example of a physical barrier to communication is geographic distance between the sender and
receiver(s).
Communication is generally easier over shorter distances as more communication channels are available
and less technology is required. Although modern technology often serves to reduce the impact of
physical barriers, the advantages and disadvantages of each communication channel should be
understood so that an appropriate channel can be used to overcome the physical barriers.
Systematic Barriers
Systematic barriers to communication may exist in structures and organizations where there are
inefficient or inappropriate information systems and communication channels, or where there is a lack of
understanding of the roles and responsibilities for communication. In such organizations, individuals
may be unclear of their role in the communication process and therefore not know what is expected of
them.
Attitudinal Barriers
Attitudinal barriers are behaviors or perceptions that prevent people from communicating effectively.
Attitudinal barriers to communication may result from personality conflicts, poor management, and
resistance to change or a lack of motivation. Effective receivers of messages should attempt to
overcome their own attitudinal barriers to facilitate effective communication.
CHAPTER-6
METHODS TO IMPROVE INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Interpersonal communication is an exchange of information between two or more people. During
interpersonal communication, there is message sending and message receiving. This can be conducted
using both direct and indirect methods. Successful interpersonal communication is when the message
senders and the message receivers understand the message.
Context setting plays an important role in this communication. Context generally refers to the
environment in which communication occurs and is where it may be influenced. This includes the time
and place, as well as the background of the participants. In any given environment/situation a
conversation takes place in, many contexts may be interacting at the same time. To have an in-depth
understanding of the interpersonal interaction, the retrospective context and the emergent context must
be examined and considered. The retrospective context is defined as everything that comes before a
particular behavior that might help understand and interpret that behavior. The emergent context is
described as all events that come after the said behavior and which may also contribute to understanding
the behavior. Context in regards to interpersonal communication refers to the establishment and control
of formal and informal relationships. Generally, the focus has been on "dyadic communication" meaning
face to face mutual ideas between two individuals in health communication research with a focus on the
patient and the provider. Additionally, interest in the role of families, and occasionally among other key
roles in the health care system is all factors on the context of interpersonal communication. Context can
include all aspects of social channels, with examples particularly in:
Physical Context
The season or weather, current physical location and environment, Heat etc. all have an impact
on both the message sender and the level of concentration of the receiver.
Situational Context
Situational milieu can be defined as the combination of the social and physical environments in which
something takes place. For example, a classroom, a military conflict, a supermarket checkout, and a
hospital would be considered situational milieus.
In order to understand the meaning of what is being communicated, context must be considered. In a
hospital context, internal and external noise can have a profound effect on interpersonal communication.
External noise consists of influences around the receiver of the communication that distract from the
communication itself. In hospitals, this can often include the sound made by medical equipment or
conversations had by team members outside of patient's rooms. Internal noise is described as cognitive
causes of interference in a communication transaction. Internal noise in the hospital setting could be
health care professionals' own thoughts distracting them from a present conversation with a client.
Channels of communication also contribute to the effectiveness of interpersonal communication. A
communication channel can be defined as the medium through which a message is transmitted. There
are two distinct types of communication channels: synchronous and asynchronous. Synchronous
channels involve communication where both parties are present. Examples of synchronous channels
include face-to-face conversations, video chats, and telephone conversations. Asynchronous
communication can be sent and received at different points in time. Examples of this type of channel are
text messages, emails, and notices on a message board.
In the hospital setting, synchronous and asynchronous communication channels can be useful if utilized
at appropriate times. An asynchronous communication channel can be an optimal way to deliver that
message when the recipient of the message is unavailable. For instance, when a doctor is busy with a
patient, a written message would be appropriate. When messages are recorded in some way, either hand
written or through electronic mediums, they can serve as reminders of what has been done and what
needs to be done, which can prove to beneficial in a fast-paced health care setting. Some of the
disadvantages associated with communication through asynchronous channels are that the sender does
not know when the other person will receive the message. Mix-ups and errors can easily occur when
clarification is not readily available. On the other hand, when an urgent situation arises, as they
commonly do in a hospital environment, communication through synchronous channels is ideal.
Benefits of synchronous communication include immediate message delivery, and fewer chances of
misunderstandings and miscommunications. A disadvantage of synchronous communication is that it
can be difficult to retain, recall, and organize the information that has been given in a verbal message.
This is especially true when copious amounts of data have been communicated in a short amount of
time. When used appropriately, synchronous and asynchronous communication channels are both
efficient ways to communicate and are vital to the functioning of hospitals.
When mistakes occur in hospitals, more often than not, they are a result of communication problems
rather than just errors in judgment or negligence. Furthermore, when there is a lack of understanding and
cooperation, due to a breakdown in communication in the hospital milieu, it is the patient who suffers
the most. Therefore, it is essential to cultivate an environment conducive to effective communication,
through appropriate use of communication channels, as well as the elimination, when possible, of
distracting internal and external noise.
Cultural and linguistic backgrounds
Linguistics is primarily the study of language that is divided into three broad aspects including the form
of language, the meaning of language, and the context or function of language. The first aspect, form is
based on the words and sounds of language and uses the words to make sentences that make sense. The
second aspect, meaning, focuses on the meaning and significance of the words and sentences that human
beings have put together. The third aspect, function, or context is based on recognizing the meaning of
the words and sentences being said and using them to understand why a person is communicating.
Culture is a human made concept that helps to define the beliefs, values, attitudes, and customs of a
group of people that have similarities to one another in relation to language and location that have
helped the people to survive more throughout time. There are two subcultures, which include highculture and low-culture. High-culture is seen as the part of culture that includes a set of cultural aspects
mainly focusing on the arts, such as music, drama and others. Those that are of higher esteem and can
access these aspects mostly are apart of this. Low-culture in contrast, has a massive audience and is a
term more for popular culture.
Culture has a strong dependence on communication because of the help it provides in the process of
exchanging information in the objective to transmit ideas, feelings, and specific situations present in the
person’s mind. Culture influences our thoughts, feelings and actions, and when communication is
occurring there should be an awareness of this. This means the more different an individual’s cultural
background is, the more different their styles of communication will be. Therefore, the first step before
communicating with individuals of other cultures is the importance of being aware of a person’s
background, ideas and beliefs before there is interpretation of their behaviors in relation to
communication. It is stressed that there is an importance of cultural safety which is the recognition of
social, economic and political positions of individuals before beginning communication. There are 5
major elements related to culture that affect the communication process:
Four Principles of Interpersonal Communication
These principles underlie the workings in real life of interpersonal communication. They are basic to
communication. We can't ignore them
Interpersonal communication is inescapable
We can't communicate. The very attempt not to communicate communicates something. Through not
only words, but through tone of voice and through gesture, posture, facial expression, etc., we constantly
communicate to those around us. Through these channels, we constantly receive communication from
others. Even when you sleep, you communicate. Remember a basic principle of communication in
general: people are not mind readers. Another way to put this is: people judge you by your behavior, not
your intent.
Interpersonal communication is irreversible
You can't really take back something once it has been said. The effect must inevitably remain. Despite
the instructions from a judge to a jury to "disregard that last statement the witness made," the lawyer
knows that it can't help but make an impression on the jury. A Russian proverb says, "Once a word goes
out of your mouth, you can never swallow it again."
Interpersonal communication is complicated
No form of communication is simple. Because of the number of variables involved, even simple
requests are extremely complex. Theorists note that whenever we communicate there are really at least
six "people" involved: 1) who you think you are; 2) who you think the other person is; 30 who you think
the other person thinks you are; 4) who the other person thinks /she is; 5) who the other person thinks
you are; and 6) who the other person thinks you think s/he is.
We don't actually swap ideas; we swap symbols that stand for ideas. This also complicates
communication. Words (symbols) do not have inherent meaning; we simply use them in certain ways,
and no two people use the same word exactly alike.
Interpersonal communication is contextual
In other words, communication does not happen in isolation. There is:
 Psychological context, which is who you are and what you bring to the interaction. Your needs,
desires, values, personality, etc., all form the psychological context. ("You" here refers to both
participants in the interaction.)
