Religious Expression in Australia
- 1945 to Present
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Contemporary Aboriginal Spiritualities
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1.1.1 Discuss how aboriginal spirituality is determined by the Dreaming:
- Kinship
- Ceremonial life
- Obligations to the land and people
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« Kinship is the most important meansof regulating and organising social and spiritual
relationships.
« It is based on an expanded conceptof family.
- It acts as a frameworkfor establishing:
¢ Individual identity
« Stable relationships
« Social cohesion and harmony
+ Kinship is a classificatory system, which provides a clear and simple framework for
enforcing rules and regulations.
- The highest kinship levelis tribe, then totemic groups, then clans and moieties.
* Specific kinship groups have specific purposes, such as hunting, religion and marriage.
« Dreaming mythology placesevery individual within a networkof interconnected relationships
with other people, the land andall it contains.
* Kinship rules maintain the spirit of the dreaming by regulating behaviour to ensure
everyone nurtures and respects these relationships.
+ The clan system helps to perpetuate the Dreaming by passing of the stories and
Spirituality to the next generations.
« Moiety groups transcend social divisions and applyto all living and non-living creation,
as well as to ancestral beings, so people from different tribes have the same moiety
groups. This meansthat eachtribe’s unique Dreaming can be shared with othertribes,
for a more interconnected, global Dreaming.
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+ Ceremonies provide accessto the spiritual world and so perpetuate the Dreaming by passing
on the stories, laws and traditions of Aboriginal spirituality. Ceremonies combinesall aspects of
Aboriginal culture and spirituality.
* Sacred objects, songs, dance and music connecttraditional Aboriginal people to the
Dreaming and are used in ceremonies.
+ Ceremonies often occur on bora grounds, where ancestral spirits dwell, and contain sacred
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objects, such as paintings, that enable people to accessthe spirit world.
- Rituals continue to be usedin tribes and are associated with birth, coming of age, death and
fertility.
- For example,birth rituals involve a mother who is ready to give birth, leaving the camp to
go to a special, sheltered place, such as a cave.
- The placentais buried to signal the child’s connection to the land, and thereforeits
ancestors and the Dreaming.
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* Obligations to land and people
* The Dreaming proposesthat all human beings, as well as the land and all it contains, were
created by ancestral spirits during the time of creation. Their life essence nowrests in every
part of creation - the land and all its inhabitants.
+ The land define’s Aboriginal people’s identity.
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- “The land is our food, our culture, our spirit and identity.” - S. Knight.
+ Becauseof this, each person is a custodian of the land and is responsible for renewing
flora and fauna according to customary lawstold in the Dreaming.
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+ Aboriginal people do not exploit the earth’s resources as sustainable use and
responsible managementis in the laws.
+ They spread seeds to encourage regrowth, leave food behind for animals and hold
“controlled burnings” which cleansethe land.
+ Rituals ensure the well-being of plants and animals and deepen a person’s
appreciation of what it means to be custodian of the land.
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1.2.1 Discuss the continuing effect of dispossession on Aboriginal Spiritualities in relation to
- Separation from land
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- Separation from kinship groups
- The Stolen Generations
« Separation from land
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Separation began when Europeansettlers determined Australia as “terra nulius” (land
belonging to no one).
¢ Aboriginal entitlement to land was denied.
« Aboriginal law had no legal status.
In the 19th century, battles took place over food and water, leading to the inhumane and
brutal treatment of Aboriginal people, and even massacres.
Aboriginal people were movedto villages to help them adoptto the “civilised”lifestyle of
white people.
The British government saw Aboriginal people as British subjects, and believed they needed
to be trained, taught basic literacy and converted to Christianity.
« Children were kept in dormitories, isolated from families and were unable to receive
traditional cultural and spiritual teachings from their elders.
The effects of separation from land include:
« Removal from the source of Aboriginal spirituality.
Malnutrition and disease.
Increasing dependence on governmentrations, rather than hunting and gathering.
Traditional waysofliving destroyed (eg. nomadic lifestyle).
Traditional groups scattered/ loss of community.
Loss of dignity.
Decrease in population.
Lossof identity and meaningin life.
Loss of cultural and spiritual heritage, knowledge, practices, and traditions, such as
song, danceandart, that are rooted in the Dreaming.
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+ Separation from kinship groups
The continuing effects include:
- Loss of spirituality due to the connection between kinship groups and the Dreaming
through theland.
Inability to interact with the environment according to the laws given by ancestral beings
and handed downfrom generation to generation through kinship groups.
Loss of social cohesion, leading to psychological and emotional distress due to the
struggle of finding a new identity when disconnected from country.
The dismantling of language groups and therefore the loss of languages and Dreaming
stories.
Separation from totemic identities and the ancestral beings.
Disappearance of community-based ritual practices and responsibilities leading to an
inability to perpetuate the Dreaming.
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- Stolen Generations
Forced removalof Aboriginal children began informally in the 19th century when European
settlers saw Aboriginal people as an opportunity for cheap labour.
Formal removal beganin the later 1800’s whenthe British Select Committee recommended
the education of children, which really meant the enculturation to the British wayoflife.
A 1915 policy instigated the removal of Aboriginal and part-Aboriginal children from their
families to be fostered in white families or raised in institutions.
The effects of the Stolen Generationsinclude:
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Children treated as commodities.
Feelings of rejection, isolation and of not belonging anywhere.
Constant movementfrom place to place and lack of stability.
Discrimination and bullying.
Loss of self-esteem and self-identity.
Physical abuse.
Emotional and psychological stress.
Loss of connection to the Dreaming through the lossof spiritual and cultural connections
to land and kinship.
Loss of heritage over generations due to aninability to pass down and perpetuate the
Dreaming.
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1.2.2 Outline the importanceof the following for the Land Rights Movement:
- NativeTitle
- Mabo
- Wik
* Native Title:
+ In response to the Mabo Judgement(see below), the Commonwealth Government passed
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the Native Title Act 1993 to balancethe interests of parties, such as tourism companies,
miners and developers, with Aboriginal people’s property and culturalrights.It:
Recognises and protects nativetitle.
Providesfor the validation of any past grants of land that may have beeninvalid because
of the existenceof nativetitle.
Provides a way to enable future dealings with nativetitle lands and imposes conditions
on these dealings.
Establishes a regime to determine where nativetitle exists, who holds it and whatit is
and to determine compensation actsfor affecting it.
Creates a land acquisition fund to meet the needs of dispossessed Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander people who are unable to claim nativetitle.
- Native Title therefore acknowledges Aboriginal Australians as the true ownersof the land.
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+ Mabo:
* In 1982, Eddie Mabo and four other Meriam people of the Murray Islands commencedlegal
action in the high court, seeking legal recognition of their traditional land rights.
« After 10 yearsoflitigation, the judges found that Aboriginal people did not lose ownership of
their land, unless the crown actedin a waythat indicated it intended to take ownership of
the land.
« Therefore, vacant crown land, national parks and even leased land can be claimed for
nativetitle.
- This contributed to the land rights movement because:
- It overturned the fictional notion of terra nullius, as the High Court admitted the error in
commonlaw tofail to recognise native title, and ruled to ensure that the legal system
could no longer refuse to recogniseit.
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« Wik:
Wik is on the central western side of Cape York, where Aboriginal people live on their
traditional lands, which were covered by past and current pastoral leases.
- Historical records showedthat early colonial legislation that granted pastoral leases aimed,
in part, to reducethe settlers’ violence toward Aboriginal people.
* Commonlaw at the time said that pastoral licenses could be revoked if squatters
inflicted harm on Aboriginal people.
+ Therefore, the purpose of pastoral leases was not to exclude traditional hunting and
gathering rights or to remove Aboriginal people from the land.
+ So, the High Court ruled that pastoral leases did not give pastoralists possession of the land
and therefore did not extinguishall nativetitle rights and interest.
+ This means that nativetitle rights exist for pastoral land when they exist harmoniously
with the rights of pastoralists.
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+ However, if there is inconsistence, the rights of pastoralists would prevail.
- The Wik judgement contributed to the land rights movementasit:
« Conferred some protection over nativetitle rights, giving Aboriginal people accessto
their traditional lands, as long asit did not interrupt the rights of pastoralists.
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1.2.3 Analyse the importance of the Dreaming for the Land Rights movement:
+ The Land Rights movementis the struggle for Aboriginal people to reclaim the lands and the
Dreaming from which they were dispossessed.
« It is both a political and spiritual movement.
« It has included the Mabo Decision, The Wik Judgement, the Tent Embassy and more.
« When Aboriginal people lost their traditional lands and the laws and rules governing their lives
and relationships,it significantly impacted their capacity to sustain and perpetuate the
Dreaming.
« The Land Rights movementis about reclaiming the land and the Dreaming, a spirituality
which is deeply rootedin the land.
« The Dreaming acts as the driving motivation behind the Land Rights Movement because,
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without the land, the Dreaming cannot be communicated asthe stories of the ancestor
spirits in the Dreaming flow from the land.
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Religious Expression in Australia - 1945 to Present
1.2.1 Outline changing patterns of religious adherence from 1945 to present using census
data.
Time
Religion
Trend
Causes
1940s - 1960s
Catholisicm
Rise from 20.9% to
- Post war immigration from southern European
24.9%
countries such as Malta andItaly.
« Middle Eastern conflict leading to a rise in
Lebanese Catholic immigrants.
Orthodoxy
Rise from 0.2% to 1.5%
+ Post war immigration from orthodox
countries, such as Greece.
Islam
Rise to 0.3% of
population
* Abolition of the White Australia Policy in 1972
enables more Middle Eastern immigrants
escaping war.
Catholisicm
Continued increase,
+ Abolition of the White Australia Policy allows
1970s
peaking at 27.7%
1980s
Anglicanis
m
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refugees from wartorn Vietnam and other
South East Asian countries.
Significant decrease
from 39% in 1947 to
+ Less immigration from Great Britain.
* Decline in church attendance.
23.9% in 1986
Catholicism
Becomes the major
Christian denomination
+ More Catholic immigration from wartorn
Balkan and Philippines.
Islam
Continued growth to
« Migration for South East Asia, Balkans and
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0,9%
Buddhism
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Middle East.
Growth from 0.01% in
1947 to 0,8% in 1986
+ Migration from South East Asia, especially
Malaysia and Indonesia.
1990s
Islam
Slight increase to 1.1%
in 1996
+ Invasion of lraq and subsequentconflict led to
increased immigration from the Middle East.
1990s to 2016
Islam
Continued increase to
2.6%
- Migration and refugees from Africa, especially
from Somalia and Ethiopia.
Buddhism
Growth to to 2.4%
+ Migration from Hong Kong, mainland China
and Korea
Hinduism
Growth from 0.3% in
+ Migration from the Indian subcontinent.
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1976 to 1.9% in 2019
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+ Overall:
« In 1947:
+ 88% of Australians wereaffiliated with Christianity
* 11.2% belongedto a religion other than Christianity, with 0.3% having noreligion
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* In 2016:
- 52.1% of Australians identified as Christian
+ 8.2% wereaffiliated with non-Christian religion
* 30.1% belongedto no religion
¢ Religions increasing in numbersinclude:
¢ Buddhism: 0.01% in 1947 to 2.4% in 2016
« Hinduism: 0.3% in 1986 to 1.9% in 2016 (FASTEST GROWING RELIGION)
¢ Islam: 0.04% in 1947 to 2.6% in 2016
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* No religion: 0.3% in 1947 to 30.1% in 2016
« Religions decreasing in numbersinclude:
« Christianity: 88% in 1947 to 52.1% in 2016
« Anglican: 39% in 1947 to 13.3% in 2016
+ Presbyterian: 9.8% in 1947 to 2.3% in 2016
« Also small decreasesin Salvation Army and Uniting Church
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- The largest religious tradition:
1947: Christianity
+ 2016: Christianity
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- The smallest religious tradition:
1947: Buddhism
¢ 2016: Judaism
1.2.2 Accountfor the presentreligious landscapein Australia in relation to:
- Christianity as the major religious tradition
- Immigration
- Denominational switching
- Rise in New Agereligions
- Secularism
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Christianity as a majorreligious tradition:
« Christianity has been the main religion in Australia since 1947.
- Reasons forthis include:
First settlement was by Christian Europeansandthe first free settlers were
predominantly Christian.
Christian missionaries contributed to the establishment of services and infrastructure.
Australia developed asa British and consequently Christian colony.
The White Australia Policy meant that only in the last fifty or so years have larger
numbers on non-Christians settled in Australia.
The institutionalism of Christianity (Early settlers formed laws and government based on
Christian ideals, public holidays are based on the Christian calendar, Church schools,
universities, foundations and media have promoted Christianity).
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+ Immigration: (the major source of growthforall religious groups except “no religion”)
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¢ Buddhism
Buddhism first arrived in Australia from China in the late 1800’s during the gold rush.