 Relational context, which concerns your reactions to the other person--the "mix."
 Situational context deals with the psycho-social "where" you are communicating. An interaction
that takes place in a classroom will be very different from one that takes place in a bar.
 Environmental context deals with the physical "where" you are communicating. Furniture,
location, noise level, temperature, season, time of day, all are examples of factors in the
environmental context.
 Cultural context includes all the learned behaviors and rules that affect the interaction. If you
come from a culture (foreign or within your own country) where it is considered rude to make
long, direct eye contact, you will out of politeness avoid eye contact. If the other person comes
from a culture where long, direct eye contact signals trustworthiness, then we have in the cultural
context a basis for misunderstanding.
Johari window
The Johari window is a technique used to help people better understand their relationship with
themselves and others, which was created by psychologists Joseph Luft (1916–2014) and
Harrington Ingham (1916–1995) in 1955. The two philosophers have explained the concept
through four windows which are as follows:Open or Arena: Adjectives that are selected by both the participant and his or her peers are placed into
the Open or Arena quadrant. This quadrant represents traits of the subjects that both they themselves and
their peers are aware of.
Hidden or Façade: Adjectives selected only by subjects, but not by any of their peers, are placed into
the Hidden or Façade quadrant, representing information about them their peers are unaware of. It is
then up to the subject to disclose this information or not.
Blind : Adjectives that are not selected by subjects but only by their peers are placed into the Blind Spot
quadrant. These represent information that the subject is not aware of, but others are, and they can
decide whether and how to inform the individual about these "blind spots".
Unknown: Adjectives that were not selected by either subjects or their peers remain in the Unknown
quadrant, representing the participant's behaviors or motives that were not recognized by anyone
participating. This may be because they do not apply or because there is collective ignorance of the
existence of these traits.
Grice's Maxims
1. The maxim of quantity, where one tries to be as informative as one possibly can, and gives as
much information as is needed, and no more.
2. The maxim of quality, where one tries to be truthful, and does not give information that is false
or that is not supported by evidence.
3. The maxim of relation, where one tries to be relevant, and says things that are pertinent to the
discussion.
4. The maxim of manner, when one tries to be as clear, as brief, and as orderly as one can in what
one says, and where one avoids obscurity and ambiguity.
As the maxims stand, there may be an overlap, as regards the length of what one says, between the
maxims of quantity and manner; this overlap can be explained (partially if not entirely) by thinking of
the maxim of quantity (artificial though this approach may be) in terms of units of information. In other
words, if the listener needs, let us say, five units of information from the speaker, but gets less, or more
than the expected number, then the speaker is breaking the maxim of quantity. However, if the speaker
gives the five required units of information, but is either too curt or long-winded in conveying them to
the listener, then the maxim of manner is broken. The dividing line however, may be rather thin or
unclear, and there are times when we may say that both the maxims of quantity and quality are broken
by the same factors.
UNIT-II
CHAPTER – 8
PASSIVE VOICE
Use of the passive voice:
1. Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known, however,
who or what is performing the action.
Example: "A letter was written."
The focus, here, is on the fact that a letter was written. We don't know, however, who wrote it.
2. Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following example
shows:
Example: A vase was broken.
Focus, here, is on the fact that a vase was broken, but we don't blame anyone. Compare this to:
"You broke the vase."
Form of the passive voice:
Subject + the appropriate form of to be + Past Participle
NOTE: The appropriate form of to be = To be is put in the the tense of the active voice main verb.
When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:



The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence.
The form of the verb is the appropriate form of to be (the tense of the active voice main verb) +
the past participle.
The subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped.)
Example:
Nancy
makes
Tea
Active
Subject
Tea
verb
Object
is made (by Nancy)
Passive
object becoming subject
verb
subject becoming object or is dropped
Examples of the passive voice:
Tense
Subject
Verb
Object
Active:
Nancy
Makes
tea.
Passive:
Tea
is made
by Nancy.
Active:
Nancy
is making
tea.
Passive:
Tea
is being made
by Nancy.
Active:
Nancy
Made
tea.
Passive:
Tea
was made
by Nancy.
Active:
Nancy
was making
tea.
Passive:
Tea
was being made
by Nancy.
Active:
Nancy
has made
Tea.
Passive:
Tea
has been made
by Nancy.
Simple Present
Present
Progressive
Simple Past
Past Progressive
Present Perfect
Active:
Nancy
had made
tea.
Passive:
Tea
had been made
by Nancy.
Active:
Nancy
will make
tea.
Passive:
Tea
will be made
by Nancy.
Active:
Nancy
will have made
tea.
Passive:
Tea
will have been made
by Nancy.
Active:
Nancy
would make
tea.
Passive:
Tea
would be made
by Nancy.
Active:
Nancy
can make
tea.
Passive:
Tea
can be made
by Nancy.
Past Perfect
Future simple
Future perfect
Conditional
Modals
Passive voice sentences with two Objects:
Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two objects
becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject depends
on what you want to put the focus on.
Active/Passive
Subject
Verb
Object 1
Object 2
Active:
Nancy
offered
a flower
to me.
Passive:
A flower
was offered
to me
by Nancy.
Passive:
I
was offered
a flower
by Nancy.
Impersonal Passive:
Study these examples:


They say that the planet is in danger.
It is said that the planet is in danger.
This type of passive is called impersonal because we use the impersonal form "it is..." This is only
possible with verbs of perception (e. g. say, think, know ...)
Examples:




It is said that...
It is thought that...
It is believed that...
It is known that...
It is also common that we start the passive form of these sentences with the subject of the that-clause:
Examples:


They say that the planet is in danger.= The planet is said to be in danger.
They think that women live longer than men. = Women are thought to live longer.
CHAPTER - 9
Grammatical form
subject + reporting verb + direct object + (that) + clause
I told him (that) I lived in London.
subject + reporting verb + (that) + clause>
I said (that) I lived in London.
subject+ reporting verb + to-infinitive
I told him to call back later.
subject + reporting verb + verb-ing
She suggested changing the colour.
Questions
subject+ reporting verb + (direct object) + if / whether + clause ?
I asked her whether she had seen Lynne.
subject + reporting verb + (direct object)+ question word + clause ?
She asked him where he had been.
General points - reported speech and direct speech
There are two common ways to tell somebody (report) people's words, thoughts etc.
These are : direct speech and reported speech.
Direct speech is when we use the exact words that were said.
(Note : We can't use direct speech for thoughts, except in 'thought bubbles' in commic books.)
Example
Malcolm : I like coffee.
We can write this in direct speech as follows :
Malcolm said, 'I like coffee.'
Note
(1) We need to put a comma after the verb say.
(2) The words that Malcolm used are put in inverted commas, ' ' or " ". (Double or single can be used.
Single quotes are more common in British English; double quotes are preferred in American English.)
Direct speech is not very common in spoken English. It is more common to use reported speech
Let's look at the same example again.
Malcolm : I like coffee.
We can write this in reported speech as follows :
Malcolm said (that) he liked coffee.
Note
(1) There is no comma after said.
(2) The verb like, which Malcolm used in the present simple tense, has been changed to past simple
tense. This is called the one-tense-back rule.
(3) The word that is optional.
One-tense-back reference
Tenses are usually back-shifted as shown below:
I play
She said she played
I am playing
She said she was playing
I played
She said she had played
I have played
She said she had played
I have been playing
She said she had been playing
I had played
She said she had played
I had been playing
She said she had been playing
I will play
She said she would play
I am going to play
She said she was going to play
I can play
She said she could play
Time considerations and the one-tense-back rule
When the reporting verb (say, tell etc.) is in the past tense, the other verb tenses are usually changed
or backshifted.
For example, when we are reporing something someone said yesterday, last week etc.
Dawn : I feel tired.
This is reported as :
Dawn said she felt tired.