In the late 1970’s, following the Vietnam War, Buddhism became more widely spread due
to immigration from South East Asia.
* Christianity
Few immigrants have been Anglican, soit is an ageing Church and Catholicism has
overcome it as the most popular denomination.
Following World WarII, Catholics migrated from Europe countries, then in the 1970’s
Catholics arrived from Lebanon to avoid the Lebanesecivil war. Also, in the 1970’s and
80’s, following the Vietnam War, Catholics arrived from South East Asia and in the
2000’s, Catholics arrived from the Philippines. This results in many second-generation
Catholic Australians, so the church has a young population.
Eastern Orthodox Churches’ numbers climbed post-war, between the 1950’s and 70’s,
due to immigration from Greece and other European countries.
Assisted passage scheme encouragesBritish, and hence Christian, migration.
The Pentecostal Churchesattracted migrants from the 1970’s to 1990’s after they moved
to Australia and so are quite diverse ethnically. They also have many second-generation
Australian members, so it a young Church.
Overall, Christianity has decreased dueto higher migration of people from other
mainstream religions.
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Hinduism
« In the 1960’s, the dropping of the White Australia Policy increased Hindu immigration
from Asia.
+ In the 1980’s, military-style coupsin Fiji and political upheavals in Sri Lanka and Africa
increased the immigration of Hindus from these places.
« In the 1980’s, well-educated, professional Indian, Sri Lankan, Fijian and Nepali Hindus
arrived on visasto fulfil occupational needs in Australia (eg. doctors, engineers, etc.).
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Islam
« Post World WarII, Australia’s perceived need for population growth and economic
developmentlead to more immigration of displaced Muslims after the war, especially
from the Balkans.
- Between 1967 and 1971, an agreement between Australia and Turkey increased the
immigration of Turkish Muslims.
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« In 1975, Muslims arrived from Lebanon to avoid the LebaneseCivil War.
« From the 1990’s, Australia’s trade and education links with various Muslim countries,
such as Pakistan and Malaysia, has increased the immigration of Muslims. Muslims
immigrating for international study has also contributedto this.
Judaism
Post World WarIl, displaced Jewsarrived from Europe.
In the 1956 Suez Crisis, Egyptian Jews were allowed to immigrate.
In 1969, lraqi Jews fleeing persecution were granted refugee status.
Immigration from South Africa over time, and also from the former Soviet Union
post-1989, increased Jewish numbers.
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« Denominational switching:
- There is now often free movement betweenthe Protestant and Anglican denominations.
In a 1991 Church Life survey, 29% of respondents had switched denominationsin the last
five years.
This movementis due to Church membersrejoining after several years and the births of
children bringing people back to the Church.
Church membersare also changing denominations to find which branch bestsuits their
particular needs for spiritual fulfilment and personal values (eg. Some dislike the hard rules
on abortion, sexualorientation, etc.).
Denominational switching is also common after divorce or family breakdownorafter
marriages between two people of different denominations who switch to be in the same.
Catholics are less commonly switching denominations as there is more denominational
loyalty.
« This contrasts to previous landscapes, where there was high denominational loyalty and people
remained with one Church.
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- Rise of New Age Religions:
New Age religions began to be popular from the 1970’s, whenestablished religions, such as
Christianity, failed to meet the developing spiritual needs of the times.
* The moral decline post-World WarII lead to “the death of God”. New Age religions
developed in the search for new meaning.
- The discrediting of Christianity after the media’s release of sexual abuse within the
church led to people turning to New Age religions instead.
There are a numberof very diverse New Age Religions which embrace universal tolerance
and moralrelativism (they are essentially extensions of humanism).
They have no unifying creed or doctrine, sacred text, formal leadership.
New Age religions focus on:
- The individual rather than the collective
« Freedom of practise
- Universal consciousness
* Ecological millennialism
« Feminism (occasionally)
« Peace and harmony
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* Secularism
« Secularism is the division ofreligious institutions from the state. It focuses on the
understanding of humanethics and the universe without referenceto institutionalised
religion.
- The rise in the number of Australians who say they have no religion is an indicator if the rise
of secularism.
« Secularists include those with no religion and those whoclaim to bespiritual.
+ Secularism has risen because:
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Australian society is becomingincreasingly pluralistic (all belief systems are tolerated
and are given equality).
With focus on the individual emphasised, Christianity and otherreligious traditions are
pushedtothe side.
Previous wars based on religious disagreements have led to people turning away from
religion.
The absolute values professed by mainstream Christian churches are seen as less
important and dated in a climate where moralrelativism thrives and churchesare losing
credibility and authority.
Materialism, power and fame havereplacedtraditional religious answers to the search
for meaning, and so God and religion is seen as unnecessary.
- This is different from previousreligious landscapesasin the past (before 1960’s), being
affiliated with a religious institution was seen asintegralto life. However, the importance
placed on autonomyand freedom today has seena rise in secularism and the view of
religion as a personal and private choice.
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1.2.3 Describe the impact of Christian ecumenical movementsin Australia:
- The National Council of Churches
- NSW Ecumenical Council
+ Ecumenism is the principle of promoting unity among the world’s Christian Churches.
The National Council of Churches in Australia (NCCA)is a gathering of Churches and Christian
Communities who commit themselves to deepentheir relationship with each otherin order to
express morevisibly the unity willed by Christ for his Church. The council:
- Has helped to resettle hundreds of refugee families through their National Program on
Refugees and Displaced People.
+ Support important Indigenous issues, including reconciliation, education and the
developmentof Aboriginal Spirituality.
+ The NSW Ecumenical Council is based on the acknowledgement of Jesus as God and Saviour
and the churches’ willingness to respondto the call of God. The council:
Aims to promote a more profound community to facilitate the quest for unity in the Church.
To address causesof division in the faith.
To pray together and acknowledge commonheritage.
To respond moreeffectively to human need andto better seek justice through its Social
Justice program. For example, it supports and aids Indigenous issues, provides activities
and education to refugee detainees and supports and funds the House of Welcome, which
assists newly released immigrants to integrate into Australian communities.
+ The Uniting Church married the Presbyterian, Congregational and Methodist Churches on 22nd
June 1977, which paved the wayfor further dialogue between Christian Churchesin Australia.
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1.2.4 Evaluate the importanceof interfaith dialogue in multi-faith Australia:
- Interfaith dialogue is formal discussion aimed towards developing greater mutual understanding
between different religious traditions. It aims to promote respect and appreciation for the
diversity and uniquenessofdifferent religious traditions.
- It avoids conflict, discrimination and segregation, leading to a harmonious, constructive and
thriving community.
* eg. The Jewish Christian Muslim Association of Australia promotes the prevention of
emotional and physical abusearising from religious intolerance and cultural
discrimination. Its Schools Program is run in primary and high schools and positively
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counteracts stereotypes and religious based discrimination by providing ongoing
diversity education and cultural transformation within schools.
+ It promotes inclusion and acceptance, which results in a cohesive community.
* eg. The Parliament of World’s Religions was an event hosted in Melbourne in 2009. The
initiative by the Council for a Parliament of the World's Religions was attended by more
that 4000 people representing about 250 religions. It’s themesinclude creating social
cohesion andbringing peacein the pursuit of justice.
+ It allows for the social transformation that comes from the construction and developmentof
society as its members seek understanding and acceptance.
+ eg. The Centre for Inter-Religious Dialogue at ACU doesresearch, teaching and
community engagementto promoteinterfaith dialogue, mutual understanding and
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respect. They hold conferences, such as the International Theological Conference, which
features membersof various faiths and professors of theology speaking on new paths
that can contribute to the wellbeing of humanity in our age.
1.2.5 Examinethe relationship between Aboriginal spiritualities and religious traditions in
the process of Reconciliation:
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+ The Jewish community supported Aboriginal spiritualities through its Statement on
Reconciliation, which was reconfirmed in 2008. The statement said that Reconciliation was of
the utmost importance and, “in the context of Jewish moral andreligious teachings”, committed
themselves to reconciliation “in all aspects of(their) lives.”
Within the Christian tradition, the Catholic Church has connected to Aboriginal spiritualities
through the Draft Declaration for Reconciliation by the Australian Catholic Bishops in 1999. The
Bishops wrote, “We pledge ourselvesto stop injustice, address disadvantage and respect the
right of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples to determine their own destinies.”
Also within the Christian tradition, the Uniting Church continuesto actively support
reconciliation between Indigenous people and the broader Australian community through their
social justice unit, Uniting Justice Australia, which promotesjustice for Indigenous Australians
and “hopesfor a nation which acknowledgestherights of Indigenous Australians as the first
peoplesof this land.”
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Islam
Significant Person - Imam Al-Shafi’i
2.1.1 Explain the contribution to the development and expression of Islam:
Contributions to Developmentof Islam
Contributions to Expression of Islam
Shafi’i found the middle ground between theahlalhadith (people of hadith) and the ahlar-ra’l (people
of reason) and so united the two with his
By following the Shafi’i madhab, 29% of Muslims
use Shafi’is Usul and fatwasin the fulfillment of
their religious obligations.
codification of faith, the usul al-figh, preventing the
fraying of the study of figh into hundreds of different
schools. Instead there are just four madhabstoday.
Shafi’i’s fatwas defined how a Muslim should live
and clarified the faith for followers.
The Usul is a clear methodology for Islamic
jurisprudence based on four key sources:
1. The Qur’an
2. The Hadith
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3.
ljma (consensus of scholars)
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4. Qiyas (analogical reasoning)
Shafi’i is known as the mujaddid (reviver) of the
second century and the Father of Jurisprudence.
Shafi’i contributed to the developmentof his
madhab, the Shafi’i figh, which used his Usul as a
framework. Muslims followed his madhab because
Shafi’i was able to explain his fatwas so others
were able to understand where they came from and
how he made his decisions.
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Shafi’i is seen as a man of good character and is
admired for the way he taught and modelled the
faith as well as for the way he made fatwas.
Becauseof this, Muslims imitate the actions of the
Father of Jurisprudencein their expression of faith.
It is the second most followed madhab, with about
29% of Muslims worldwide following it.
It is the official school of thought in Brunei and
Malaysia.
Shafi’i developed a system for authenticating the
Hadith, deciding that to be included they needed to
be continuous and from people of high moral
character and good memory. His system uncovered
many fabricated and altered Hadith.
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Becauseof this he is known as the Defender of the
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Sunnah.
Shafi’i contributed to the Al-Umm (a collection of
writings and articles) with his texts, including the AlRisalah, a book in which Shafi’i wrote the principles
upon which he basedhis figh and the rules that
governedhis I|jtinad. This meant that his fiqh was
accessible to many Muslims and they were able to
understand how Shafi’i came to his fatwas.
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2.1.2 Analyse the impact of this person on Islam:
+ Imam Al-Shafi’i has a special and enduring role in Islamic history.
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Before Shafi’i the term usul did not carry its present connotation, nor had it acquired its
technical meaning.
He revolutionised the study offigh by systemising the science of usul al-fiqh and putting it in
written form, thus ensuring that specialists would not commit mistakesin deriving rulings.
Shafi’i served asa link, synthesising and connecting the groups of opposing thoughts
among Muslims.
Shafi’i’s usul has not been suspended; it has remained as a permanentand integral part of
Islamic jurisprudence.
He is considered to be the ‘reviver’ of the second century, the ‘Defender of the Sunnah’ and
the ‘Father of Islamic Jurisprudence’.
« Use the examplesof Shafi’i’s contributions from 2.1.1 to show his strong impact.
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Ethics - Environmental Ethics
2.2.1 Describe and explain Islamic ethical teachings on environmental Ethics
PRINCIPAL
ETHICAL
TEACHING
Tawhid —
Unity &
Oneness
of God
MEANING
God’s Unity and Onenessandincludes not
ascribing any form of partnership with God.
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RELEVANT SACRED TEXT
EXAMPLES
“To God belongsall thatis in
the heavens and on
earth” (Qur'an, 4:126)
Tawhid meansthat Godis the Ownerand
Creator of everything in the universe.
This includes the human being, which is part
of this interdependent universeasall is
created by God.
Everything that is in the heavens and the
earth praises God.
Muslims must view the natural environment
as sacred and valuable and recognisethat
everything praises God.
Ayat Signs of
Allah
All of Creation points to the Divine Creator
and allowsus to learn about God’s
Attributes.
By describing nature as signs of Godin the
Qur’an, we are encouragedto reflect on
them to learn about God’s tawhid, His
Attributes and about the connectivity of the
universe.
Mizaan —
Balance
Recognition of God’s tawhid means
recognition that God created the universe in
perfect balance and measure.
The balance should therefore not be altered.