If the speaker uses a past tense in the original statement, in formal English we should use a past perfect
tense in the reported statement to show that it is in the past.
Andy : I called you on Monday.
Andy said he had called on Monday.
However, in informal spoken English, sometimes the past tense is reported as the past tense. i.e.there's
no change.
Andy : I called you on Monday.
Andy said he called on Monday.
Other verbs are also backshifted. See the table at the bottom of this page.
Tomorrow, yesterday etc.
When reporting things said in the past, you must take care to change certain words and phrases that are
only relevant to the original time or place.
For example, tomorrow is only used with reference to today. The day after last Friday is not tomorrow.
Example:
It's Friday and Joanne says to Tina, 'I'm going to Tokyo tomorrow'.
A week later Tina reports this to Melanie:
I saw Joanne last week. She said she was going to Tokyo the next day.
Not, She said she was going to Tokyo tomorrow.
Other 'here and now' words and phrases
here in direct speech becomes there in reported speech (if the place has changed).
yesterday becomes the day before
next week / month /year etc. become the next week / month /year etc. or the following week / month /year
etc.
CHAPTER 10
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
Conditional tenses are used to speculate about what could happen, what might have happened, and what
we wish would happen. In English, most sentences using the conditional contain the word if. Many
conditional forms in English are used in sentences that include verbs in one of the past tenses. This
usage is referred to as "the unreal past" because we use a past tense but we are not actually referring to
something that happened in the past. There are five main ways of constructing conditional sentences in
English. In all cases, these sentences are made up of an if clause and a main clause. In many negative
conditional sentences, there is an equivalent sentence construction using "unless" instead of "if".
Conditional sentence
type
Usage
If clause verb
tense
Main clause verb
Zero
General truths
Simple present
Simple present
Type 1
A possible condition and its probable result
Simple present
Simple future
Type 2
A hypothetical condition and its probable result
Simple past
Present conditiona
conditional
Conditional sentence
type
Usage
If clause verb
tense
Main clause verb
Type 3
An unreal past condition and its probable result
in the past
Past perfect
Perfect conditional
Mixed type
An unreal past condition and its probable result
in the present
Past perfect
Present contditiona
THE ZERO CONDITIONAL
The zero conditional is used for when the time being referred to is now or always and the situation
is real and possible. The zero conditional is often used to refer to general truths. The tense in both parts
of the sentence is the simple present. In zero conditional sentences, the word "if" can usually be replaced
by the word "when" without changing the meaning.
If clause
Main clause
If + simple present
simple present
If this thing happens
that thing happens.
If you heat ice
it melts.
If it rains
the grass gets wet.
Read more about how to use the zero conditional.
TYPE 1 CONDITIONAL
The type 1 conditional is used to refer to the present or future where the situation is real. The type 1
conditional refers to a possible condition and its probable result. In these sentences the if clause is in the
simple present, and the main clause is in the simple future.
If clause
Main clause
If + simple present
simple future
If this thing happens
that thing will happen.
If you don't hurry
you will miss the train.
If it rains today
you will get wet.
Read more about how to use the type 1 conditional.
TYPE 2 CONDITIONAL
The type 2 conditional is used to refer to a time that is now or any time, and a situation that is unreal.
These sentences are not based on fact. The type 2 conditional is used to refer to a hypothetical condition
and its probable result. In type 2 conditional sentences, the if clause uses the simple past, and the main
clause uses the present conditional.
If clause
Main clause
If + simple past
present conditional or present continuous conditional
If this thing happened
that thing would happen. (but I'm not sure this thing will happen) OR
that thing would be happening.
If you went to bed earlier
you would not be so tired.
If it rained
you would get wet.
If I spoke Italian
I would be working in Italy.
Read more about how to use the type 2 conditional with the present conditional and how to use the
present continuous conditional in type 2 conditional sentence.
TYPE 3 CONDITIONAL
The type 3 conditional is used to refer to a time that is in the past, and a situation that is contrary to
reality. The facts they are based on are the opposite of what is expressed. The type 3 conditional is used
to refer to an unreal past condition and its probable past result. In type 3 conditional sentences, the if
clause uses the past perfect, and the main clause uses the perfect conditional.
If clause
Main clause
If + past perfect
perfect conditional or perfect continuous conditional
If this thing had happened
that thing would have happened. (but neither of those things really happene
that thing would have been happening.
If you had studied harder
you would have passed the exam.
If it had rained
you would have gotten wet.
If I had accepted that promotion
I would have been working in Milan.
Read more about how to use the type 3 conditional with the perfect conditional tense, and how to use the
perfect continuous conditional in type 3 conditional sentences.
MIXED TYPE CONDITIONAL
The mixed type conditional is used to refer to a time that is in the past, and a situation that is ongoing
into the present. The facts they are based on are the opposite of what is expressed. The mixed type
conditional is used to refer to an unreal past condition and its probable result in the present. In mixed
type conditional sentences, the if clause uses the past perfect, and the main clause uses the present
conditional.
If clause
Main clause
If + past perfect or simple past
present conditional or perfect conditional
If clause
Main clause
If this thing had happened
that thing would happen. (but this thing didn't happen so that thing isn't hap
If I had worked harder at school
I would have a better job now.
If we had looked at the map
we wouldn't be lost.
If you weren't afraid of spiders
you would have picked it up and put it outside.
CHAPTER 11
MODAL VERBS
What are modal verbs?
Modals (also called modal verbs, modal auxiliary verbs, modal auxiliaries) are special verbs which
behave irregularly in English. They are different from normal verbs like "work, play, visit..." They give
additional information about the function of the main verb that follows it. They have a great variety
of communicative functions.
Here are some characteristics of modal verbs:
 They never change their form. You can't add "s", "ed", "ing"...
 They are always followed by an infinitive without "to" (e.i. the bare infinitive.)
 They are used to indicate modality allow speakers to express certainty, possibility, willingness,
obligation, necessity, ability
List of modal verbs
Here is a list of modal verbs:
can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must
The verbs or expressions dare, ought to, had better, and need not behave like modal auxiliaries to a
large extent and my be added to the above list
Use of modal verbs:
Modal verbs are used to express functions such as:
1. Permission
2. Ability
3. Obligation
4. Prohibition
5. Lack of necessity
6. Advice
7. possibility
8. probability
Examples of modal verbs
Here is a list of modals with examples:
Modal Verb
Must
must not
Can
Could
Expressing
Example
Strong obligation
You must stop when the traffic lights turn red.
logical conclusion / Certainty
He must be very tired. He's been working all day
long.
prohibition
You must not smoke in the hospital.
Ability
I can swim.
permission
Can I use your phone please?
possibility
Smoking can cause cancer.
ability in the past
When I was younger I could run fast.
polite permission
Excuse me, could I just say something?
possibility
It could rain tomorrow!
permission
May I use your phone please?
possibility, probability
It may rain tomorrow!
polite permission
Might I suggest an idea?
possibility, probability
I might go on holiday to Australia next year.
lack of necessity/absence of
obligation
I need not buy tomatoes. There are plenty of
tomatoes in the fridge.
50 % obligation
I should / ought to see a doctor. I have a terrible
headache.
Advice
You should / ought to revise your lessons
logical conclusion
He should / ought to be very tired. He's been
working all day long.
Advice
You 'd better revise your lessons
May
Might
need not
should/ought
to
had better
Remember
Modal verbs are followed by an infinitive without "to", also called the bare infinitive.
Examples:
 You must stop when the traffic lights turn red.
 You should see to the doctor.
 There are a lot of tomatoes in the fridge. You need not buy any.
 CHAPTER - 10
 LINKING WORDS (CONJUNCTIONS)
 CONJUNCTIONS
 Conjunctions are words used as joiners.
 Different kinds of conjunctions join different kinds of grammatical structures.
 The following are the kinds of conjunctions:





A. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (FANBOYS)
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
Coordinating conjunctions join equals to one another:
words to words,
phrases to phrases,
clauses to clauses.


Coordinating conjunctions usually form looser connections than other conjunctions do.


Coordinating conjunctions go in between items joined, not at the beginning or end.




Punctuation with coordinating conjunctions:
When a coordinating conjunction joins two words, phrases, or subordinate clauses, no comma
should be placed before the conjunction.



A coordinating conjunction joining three or more words, phrases, or subordinate clauses creates
a series and requires commas between the elements.

A coordinating conjunction joining two independent clauses creates a compound sentence and
requires a comma before the coordinating conjunction


B. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
either. . .or
both. . . and
neither. . . nor
not only. . . but also
These pairs of conjunctions require equal (parallel) structures after each one.



C. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS
 These conjunctions join independent clauses together.
 The following are frequently used conjunctive adverbs:
after all
in addition
Also
Incidentally
as a result
Indeed
Besides
in fact
Consequently
in other words
Finally
Instead
for example
Likewise
Furthermore
Meanwhile
Hence
Moreover
However
Nevertheless
next
nonetheless
on the contrary
on the other hand
otherwise
still
then
therefore
thus
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Punctuation:
Place a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb and a comma after the
conjunctive adverb.
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D. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
These words are commonly used as subordinating conjunctions
After
Although
As
as far as
as soon as
as if
as though
Because
Before
even if
even though
How
If
inasmuch as
in case (that)
in order (that)
insofar as
in that
Lest
no matter how
now that
Once
provided (that)
Since
so that
supposing (that)
Than
That
Though
Till
unless
until
when
whenever
where
wherever
whether
while
why
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Subordinating conjunctions also join two clauses together, but in doing so, they make one clause
dependent (or "subordinate") upon the other.
A subordinating conjunction may appear at a sentence beginning or between two clauses in a
sentence.
A subordinate conjunction usually provides a tighter connection between clauses than a
coordinating conjunctions does.
Loose:
It is raining, so we have an umbrella.
Tight:
Because it is raining, we have an umbrella.
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Punctuation Note:
When the dependent clause is placed first in a sentence, use a comma between the two clauses. When the
independent clause is placed first and the dependent clause second, do not separate the two clauses with a
comma.
UNIT-III
COMPOSITION
CHAPTER-13
JOB APPLICATION AND CURRICULUM VITAE WRITING
What is a Job Application Letter?
A job application letter, also known as a cover letter, should be sent or uploaded with your resume when
applying for jobs.
While your resume offers a history of your work experience and an outline of your skills and
accomplishments, the job application letter you send to an employer explains why you are qualified for
the position and should be selected for an interview.
Writing this letter can seem like a challenging task. However, if you take it one step at a time, you'll
soon be an expert at writing application letters to send with your resume.
How to Get Started
Before you begin writing your job application letter, do some groundwork. Consider what information
you want to include (keeping in mind that space is limited). Remember, this letter is making a case for
your candidacy for the position. But you can do better than just regurgitating your resume — instead,
highlight your most relevant skills, experiences, and abilities.
To include the most convincing, relevant details in your letter, you'll need to know what the employer
wants.
The biggest clues are within the job advertisement, so spend some time decoding the job ad. Next, match
your qualifications with the employer's wants and needs. Make a list of your relevant experience and
skills. For instance, if the job ad calls for a strong leader, think of examples of when you've successfully
led a team.
Once you've jotted down some notes, and have a sense of what you want to highlight in your letter,
you're ready to get started writing.
Writing Guidelines for Job Application Letters
Writing a job application letter is very different from a quick email to a friend or a thank you note to a
relative. Hiring managers and potential interviewers have certain expectations when it comes to the
letter's presentation and appearance, from length (no more than a page) to font size and style to letter
spacing:
Length: A letter of application should be no more than one page long.
Format and Page Margins: A letter of application should be single-spaced with a space between each
paragraph. Use about 1" margins and align your text to the left, which is the standard alignment for most
documents.
Font: Use a traditional font such as Times New Roman, Arial, or Calibri. The font size should be
between 10 and 12 points.
What to Include in Each Section of the Letter
There are also set rules for the sections included in the letter, from salutation to sign-off, and how the
letter is organized. Here's a quick lowdown on the main sections included in a job application letter:
Heading: A letter of application should begin with both you and the employer's contact information
(name, address, phone number, email) followed by the date.
If this is an email rather than an actual letter, include your contact information at the end of the letter,
after your signature. Here's how to send an email application letter.
 Header Examples
Salutation: This is your polite greeting. The most common salutation is "Dear Mr./Ms." followed by the
person's last name. Find out more about appropriate cover letter salutations, including what to do if you
don't know the person's name, or are unsure of a contact's gender.
Body of the letter: Think of this section as being three distinct parts.
 In the first paragraph, you'll want to mention the job you are applying for and where you saw
the job listing.
 The next paragraph(s) are the most important part of your letter. Remember how you gathered
all that information about what employers were seeking, and how you could meet their needs?
This is where you'll share those relevant details on your experience and accomplishments.
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The third and last part of the body of the letter will be your thank you to the employer; you
can also offer follow-up information.
Complimentary Close: Sign off your email with a polite close, such as "Best" or "Sincerely," followed
by your name.
Signature: End with your signature, handwritten, followed by your typed name. If this is an email,
simply include your typed name, followed by your contact information.
Proof and Edit Your Letter
Remember to proof and edit your letter before sending it. It may sound silly, but also be sure to include
the correct employer and company names - when you write many letters of application at once, it is easy
to make a mistake.
If you are applying for a job in advertising or another field that emphasizes creativity, you might be able
to be more flexible with these guidelines. However, think closely about the position and the company
before deviating drastically from this format.
CURRICULUM VITAE
A “curriculum vitae,” or “CV,” is a document that you may use instead of a resume to apply for
academic jobs. It typically follows the same format as a resume. The main difference between a resume
and a CV is that the CV can be multiple pages, and typically includes additional sections
Your academic CV should:
Convey clearly the variety and depth of your academic and professional experiences.
Follow the combination format in which the CV is arranged according to categories of experience with
specific entries listed chronologically (most recent first). See our sample resumes page for more
information.
CV ELEMENTS
Identifying Information: name, address, phone numbers and e-mail address. Leave off date of birth,
marital status, number of children, or other information that is not relevant.
Education: begin with your most recent or expected degree. List degrees, majors, institutions, and dates
of completion (or expected date) in reverse chronological order (most recent first). Also include your
minors, subfields, and honors.
Dissertation or thesis: provide the title and a brief description of your work, its theoretical framework,
your conclusions, your director (and readers, if their names or departments add breadth or new
perspectives to your area of research).
Awards, honors, fellowships, scholarships, grants: recognition of scholarship by the university or in
the field is very important. Membership in honorary societies belong in this section too, unless they have
already been listed under your "Education" section.
Professional experience: this category is often divided into several possible categories such as
"Research Experience," "Consulting," "Fieldwork," "Teaching Experience," or "Postdoctoral Work," as
well as many others, depending on your discipline. Reverse chronological order is again the rule.
Publications, invited papers, exhibits, conference presentations, etc: this category may be modified
to read "Papers and Publications," "Programs and Workshops" or other titles that accurately reflect the
professional work you have produced in your discipline. These should be arranged in reverse
chronological order and may be subdivided into sections. You may include works in progress.
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Teaching, research interests: list the courses you are prepared to teach and topics that indicate your
present and future research directions. If your background would allow you to teach in several fields,
you may want to include a list of graduate courses taken.
Academic Service: list all departmental and university groups, committees, or task forces on which you
served. Student groups are valid as well. You should demonstrate that you have demonstrated leadership
and you will assume certain departmental administrative duties if hired. If relevant to the position,
community service may also be included.
Memberships or professional affiliations: list all professional groups (e.g., American Counseling
Association) to which you belong and any offices you have held.
Languages: list all languages you read and speak and note those in which you are fluent.