“It is He who sends downrain
from the sky: from it you
drink, and outof it (grows) the
vegetation on which you feed
your cattle. With it He
producesfor you corn, olives,
date-palms, grapes and every
kind of fruit. Behold, verily in
these things there are signs
for those who think and
reflect!” (Qur’an, 16:10-11).
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"Verily, all things have We
created in proportion and
measure.” (Qur'an, 54:49).
“And the sky has He raised
God tells human beings notto disturb this
high, and has devised
balance. Muslims must live sustainably to
maintain the perfect balance created by
God.
(for all things) a balance, so
that you might never
transgress the balance:
weigh, therefore (your
deeds) with equity, and do not
upset the balance”
(Qur’an, 55:7-9).
Adherents cannot participate in exploitative
industries that upset this balance e.g. forest
logging or unsustainable useoffinite
resources.
The adherent mustlive in harmony with the
environmentfor survival.
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Caliph -
The Qur’an says that God gave human
“It is He that has made you
Steward
beings the role of steward —caliph—-on earth.
caliph (vicegerent), over the
earth”(Qur’an, 6:165).
Caliph translates as steward, deputy,
guardian.
This role gives the human being
"The world is beautiful and
verdant and God has
appointed you as His
responsibility for God’s creation, which
stewards overit. He sees how
includes maintaining and protecting it.
you acquit
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yourselves” (Muslim).
Amanah -
As Gods stewards, human beings were
"Truly We did offer the trust to
Trust
given trust.
the heavens.and earth, and
the mountains, but they
Human beings are entrusted to look after
God's creation, to protect it, to maintain it
and to ensure equal access toit.
declined to bear it and were
afraid of it. But the man bore
it...”(Qur'an, 33:72).
This responsibility is so great that others
(such as the mountains, heavens and earth)
shrank away from the responsibility.
“Every one of you is a
guardian and is responsible
for his charges. The ruler who
has authority over people is a
guardian and is responsible
for them.”(Bukhari)
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As God’s deputy, steward and trustee,
human beings should feel honoured to
protect the environmentsince:
-It belongs to God
-It maintains the perfect balance created by
God
-it honoursthe trust that God assigned
humanbeingsthe role of caliph.
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Accountabi
lity
Humanbeings should protect the
environmentthat belongs to God, just as
people protect the belongings of an
employer, friend or anyone whose goods are
entrusted to them.
Being a steward meanshaving authority
over Creation, but also accountability over
their treatment of the environment.
All actions are rewarded and punished. On
the Day of Judgment humanity will be
questioned aboutevery action, including
how wetreat the environment and animals.
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“So whoeverdoes an atom's
weight of good will see it, And
whoever does an atom's
weightof evil will see
it.”(Qur’an, 99:7-8)
“Whoeverkills a sparrow or
anything biggerthan that
without a just cause, Allah will
hold him accountable on the
Day of Judgment.” (An-Nasa’i)
Why Muslims follow these ethical teachings:
« Ethical Teachings about the environment come from Islamic Law which has been developed by
scholars over time following the process of Islamic jurisprudence.This processinvolves the four
sources(in order of importance):
+ The Qur’an:
+ Contains over 650 references to ecology. It also says that everything that is in the
heavens and the earth praises God:
« “Glorify Him and there is not a thing but glorifies His praise. But you understand not
their glorification..”(Qur’an, 17:44).
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* “See thou not that to God bow downin worship all things that are in the heavens and
on earth, -the sun, the moon, the stars; the hills, the trees, the animals; and a great
number among Mankind”(Qur’an, 22:18).
+ Sunnah:
+ There are an abundanceof hadith concerning plants, trees, land cultivation, irrigation,
crops, livestock, grazing, waterdistribution and treatment of animals.
* This provides ecological guidelines for Muslims on how to interact with the environment.
+ Ijma:
+ Whena certain ruling lasts the test of time, more and morejurists as well as people
accept the ruling achieving a consensus overthat matter.
* Qiyas:
« For qiyas to be applied, the reason for the ruling must be known
+ Sunni Muslims follow one of four schools of thoughtin orderto live ethically/in accordance with
the law.
* The legal rulings and principles of key scholars became four separate schools of thought
(madhab) in Sunni Islam:
+ Hanafi -School of Imam Abu Hanifa
+ Shafi —School of Imam Al-Shafi
¢ Maliki -School of Imam Malik
« Hanbali -School of Imam Ahmadibn Hanbal
+ It is considered necessary for Sunni Muslims follow a madhabsince the scholars within each
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school perform thejurisprudenceof the four source ofIslamic law, that individuals are not
qualified to do.
- Today, muftis (jurists) use the rulings developed from the four sourcesofIslamic law, from within
his/her schoolof thought, to issue fatwas on new matters.
+ There is generally ijma(consensus) within and betweenthe schools of thought/madhab on
environmental ethics rulings.
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Examples:
+ Green Ramadan Campaign by the Islamic Society of North America
« They acknowledge that they are caliphs, responsible for taking care of the environment and
so use biodegradable products, avoid the use of styrofoam and recycle all plastic water
bottles.
- They live sustainably to maintain Allah’s perfect balance (mizaan) by replacing light bulbs
with energy saver bulbs and do not participate in exploitive industries, such as the excessive
use of food and water.
- They showtheir awarenessthattheir actions will be seen by Allah and that they will be held
accountable through pledging to protect and conserve the environment.
- Plant a Tree Day
« The 500 membersof the Anmaduyya Muslim Community aim to plant 10000 trees across 23
states in the US on National Tree Dayin order to maintain the environment and hencefulfil
their roles as caliphs (stewardsof creation).
- They do not participate in the exploitive industry of forrest logging. In fact, they do the
opposite, planting trees to maintain Allah’s perfect balance (mizaan).
« Green Mosque in Cambridge
* Green Mosquesattemptto fulfil the human role as Caliph and try to sustain and care for
creation by aiming to leave zero carbon footprint, using locally sourced sustainable materials
and using photovoltaic arrays to heat water and run air conditioning systems.
+ Since they view the earth as sacred andholyasit is Allah’s creation (Tawhid), they teach
moderation in consumption and a reverence for the natural world.
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Significant Practice - The Hajj
2.3.1 Describe ONE significant practice within Islam (Hajj):
Hajj is the fifth pillar of Islam. It is a six day pilgrimage to the Kaaba (house of God) in Mecca
during the 12 monthof the Islamic calendar, Dhul Hijjah.
« It is compulsory to complete hajj at least oncein a lifetime, unless a Muslim is too sick or
poorto do so.