CHAPTER-14
BUSINESS LETTER WRITING
Even in this age of instant, informal electronic communication, you will find yourselves required to
communicate in professional, formal situations. Anytime you are not communicating in a social peer
situation, you should consider yourself a polished professional projecting an educated, intelligent image.
Your word processing software typically contains document templates for Memos, Letters and Mailings
if you need help with document formatting. You should use 1.5” margins so there is plenty of “white
space” surrounding the text. You should use single line spacing and double space between paragraphs.
All styles of formal letters should contain the following elements:
· Letterhead (contains sender name and return address)
· Date line
· Inside Address
· Subject/Reference line
· Salutation
· Body of letter
· Complimentary Close
· Signature
· Writer’s Typed Name and title
· Enclosure notice: (if you are enclosing something with letter)
· Distribution Notice: (if you are sending copies of letter to others)
Never use a company letterhead if you are not officially representing that company! If you are writing a
personal letter then create your own letterhead design or simply use block format for your return
address. If you create a logo or piece of artwork for your design, make sure that it is clear, well-balanced
and appealing to general audiences. Never use a design that is rude, highly personal, or unprofessional.
Avoid extremes like cute animals or menacing fantasy figures. Typically your initials or credentials in
an attractive, readable typeset or font are appropriate when combined with your return address.
In planning your letter, consider your purpose, audience, content and organization.
Purpose:
1. What do you hope to accomplish?
2. What do you want your reader to know or do?
3. What information will fulfill your purpose?
Audience:
1. What are your reader’s interests and needs?
2. Are there concepts you will need to explain to your reader?
3. How much background or explanation of context will your reader need?
4. What will be your reader’s attitude?
5. How can you interest your reader?
6. How can you overcome hostility or indifference?
7. Have you answered the questions, “So what?” and “What’s in it for me?” for your reader?
Content:
1. Have you selected your words carefully to avoid stereotypes, clichés, slang, and inflammatory
tone?
2. Is your information well developed yet concise?
3. Is any action you want the reader to take clearly stated?
4. Is your tone courteous and polite while maintaining clarity and appropriate urgency?
5. Have you avoided any grammatical errors?
6. Have you eliminated any spelling or typing errors?
Organization:
1. Is your purpose clear?
2. Do your first few sentences provide the organizational and contextual information your reader
needs?
3. Is your organization clear and coherent?
4. Do you need to emphasize your organization with headings, paragraph breaks or and visual aids?
5. Have you eliminated any unneeded content?
6. Have you kept your sentences to a reasonable length?
7. Are your word choices familiar to your reader?
8. Is the letter well typed or printed?
9. Have you used good quality bond paper?
Letters of Application
Whether you are sending a letter in response to a posted position, or inquiring about the possibility of a
job opening, you should keep in mind that employers receive many letters and you will have to compete
for attention. Your letter of application is to introduce yourself, create interest in your abilities, and
obtain an interview.
Ø Make sure you keep your letters professional, readable, and to the point. Limit your letters to one
page.
Ø Send your letters to a specific person. Do some research so you can show that you know who you
are writing to and how you can be an asset.
Ø Don’t just repeat what is on your resume. Don’t just list your accomplishments. Show your reader
how your experience, personal qualities, schoolwork, and special projects qualify you to function
and advance in the position you are striving for.
Ø Keep your paragraphs readable and concise.
Ø Avoid long, complex sentences in the passive voice. Emphasize yourself as a doer with the active
voice in specific detail.
Ø Don’t forget to ask for an interview or phone call. Provide your contact information. Indicate
when you are available.
Ø Don’t be too pushy (call me to arrange a convenient time), too informal (let’s meet for coffee next
week), nor too humble (I know you are really busy, but if you can spare a few minutes, I would
really like an interview.)
Ø Instead try something like: “I would like to put my ability to motivate personnel and to manage
computer services to work for you and the Patterson Corporation. Thank you in advance for your
time and consideration of my application. I am available for an interview any day after 11:00
a.m. I look forward to an opportunity for a personal interview or phone call to further discuss
how I can be an asset for your company.”
Letters of Complaint
A complaint letter is written for more reasons than just blowing off steam. You should want some
specific action taken. By adopting the right tone, you increase your chances of getting what you want.
Ø Register your complaint politely, clearly, and specifically. Begin with a clear statement of
purpose.
Ø Give a detailed description of the product or service: model numbers, size, invoice numbers, serial
numbers, dates, personnel and duties help establish your credibility and add clarity for the reader.
Ø State exactly what is wrong with the product or service with as much detail and factual
information as possible.
Ø Briefly describe the inconvenience you have experienced. To build your case, give precise details
about time, money, or labor required as a result. Indicate precisely what you want done: refund,
replacement, repair, an apology, damages in dollars and include any bills documenting your
expenses related to the problem.
Ø Ask for prompt handling of your claim. Try something like “Thank you in advance for your
prompt action in replacing my Rockledge Slugger. I look forward to resolving this issue no later
than the end of Feb. 2007. When tryouts begin in March, I would like to have my new bat in
hand, so I can continue my lifelong confidence in Acme sporting goods.”
Letters of Thanks
A thank you letter is written for more reasons than just being polite. Most people are genuinely surprised
and gratified when they receive a formal letter of thanks. A well-written thank you is a very complex
emotional trigger. It shapes the image of the writer as well as creating a positive reaction for the
reader. i.e. You look good and they feel good. Word choice in creating tone of voice is extremely
important!
Ø Remind your reader who you are if necessary.
Ø Use the words Thank You at least once but not too often. Don't sound sentimental and
overemotional. This is not a Halmark Card! Cards, flowers, and chocolates are nice but the
contrived commercial quality can often trivialize the experience.
Ø Give a detailed description of why you are thanking them. What service or materials did they give
you? Specific details help establish your credibility and add clarity for the reader.
Ø State exactly how their actions added value for you. Most people crave recognition not only for
their efforts, but also to validate their inherent worth.
Ø If you are sending copies of the letter or an different version to someone else (such as a
Supervisor) mention who and why you want others to have the information.
CHAPTER 15
PARAGRAPH WRITING
Look at any printed prose text, and you will notice that the text content is divided into sections. Each
one of these sections of text is called a paragraph. Every form of prose composition is broken up into
paragraphs to make them easily readable.
The beginning of a paragraph should mark a change in topic, or a step in the development of a plot.
Learning to know how to divide an essay into neat paragraphs is an essential skill an ESL student should
master. Unless divided into paragraphs, your essay would look uninteresting to the reader.
A paragraph is a group of related sentences that develop a single point. Note that paragraphs are not
mere arbitrary division of text. Each paragraph should deal with a central topic or develop a single idea.
The length of a paragraph
There is no rule as to what the length of a paragraph should be. A paragraph may be long or short. It
may consist of a single sentence or a number of sentences. Note that the paragraphs of a piece of prose
are different from the stanzas of a poem. While the stanzas of a poem are usually of the same length and
pattern, paragraphs may be long or short.
Unity of thought
Discuss only one topic in each paragraph. Every sentence in the paragraph must be closely connected
with the central idea of the paragraph. As far as possible, try to express the topic or subject of the
paragraph in the first sentence itself. Narrate events in the order of their occurrence. Also make sure that
every sentence is connected with the leading idea and arranged in the order of their importance.
The two most important sentences in a paragraph are the first and the last. The first sentence should
arouse the interest of the reader and the last sentence should satisfy it.
Variety
To avoid monotony and to make the text look interesting, the paragraphs should be of different lengths.
They must also not be of the same grammatical construction.
CHAPTER 16
REPORT WRITING
What is a Report?
In academia there is some overlap between reports and essays, and the two words are sometimes
used interchangeably, but reports are more likely to be needed for business, scientific and
technical subjects, and in the workplace.
Whereas an essay presents arguments and reasoning, a report concentrates on facts.
Essentially, a report is a short, sharp, concise document which is written for a particular purpose
and audience. It generally sets outs and analyses a situation or problem, often making recommendations
for future action. It is a factual paper, and needs to be clear and well-structured.