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Steps of Hajj:
Before Hajj:
- Enter Ihram (sacred state) when crossing the outer
boundaries of Mecca.
+ Clean yourself (ghus))
« Wear Ihram garments
« Avoid the forbiddenacts of Ihram (smoking, sexual
relations, shaving, etc.)
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Day 1:
+ Make Tawaf around the Ka’bah(7 counterclockwise
laps).
- Expresses Muslims’ unity in worshipping God.
+ Make Sa’ey between Al-Safa and Al-Marwa(walk
betweenthe twohills 7 times).
«+ Commemorates the journey Prophet lbrahim’s wife
took to find water for her infant son Ismael.
- Departure to Minafor prayer. Pilgrims remain in Mina
until sunrise on the second day of Hajj.
‘Eva pil
mili
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rege.
¥
Day 2:
¢ Pilgrims travel to Arafat and spend the daythere, in the
vicinity of the mountain, praying and repenting.
- This is where Ibrahim gave his last sermon.
- At sunset they move to Muzdalifah where people
gatherin makeshift tents and perform Maghrib and
Isha prayers. Pilgrims collect pebbles there for Ramy
al-Jamarat.
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Day3:
- Pilgrims return to Mina, where they throw 7 stonesat
eachofthe threepillars which represent Satan.
- They travel back to Meccafor animalsacrifice and
festival.
- The sacrifice remindspilgrims of lbrahim’s
willingnessto kill his son upon the command of
God.
* Male pilgrims must shaveortrim their hair and women
must cut the tips of their hair.
- This signifies being reborn.
« Pilgrims visit the Masjid al-Haram mosque and perform
another Tawaf and Sa’ey before returning to Mina for
the night.
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Day 4:
- Pilgrims complete the stoning ritual. They throw stones
at the threepillars at noon each day.
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Day 5:
« After stoning the pillars the pilgrims must leave for
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Meccabefore sunset.
* They perform a farewell Tawaf and touch or kiss the Kaabaif possible.
Day6:
* It is preferred to visit the Prophet’s Mosque in Medina before returning home, butthis is not
a part of Hajj.
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2.3.2 Demonstrate howthis practice expressesthe beliefs of Islam
Tawhid (The Onenessof Allah)
+ Surrendering to the will of Allah is the essenceof Islam.
* This is epitomised in the undertaking of Hajj, because the pillar captures the pilgrim’s desire
and commitment to surrenderfully.
+ Hajj requires considerable sacrifice and commitment and must be approached genuinely
from the right mindset.
* Circling the Ka’aba is an example because the Ka’aba was deemedthe houseof God.
By circling the Ka’aba, Muslims demonstrate that God is at the centre oftheir lives. They
also confirm that they are obeying God by completing Hajj, since he called them to do so
in the Qur’an: “Pilgrimage to the House is a duty owed to Godby all who can afford a
waytoit.” (3:97)
- The rituals involved in Hajj relate to important encounters between Allah and humansin ancient
times.
+ Walking between Safa and Marwacentres onthetradition of Hajar (the ex-wife of Ibrahim
and motherof Ismail) submitting to Allah. When Hajar and Ismail were thirsty while
wandering the desert, Hajar ran betweenthe twohills trying to find water. The angel Jibreel
appeared to her and showed her where water was. This demonstratesthat Allah is the
provider and sustaineroflife.
Rusul (The Messengersof Allah)
All of the rituals of Hajj relate to the story of Ibrahim, a prophet. Hence, by carrying out these
rituals, adherents are demonstrating their beliefs in the stories of the prophets and the concept
of Allah communicating through Rusul.
- The Feast of Sacrifice is the major festival of the Muslim calendar and it commemorates
whenIbrahim wascalled to sacrifice his son, Ismail. Allah intervened to stop him and
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Ibrahim killed an animal instead of his son. This demonstrates Allah’s ability to communicate
with the Prophets and to intervene.
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Akhira (The Last Judgementand Afterlife)
Adam and Evereceivedthe forgiveness of Allah on MountArafat. The central part of Hajj is the
stand before Allah (wuquf) on the Mountof Mercy on the Plain of Arafat. Here, pilgrims receive
forgivenessfor their sins after sincere repentance. Hajj wipes awayall past sins and allows the
cleansing of the pilgrim and the start of a newlife free from past transgression. This
demonstratesthat Allah is merciful and forgives those who askfor his forgiveness.
- “Whoever performs Hajj to this house and does not commit any obscenity or wrongdoing, he
or she will come out as the day he or she wasborn - pure andfree from sin.” (Muslim 1350)
Theritual stoning of the devil also reflects the belief as Muslims are symbolising their rejection of
sin and temptation in recognition that their deeds will be judged on The Day Of Judgement.
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Kutubullah (the booksof Allah)
+ The belief in the booksof Allah is reflected by completing Hajj because the Qur’an says that the
pilgrimage to the Ka’abais a duty to God:
- “Pilgrimage to the Houseis a duty owedto Godbyall who can afford a wayto it.” (3:97)
+ The modelfor Muslim life, Mohammad, said in his sunnah that Hajj must be completed:
« “Whoever performs Hajj to this house and does not commit any obscenity or wrongdoing, he
or she will come outas the day he or she wasborn - pure andfree from sin.” (Muslim 1350)
2.3.3 Analyse the significance of this practice for both the individual and the Muslim
community
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For the individual:
+ Guidestheindividual in their submission to Allah and in their obedience to the Qur’an so brings
the adherent closer to God.
- Fulfilment of a holy duty.
* See below butfor individual.
For the community:
« It is beneficial to express a communal statement about commitmentto Allah.
- Acommunity can expressultimate signs of submission by expressing tawhid, the oneness
of Allah, through tawaf, the stand before Allah. This also expressed akhira, the belief in
judgement day and so the community is strengthened through the unity of belief and the
unity of seeking forgiveness/absolution.
Inspires other Muslims in their worship.
Edification (moral improvement) of the Muslim community.
Unification of the Muslim community - multicultural harmony,stripping awaydifferences,
providing a senseof equality in the eyesofAllah.
« The state of Ihram enables ‘Umma’ - unity of all Muslims, which elevates equality of people
in worship.
Fulfilment of a holy duty as a community of believers.
Experience an important cultural history through the expression of rusul as has follows the story
of Ibrahim and his obedienceto Allah.