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Requirements for the precise form and content of a report will vary between organisation and
departments and in study between courses, from tutor to tutor, as well as between subjects, so it’s worth
finding out if there are any specific guidelines before you start.
Reports may contain some or all of the following elements:
A description of a sequence of events or a situation;
Some interpretation of the significance of these events or situation, whether solely your own analysis or
informed by the views of others, always carefully referenced of course (see our page on Academic
Referencing for more information);
An evaluation of the facts or the results of your research;
Discussion of the likely outcomes of future courses of action;
Your recommendations as to a course of action; and
Conclusions.
Not all of these elements will be essential in every report.
If you’re writing a report in the workplace, check whether there are any standard guidelines or structure
that you need to use.
For example, in the UK many government departments have outline structures for reports to ministers
that must be followed exactly.
Sections and Numbering
A report is designed to lead people through the information in a structured way, but also to enable
them to find the information that they want quickly and easily.
Reports usually, therefore, have numbered sections and subsections, and a clear and full contents page
listing each heading. It follows that page numbering is important.
Modern word processors have features to add tables of contents (ToC) and page numbers as well as
styled headings; you should take advantage of these as they update automatically as you edit your report,
moving, adding or deleting sections.
Report Writing
Getting Started: prior preparation and planning
The structure of a report is very important to lead the reader through your thinking to a course of action
and/or decision. It’s worth taking a bit of time to plan it out beforehand.
Step 1: Know your brief
You will usually receive a clear brief for a report, including what you are studying and for whom
the report should be prepared.
First of all, consider your brief very carefully and make sure that you are clear who the report is for (if
you're a student then not just your tutor, but who it is supposed to be written for), and why you are
writing it, as well as what you want the reader to do at the end of reading: make a decision or agree a
recommendation, perhaps.
Step 2: Keep your brief in mind at all times
During your planning and writing, make sure that you keep your brief in mind: who are you
writing for, and why are you writing?
All your thinking needs to be focused on that, which may require you to be ruthless in your reading and
thinking. Anything irrelevant should be discarded.
As you read and research, try to organise your work into sections by theme, a bit like writing
a Literature Review.
Make sure that you keep track of your references, especially for academic work. Although referencing is
perhaps less important in the workplace, it’s also important that you can substantiate any assertions that
you make so it’s helpful to keep track of your sources of information.
The Structure of a Report
Like the precise content, requirements for structure vary, so do check what’s set out in any guidance.
However, as a rough guide, you should plan to include at the very least an executive summary,
introduction, the main body of your report, and a section containing your conclusions and any
recommendations.
Executive Summary
The executive summary or abstract, for a scientific report, is a brief summary of the contents. It’s
worth writing this last, when you know the key points to draw out. It should be no more than half a page
to a page in length.
Remember the executive summary is designed to give busy 'executives' a quick summary of the contents
of the report.
Introduction
The introduction sets out what you plan to say and provides a brief summary of the problem under
discussion. It should also touch briefly on your conclusions.
Report Main Body
The main body of the report should be carefully structured in a way that leads the reader through the
issue.
You should split it into sections using numbered sub-headings relating to themes or areas for
consideration. For each theme, you should aim to set out clearly and concisely the main issue under
discussion and any areas of difficulty or disagreement. It may also include experimental results. All the
information that you present should be related back to the brief and the precise subject under discussion.
If it’s not relevant, leave it out.
Conclusions and Recommendations
The conclusion sets out what inferences you draw from the information, including any experimental
results. It may include recommendations, or these may be included in a separate section.
Recommendations suggest how you think the situation could be improved, and should be specific,
achievable and measurable. If your recommendations have financial implications, you should set these
out clearly, with estimated costs if possible.
A Word on Writing Style
When writing a report, your aim should be to be absolutely clear. Above all, it should be easy to
read and understand, even to someone with little knowledge of the subject area.
You should therefore aim for crisp, precise text, using plain English, and shorter words rather than
longer, with short sentences.
You should also avoid jargon. If you have to use specialist language, you should explain each word as
you use it. If you find that you’ve had to explain more than about five words, you’re probably using too
much jargon, and need to replace some of it with simpler words.
Consider your audience. If the report is designed to be written for a particular person, check whether
you should be writing it to ‘you’ or perhaps in the third person to a job role: ‘The Chief Executive may
like to consider…’, or ‘The minister is recommended to agree…’, for example.
A Final Warning
As with any academic assignment or formal piece of writing, your work will benefit from being
read over again and edited ruthlessly for sense and style.
Pay particular attention to whether all the information that you have included is relevant. Also remember
to check tenses, which person you have written in, grammar and spelling. It’s also worth one last check
against any requirements on structure.
For an academic assignment, make sure that you have referenced fully and correctly. As always, check
that you have not inadvertently or deliberately plagiarised or copied anything without acknowledging it.
Finally, ask yourself:
“Does my report fulfil its purpose?”
Only if the answer is a resounding ‘yes’ should you send it off to its intended recipient.
UNIT-IV
CHAPTER-17
THE LUNCHEON
An
Approach
to
Narrative
In such a scenario, this article aims to suggest an approach to teaching short narratives and it is based on
certain assumptions. These assumptions are:
1. There is no just one ready-made method of teaching short narratives and what matters is the
resourcefulness of the teacher though we can certainly devise an approach to such texts.
2. A short story does not have meaning but has potential for meaning.
3. The purpose of reading a text is to ‘make’ sense of what one reads and not to ‘get’ the meaning as
there is no such thing as ‘the meaning’ of creative work. In any case we can question: which
meaning? What the author thinks he wants to say? What the language or medium conveys? What the
reader makes of it? Our assumption is that it is the reader who gives meaning to the printed
linguistic symbols.
4. Making sense of a printed text depends upon the background knowledge of the reader – which can
include inter alia knowledge of the medium in which it is expressed, knowledge of the context in
which it is placed, author’s life, views, ideology and so on.
5. Making sense is then a process and the reader is an active participant in this process of making
meaning and not a passive receptacle to be filled with meanings or interpretations made by others.
Once we accept these assumptions then the job of the teacher becomes apparent to us. The task is to
equip the reader with this ‘process’ of making meaning and not to give any ‘product’ or interpretation(s)
given by others. In a second/foreign language-learning situation, giving language proficiency would also
be an important aim of teaching short narratives. The teacher ought to achieve this task not by ‘telling’
but by creating an environment conducive to learning of this process and achieving language
proficiency. This envisages a complex role for the teacher as manager, guide, and participant in this
process of learning. To achieve this dual purpose the teacher must take students through the process of
making meaning; s/he must not resort to ‘telling’ or lecturing but to engage and guide students in groupinteraction through carefully devised tasks and activities, such as engaging in group discussion, debates,
reading and writing reports, comments, short articles, reviews, taking and making notes, summarizing,
writing assignments, and making class presentations to explore the given text for meaning.
Given below is a plan for taking students through the process of making sense of The Luncheon. As
practicing teachers know there cannot be just one plan for all. A plan for taking students through the
process of learning has to keep a number of things in mind such as the nature of students, their
proficiency level in language, medium of instruction, urban/rural background, and so on. The lesson
plan given below is for vernacular medium secondary/sophomore level students. The exercises are only
suggestive and not exhaustive and the teachers can work out their own teaching plans keeping their
learners in mind.
For Vernacular medium Secondary
N.B.: First work alone and then work in your group to answer the following:I. Brain Storming/Pre-reading tasks
1. A typical western meal has a structure and sequence. Given below is a menu of a western meal in a
jumbled form. Arrange the courses in their proper order as one expects in a typical western meal.
- Soup, salad, fish, fruit, ice cream, tea, coffee, wine, beer, chicken, mutton, water, pudding, bread,
rice
Is there any such structure and sequence in a typical meal in your community/society/country?
Describe the different courses and the sequence in which these are taken/served.
2. Do different items in a particular course cost the same? For example, if there are different types of
non-vegetarian dishes in a course, will all these be priced the same? If not, why not? Give reasons
for your answer.