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Christianity
Significant Person - Paul of Tarsus
3.1.1 Explain the contribution to the development and expression of Islam:
3.1.2 Analyse the impact of this person on Christianity:
« Saint Paul enacted the universal nature of Christianity through his conversions, separating
Christianity from Judaism asits ownreligious tradition. Saint Paul enabled the continuation of
Christianity through the formation of a larger community of adherents.
- After his conversion, Saint Paul made three trips, during which he spread the Gospel and
converted a large numberof gentiles in communities such as Antioch, Cyprus and Tarsus.
- This wasfirst demonstrated in 49CE at the Council of Jerusalem, when Saint Paul
demandedthat gentiles should not be required to follow Jewish rituals, such as
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circumcision.
+ Thomas Carsonsaid, “Had the early Christian community succumbed to the Judaiser's
insistence upon the Law as a meansofsalvation, there would be no Christianity today.”
« He shifted the centre of the Christian community away from Israel and towards Rome.
Becauseof this, the Romaninculturation of Christianity shaped the vernacular and practices
of the tradition.
- For example, the organisation of the leaders of the Church largely developed from the
hierarchal structure of Romanpolitical organisation.
+ Saint Paul has fourteen epistles attributed to him, thirteen of which areletters, written during his
imprisonmentto Christian communities he had visited or intendedtovisit.
« Through his letters, Saint Paul preaches the Gospel and explains the beliefs and ethics of
Christianity.
Though they wereoriginally written to clarify and address issues within the early Christian
Church, the letters remain relevant and applicable to contemporary Christianity and are
hence considered‘living epistles’.
The writings of Saint Paul are included in The Bible, the sacred text of Christianity.
Theletters had a significant impact on thelives’ of many Christians throughout time,
including many Christian scholars. For example, the doctrine of predestination was put
forward by Saint Augustinein the fifth century and washeavily influenced by Saint Paul’s
letter to the Romans. The letter reads, “God causesall things to work together for good...
For those whom He foreknew, He also predestined to become conformedto the image of
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His Son...” (Romans 8:28-29)
Saint Paul’s epistles are commonly read at weddings for their passages on love. They are
also frequently used as readings in masses.
+ Saint Paul also contributed greatly to the developmentof Christianity, to the lives of Christians
today and to the expression ofthe faith through his role as a theologian.
In the early days of Christianity, Paul of Tarsus helped to distinguish the faith from Judaism,
forging a unique Christian theology and identity.
While the ethical teachings of Saint Paul were similar to Jewish morals, his theological
teachings werea point of difference.
Paul’s teachings contributed to the establishment of manyof the principle beliefs of
Christianity, including the beliefs in salvation, the nature of God andthe divinity and
humanity of Jesus.
+ Paul’s teachings contributed to the establishment of manyof the principle beliefs of
Christianity, including the beliefs in salvation, the nature of God andthe divinity and
humanity of Jesus
He wrote aboutthe practices through which Christians express their faith, such as Baptism
and the celebration of the Eucharist.
Saint Paul aided the developmentofthe ethical charitable practices of Christians. Paul of
Tarsus encouraged donations of wealth to aid poor Christian communities. This enabled the
steady continuation of Christianity and had a lasting impact. Today, the Church still collects
money during masses and other gatherings.
Dueto his vital role in establishing a Christian identity, the Christian year of 2008-2009 was
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declared the year of Saint Paul by Pope Benedict XVI.
« Pope Benedict delivered the homily at the inaugural mass and highlighted the enduring
relevance of Saint Paul, saying, “Let us not ask ourselves only: who was Paul? Let us
ask ourselvesall: who is Paul? What does he say to me?”
Ethics - Environmental Ethics
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3.2.1 Describe and explain Christian ethical teachings on environmental ethics
Key Christian Environmental Ethics:
« God created the Earth
« God appointed humansas caretakers of the Earth
- The Earth was created “very good” (Genesis 1:31)
« Human beings should wisely use the Earth, protecting it as well as using its resources(they
should not exploit or abuse the Earth)
« The Earth will share in the recreation of the New Heavens and the New Earth(all creation can be
resurrected, not just humans)
Key Sources of Christian Environmental Ethics:
«+ Commandmentof Love
« Jesus said, “The Lord our God, the Lord is one. Love the Lord your God with all your heart
and with all your soul and with all your mind and with all your strength...Love your neighbour
as yourself.” (Mark 12:28-31)
+ Love of neighbour:
« Issues with poverty means that notall people share in God’s gift of creation.
+ Poor people are the mostaffected by climate change, which is worsenedby the actions
of richer, more developed nations with industrialised communities.
« For example, thosein Kiribati will be displaced if sea levels continueto rise.
+ Christians are called to reducetheir negative impact on the environment and reducetheir
contributions towards climate changeby:
« Reduce, reuse, recycle
« Working in partnership and solidarity with others
« Using less non-renewable energy created by the combustionoffossil fuels (turn off
lights and heating, use solar poweror other renewable energy sources)
« Christians are also called to nurture and protect the natural habitats and wondersof the
world for future generations as these people are also considered “neighbours”.
« Love of God:
« God is presentin all of creation and so creation must be treated asif it is sacred.
« Creation is a gift from God to all people.
« God created humans to be “stewards”of creation.
« Christians are called to reducetheir pollution and waste, their hunting and poaching, and
their overfishing and deforestation. In other words, they are called to reducetheir
consumerism and materialism.
- Psalms
« Demonstrates that the environment should thrive since it belongs to God. This leads
Christians to care for the environment out of respect and reverencefor God.
« “The earth is the Lord's, and everything in it, the world, and all who livein it.” (Psalm
24:1)
- “Let the heavens be glad, andlet the earth rejoice; let the sea roar and all thatfills it; let
the field exult, and everythingin it.Thenlet all the trees of the forest sing for joy before
the Lord” (Psalm 96:11-13)
- Authoritative figures
- “The destruction of the human environmentis extremely serious, not only because God has
entrusted the world to us men and women, but because humanlife is itself a gift which must
be defended from various forms of debasement.” (Pope Francis - God made us stewards, it
is our responsibility to care for the earth, God’s gift as he is presentin all natural things.)
“When will we learn that to commit a crime against the natural world is also a
sin?” (Patriarch Bartholomew - orthodox)
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« Early Christian
* Saint Paul often wrote of love in his epistles and the general principles of these letters can
be applied to environmentalethics.
+ “And any other commandment(is) summedup in this word ‘love your neighbour as
yourself’. Love does no wrong to a neighbour; therefore loveis the fulfilling of the
law.” (Romans 13:9-10)
Significant Practice - Baptism
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3.3.1 Describe one significant practice within Christianity (Baptism):
Baptism is a rite of initiation, which welcomesanindividual into the Christian Church/community.