(You may catch hold of a menu of a typical hotel/restaurant and go through it to answer questions 1
& 2).
3. Courses can be omitted for reasons of appetite or economy. If you were dining out, which of the
courses given under question 1 above could you omit without appearing to be odd or rude?
4. Do people in your community invite others to lunch or dinner in a restaurant? Who do they invite,
when, why? What things do they keep in mind while deciding where to dine or lunch?
5. When eating out in a restaurant, there are conventions about ordering and paying for the meal.
Customs differ from country to country and community to community. What are the conventions in
your community/country?
6. Is it common in your country/community for a woman to entertain a guest (either man or woman) to
a meal in a restaurant? Do the customs differ in such cases?
7. Have you ever been embarrassed when dining out with someone in a restaurant? Describe what
happened and what you did to get out of the situation.
II. Reading – Surveying to Predict
1. You are going to read a short story. It is entitled The Luncheon written by Somerset
Maugham. Can you predict what the writer will tell in this story?
2. Now read the opening paragraph of the story. (Read silently. Do not stop reading even if you come
across a difficult word or expression. Keep reading, guessing the meaning of these
words/expressions from the context).
I caught sight of her at the play and in answer to her beckoning I went over during the interval and
sat down beside her. It was long since I had last seen her and if someone had not mentioned her
name I hardly think I would have recognized her. She addressed me brightly.
“Well, it’s many years since we first met. How time does fly! We’re none of us getting any
younger. Do you remember the first time I saw you? You asked me to luncheon.”
Did I remember?
3. What questions do arise in your mind when you read this opening paragraph? For example, one of
the questions can be: Who is ‘I’? Now write down as many questions as you can think of. Discuss
your questions with others and see if you can add any more questions to your list.
III. Guided Reading for Details
1. Read the opening paragraph once again and answer the following questions. (Read in the same
manner as suggested above).
1. What is the physical setting? A house? A restaurant? A theatre? A shopping centre? How do
you know? Pick out words and phrases that help you decide the physical setting.
2. “Did I remember?”
Do these words give you any clue how the story will proceed? Discuss with others before
reading further.
2. Start reading the next paragraph. Do you get answer to the question posed, “Did I
remember?” What is the answer? Where does this answer begin and where does it end in the text?
Now answer the following questions:
1. What is the physical setting of the incident narrated? (Where does the action take place?)
2. Who are the characters involved?
3. What is the relationship between the characters? (How are they related to each other?)
4. What brings the characters together?
3. Read the first paragraph of the incident narrated to answer the following :1. Which character are we told about in this paragraph? Do we know his/her name?
2. Which particular aspect of this character is focused upon? Underline words/phrases used in the
text.
3. What is the problem he is confronted with? How does he intend to solve this problem?
4. Read the next paragraph and answer the following:1. Who is the character described here? How is s/he referred to?
2. Which characteristics of this character are focused upon in this paragraph? (Pick out words and
phrases that describe this character).
3. What impressions do these words/phrases convey about this character?
5. Read the next paragraph.
6. What were the narrator’s expectations about the restaurant and also about the guest? Was he
disappointed in both? Underline words and phrases from the text to justify your answer.
7. Read the rest of the incident and complete the following:What the guest says
What the guest orders/asks for
How the host reacts
Reasons for the reaction
8. Read the ending of the story:
But I have had my revenge at last. I do not believe that I am a vindictive man, but when the
immortal gods take a hand in the matter it is pardonable to observe the result with
complacency. To-day she weighs twenty-one stone.
9. What had the guest done to deserve this reaction from the host? Do you agree with him? Give
reasons for your answer.
IV.
1. By now have you got answers to all the questions you took down under point II.2a given
above? What are these answers? Discuss your answers with others in your group.
2. Which of the following statements do you think sums up the main aim of the writer:The main aim of the narrator in this story is to (tick the answer)
1. tell us about his love for the theatre
2. describe how hospitable he was although he was not so well off
3. narrate how he was embarrassed once in a restaurant
4. advise the reader not to seek revenge but leave things to God.
CHAPTER-18
HOW MUCH LAND DOES A MAN NEED
"How Much Land Does a Man Require?" is an 1886 short story by Leo Tolstoy about a man who, in
his lust for land, forfeits everything.
The protagonist of the story is a peasant named Pahom, who overhears his wife and sister-in-law argue
over the merits of town and peasant farm life. He thinks to himself "if I had plenty of land, I shouldn't
fear the Devil himself!". Unbeknownst to him, Satan is present sitting behind the stove and listening.
Satan abruptly accepts his challenge and also tells that he would give Pahom more land and then snatch
everything from him. A short time later, a landlady in the village decides to sell her estate, and the
peasants of the village buy as much of that land as they can. Pahom himself purchases some land, and by
working on the extra land is able to repay his debts and live a more comfortable life.
However, Pahom then becomes very possessive of his land, and this causes arguments with his
neighbors. "Threats to burn his building began to be uttered." Later, he moves to a larger area of land at
another Commune. Here, he can grow even more crops and amass a small fortune, but he has to grow
the crops on rented land, which irritates him. Finally, after buying and selling a lot of fertile and good
land, he is introduced to the Bashkirs, and is told that they are simple-minded people who own a huge
amount of land. Pahom goes to them to buy as much of their land for as low a price as he can negotiate.
Their offer is very unusual: for a sum of one thousand rubles, Pahom can walk around as large an area as
he wants, starting at daybreak, marking his route with a spade along the way. If he returns to his starting
point by sunset that day, all the land his route encloses will be his, but if he does not reach his starting
point, he will lose his money and receive no land. He is delighted, as he believes that he can cover a
great distance and has chanced upon the bargain of a lifetime. That night, Pakhom experiences a
surreal dream in which he sees himself lying dead by the feet of the Devil, who is laughing.
He stays out as late as possible, marking out land until just before the sun sets. Toward the end, he
realizes he is far from the starting point and runs back as fast as he can to the waiting Bashkirs. He
finally arrives at the starting point just as the sun sets. The Bashkirs cheer his good fortune, but
exhausted from the run, Pahom drops dead. His servant buries him in an ordinary grave only six feet
long, thus ironically answering the question posed in the title of the story.
CHAPTER-19
THE NIGHT TRAIN AT DEOLI
The Night Train at Deoli is a beautiful story of unrequited love. Each one of us has experienced this
wonderfully painful emotion of unrequited love.
Dear Reader, I am sure you too have experienced the delightful heart-ache of longing, yearning – an
alluring attraction for someone who is out of reach – a one way love – a love unreciprocated, a love
unrequited.
Well I am quite familiar with the delicate tenderness of unrequited love. In fact, my life story is a story
of so many unrequited loves.
The Night Train at Deoli is narrated in first person by a college boy who travels by the night train from
Delhi to Dehra Dun every year to spend his summer vacations at his grandmother’s place. On its journey
up the hills of the terai, early in the morning, the train stops at Deoli, a lonely station in the wilderness…
“Why it stopped at Deoli. I don’t know. Nothing ever happened. Nobody got off the train and nobody
got in…and then the bell would sound, the guard would blow his whistle, and presently Deoli would be
left behind and forgotten” – isn’t the description brilliant, so breathtaking in its simplicity.
On one such journey the boy sees a girl at Deoli, selling baskets, and is smitten by her… “I sat up awake
for the rest of the journey. I could not rid my mind of the picture of the girl’s face and her dark,
smouldering eyes”.
He looks out for her on his return journey and is thrilled when he sees her… “I felt an unexpected thrill
when I saw her…I sprang off the foot-board and waved to her. When she saw me, she smiled. She was
pleased that I remembered her. I was pleased that she remembered me. We were both pleased, and it was
almost like a meeting of old friends”…superb writing, isn’t it…simply superb.
It is time for the train to leave, and for the lovers to part… “I felt the impulse to put her on the train there
and then…I caught her hand and held it… ‘I have to go to Delhi,’ I said…she nodded, ‘I do not have to
go anywhere.’…the guard blew his whistle…and how I hated the guard for doing that…”
Beautifully poignant, marvellously written, the story touches the very fragile chords of your heart.
I will not tell you the rest of this story, but I can assure you, that if you are a lover at heart, you will be
touched with compassion for the protagonist and as the story elevates you to the romantic mood you will
relate your very own tale of unrequited love.
I am sure you have read this story, but if you haven't it is a must read. The Night Train At Deoli is
probably Ruskin Bond's most anthologized story and you will find it in many collections including the
one published by Penguin titled The Night Train At Deoli and Other Stories. Though The Night Train At
Deoli is my all time favourite, I like many stories in this anthology, especially, The Woman on Platform
8, His Neighbour’s Wife and Death of a Familiar.
If you are a lover of romantic fiction you must read this story - it is sure get you in a blue mood
nostalgically yearning for your unrequited love.
UNIT-5
CHAPTER-20
POEMS
NO MEN ARE FOREIGN
About the poet –Poet, playwright, novelist, traveller James Falconer Kirkup (23 April 1918 – 10
May 2009) started his poetic career with short verses, haikus and tankas, went to become a
prolific writer in the English literature. He became a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature in
1962. Though less canonised in the British Isles, he has found his success in Japan where he
breathed his last.
About the poet –Poet, playwright, novelist, traveller James Falconer Kirkup (23 April 1918 – 10 May
2009) started his poetic career with short verses, haikus and tankas, went to become a prolific writer in
the English literature. He became a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature in 1962. Though less
canonised in the British Isles, he has found his success in Japan where he breathed his last.
About the poem –The poem talks about the concept of global brotherhood and equality without any
place for any kind of prejudice. It can be described as a post colonial poem which talks of globalisation
and its resultant human unity worldwide. The poem seems to be written at a crucial time (around late
1940s) when the entire colonial world was revolting against their oppressors.
Analysis of the poem – The poem tells us that all the divisions based on nation, caste, colour, creed or
religion are baseless since we all are similar in our basic need of the common resources for our life. We
all have a common source of origin and we all are dependent on the same resources for our survival.
Since we are all same, we must shun all violence of all kinds and unite to make our lives better.
‘Uniforms’ here signify the armies of the several countries who are constantly at war in the name of
nationhood, religion or caste. ‘Single body’ breathes refers to the inherent similarity between all human
beings. ‘Peaceful harvests’ refers to the fact that it is only in the times of peace that a civilization
progresses. It is only in time of peace that everybody lives in harmony and contentedness. In fact if a
war is raging in a country then that country faces the threat of starvation since all sorts of production
comes to a halt.
CHAPTER-21
IF
The poem is a paean to British stoicism and masculine rectitude; almost every line in each stanza begins
with "If". It is subtitled "'Brother Square-Toes' – Rewards and Fairies".
The poem's speaker says that if you can keep your head while those around you lose theirs; if you can
trust yourself when others doubt you; if you can be patient and not lose your temper; if you can handle
being lied about but not lie yourself, and being hated but not hating yourself; if you do not look too good
or talk too wise:
If you can dream but not let those dreams cloud your reason; if you can think but still take action; if you
can deal with both triumph and disaster; if you can handle it when others twist your truths into lies, or
take the things you devoted your life to and turn them from broken into alive again:
If you can take all of your winnings and bet them in one fell swoop and lose them all and then keep it a
secret; if you can use your heart and muscles and nerves to hold on even when there is only Will left:
If you can remain virtuous among people and talk with Kings without becoming pretentious; if you can
handle foes and friends with ease; if you see that men count on you but not too much; if you can fill
every minute with meaning:
Then you have all the Earth and everything upon it, and, as the speaker exultantly ends, "you'll be a
Man, my son!"
Analysis
This is, without a doubt, Kipling's most beloved poem, and, along with "The White Man's Burden", his
most famous. Although T.S. Eliot would deem it only "great verse" and others "jingoistic nonsense," it
is consistently ranked among the highest, if not the highest itself, of Britons' favorite poems. It was first
published in the "Brother Square-Toes" chapter of Rewards and Fairies, a 1910 collection of verse and
short stories.
While the poem is addressed to Kipling's son John, it was inspired by a great friend of his, Leander Starr
Jameson, the Scots-born colonial politician and adventurer responsible for what has been deemed the
Jameson raid that led to the Second Boer War. The raid was intended to start an uprising among the
British expatriate workers in the South African Republic, but there were complications and it was a
failure. Jameson was arrested and tried, but he was already being hailed a hero by London, which was
filled with anti-Boer sentiment. He served only fifteen months in prison and later became Prime Minister
of Cape Colony back in South Africa. It appears that Kipling had met Jameson and befriended him
through Cecil Rhodes, the Prime Minister of Cape Colony at the time of the raid.
In his autobiography Something of Myself, Kipling wrote of Jameson and "If-": "Among the verses in
Rewards was one set called `If-', which escaped from the book, and for a while ran about the world.
They were drawn from Jameson's character, and contained counsels of perfection most easy to give.
Once started, the mechanization of the age made them snowball themselves in a way that startled me.
Schools, and places where they teach, took them for the suffering Young - which did me no good with
the Young when I met them later. (`Why did you write that stuff? I've had to write it out twice as an
impot.').They were printed as cards to hang up in offices and bedrooms; illuminated text-wise and
anthologized to weariness. Twenty-seven of the Nations of the Earth translated them into their sevenand-twenty tongues, and printed them on every sort of fabric."
"If-" contains a multitude of characteristics deemed essential to the ideal man. They almost all express
stoicism and reserve the classic British "stiff upper lip." In particular, a man must be humble, patient,
rational, truthful, dependable, and persevering. His behavior in response to deleterious events and cruel
men is important; he must continue to have faith in himself when others doubt him, he must understand
that his words might be twisted and used for evil, he must be able to deal with the highest and lowest
echelons of society, and he must be able to withstand the lies and hatred emanating from others. This
group of ideal characteristics is similar to those expressed in "The Thousandth Man", another poem
dealing with manhood.
The virtues expressed in "If-" are devoid of showiness or glamour; it is notable that Kipling says nothing
of heroic deeds or great wealth or fame. For him the true measure of a man is his humility and his
stoicism. Kipling's biographer, Andrew Lycett, considers the poem one of the writer's finest and notes in
2009 that "If-" is absolutely valuable even in the complicated postmodern world: "In these straitened
times, the old-fashioned virtues of fortitude, responsibilities and resolution, as articulated in 'If-', become
ever more important."
CHAPTER-22
WHERE THE MIND IS WITHOUT FEAR
“Where the Mind is without Fear” was written during the reign of the British in India, prior to the
country gaining its independence from colonial rule. In fact, Tagore died just a few years before 1947,
when India became independent. So the country that he was living in was a country under oppression.
However, the oppression was not just physical in nature, but mental as well. The Indian population had
started believing that they would never be free. They were always afraid of what they would be
subjected to next by the British administration. They had lost their self-confidence and dignity. Thus,
their spirit had been entirely drained out of them and they were left pessimistic.
Many Indians were denied admission into the elite educational institutes which were meant exclusively
for the children of colonial officers. Only rarely were Indians admitted, and that too, if they were to gain
entry there they had to belong to the upper classes, especially that class of the native population that
chose to side with the British and were always at their beck and call. As a result of this, the Indian nation
states were then willing to fight it out amongst themselves to curry favour with the colonial rulers. All
this upset the poet greatly.
So he dreamt of a better tomorrow – one in which his country would stand up for truth, for hard work,
for reason, and for determination. He wanted his countrymen to stand united against the British, make
themselves irreprehensible and fight for their freedom. He wanted them to be open-minded and for their
actions to speak louder than their words. By referring to God as “Father”, he was saying that all of his
countrymen were the children of God. Hence they must not discriminate amongst themselves on the
basis of caste or creed, but must stand up for each other. They have a common goal – independence –
and must work side by side to achieve it.