+ For many Christians, it is the first sacrament they will receive.
+ It is performed in most denominations, but not all (Salvation Army, for example, does not
baptise).
« Some denominations (eg. Catholics, Anglicans) baptise infants (paedobaptism) while others (eg.
Baptists and Pentecostals) baptise adults (credobaptism/believers baptism).
« Forms of baptism include;
« Aspersion (sprinkling)
« Immersion(fully submerged)
« Affusion (pouring)
The Process of Baptism
Section
Action
Reception
Welcoming Rite
Extra Detail
Questioning of Parents and God Parents
Parents and Godparents are asked to name
their child.
They are askedif it is their wish to havetheir
child baptised.
They are asked if they accept their
responsibility to guide the Child’s faith.
Signing
The priest, parents and godparents draw the
sign of the cross on the child.
Readings
Readings from the Bible.
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Word
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Sacrament
Exorcism
To expel sin.
Annointing
With oil
Blessing the water
Parents renunciation of Sin and
profession offaith
Parents renouncesin and confirm their faith
by saying the Apostles Creed
Baptism
The child is poured, sprinkled or immersed
with waterthree times, in the name of the
Father, Son and Holy Spirit.
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Annointing
With the oil of Catechumens.
Clothed in white garment and lighting of
the baptismal candle
This is a symbol of purity and thelight of
Christ.
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Section
Action
Extra Detail
Blessing of ears and mouth (ephphatha)
This is so that the child may hear and
proclaim the Christian faith and teachings. It
links to when Jesus healed a deaf and mute
man (Mark 7:32-35)
The Lord’s Prayer
Conclusion
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Final blessing of parents
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To strengthen the faith of those present so
that the child may be nurturedin a faithful
community.
Prayers of intersession
3.3.2 Demonstrate how baptism expressesthe beliefs of Christianity:
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Belief
Relevant Scripture
Part of Baptism
Explanation
Sign of the crossis
drawn onto the head of
the person being
baptised.
The cross symbolises
the Holy Trinity.
The person is wet three
times with the water
(whether through
This occurs once each
time for each part of the
Holy Trinity. The priest or
immersion, effusion or
minister says, “I baptise
aspiration).
you in the name of the
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Nature of God and the
Trinity
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Father, the Son, and the
“Go therefore and make
disciples ofall the
nations, baptizing them
in the name of the Father
and the Son and the
Holy Spirit.” (Mark 28:19)
Holy Spirit.”
Profession offaith.
The parents and god
parents, and for adult
baptisms the person
being baptised, are
asked if they believe in
God.
Divinity and Humanity
of Jesus
The Lord’s Prayer
This prayer was taught
by Jesusandis said at
the end of the Baptism.
The Gospel reading
used in Baptisms is
often the one when
Jesus was baptised by
John the Baptist.
Jesus was baptised as a
Human.
“Our Father, whoart in
Heaven, Hallowed be thy
name...” (Matt 6:9-13)
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Death and
Resurrection of Jesus
The baptism itself
mirrors the death and
The person is
resurrection of Jesus.
represents the dying of
submerged, which
their old life and rebirth
into a new life with
“In baptism you have
died with Christ and in
baptism you haverisen
with Christ” (Colossians
2:12)
Christ.
Sign of the crossis
drawn onto the head of
the baby.
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Jesus died on the cross
and resurrected three
dayslater.
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Belief
Part of Baptism
Explanation
Relevant Scripture
Lighting of the candle.
The baptism candleislit
from the Paschal (Easter)
Candle, which reflects
how the baptism
symbolises rebirth into a
life with Christ. The
flame symbolised the
guiding light of Christ in
the person’slife.
Salvation
Sign of the crossis
drawn onto the head of
the baby.
Jesus died on the cross
Cleansing in water.
For some
in order to save
humanity.
denominations, the
baptism for babies is an
act to wash away
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Original Sin so that they
can be saved.
“Unless one is born of
the water and spirit they
cannot entre the
kingdom of God” (John
3:5)
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Revelation
Annointing (chrismation)
The anointing with oil is
a symbol of salvation.
Scripture reading by the
Thepriest will read parts
of the scripture where
water was used as the
agent of God (eg. Noah’s
priest or minister as he
blesses the water(for
Catholics).
arc, parting the red sea
during Exodus)
All scripture readings.
Godis revealed to
Christians through the
Bible, so all scripture
readings during the
Baptism reflect the belief
in revelation.
The baptism itself.
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Jesussaysin the Bible
to baptise, so the
baptism itself shows a
belief in the revelation of
God’s will through the
sacred text of
Christianity.
“Go therefore and make
disciples ofall the
nations, baptizing them
in the name of the Father
and the Son and the
Holy Spirit.” (Mark 28:19)
3.3.3 Analyse the significance of baptism for both the individual and the Christian
community:
Significance
Individual
Community
Identity and Belonging
The first sacrament into the
Christian Church. After Baptism,
Welcome and support a new
member of the community.
they become a Christian and
belong within the Church
community.
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Significance
Demarcation of Time
Individual
Community
Connect with others who share
the same beliefs and values.
Witness of commitment.
It is a sacred ritual that only
It is a sacred ritual which acts as
a markeroflife within the
occurs oncein a Christian’slife.
community.
Relationship with God
Baptism unites the individual with
Christ, his death and his
resurrection.
The person being baptised is
following the example and
intention of Christ.
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The community reflect on their
own Baptismal promises.
Baptism perpetuates the ancient
tradition and intention of Jesus.
The person is called to continue
the mission of Christ.
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Expression of beliefs
Baptism allows a person to
publicly expresstheir beliefs as a
Christian.
The Baptism is a conduit and a
ritual which expresses the core
beliefs of Christianity.
Answersthe enduring
questions of human existence
The person is welcomedinto the
They believe themselves to be
children of God and, through
Baptism, expresstheir belief in
the afterlife and God’s Salvation.
Christian church, which provides
answers to manyof the enduring
questions.
Social Cohesion
Connects the individual to their
community and to the history of
their faith.
Baptism reaffirms group identity
with shared beliefs and values
and a common purpose.
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The person is guided to live a
morallife by following the ethics
of the Christian tradition.
Social Transformation
The community has to reaffirm
their beliefs with each baptism.
This deepens the community’s
commitmentto their religion.
The community are guided to live
morallives by following the
Christian ethical teachings.
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