КАЗАХСКИЙ НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЙ
УНИВЕРСИТЕТ ИМ. АЛЬ-ФАРАБИ
Кафедра общего языкознания и
европейских языков
Phraseology of the English Language
(lecture)
Жамбылқызы М.
Lecture 2
Structure and classification
Content
1. Phraseology. Free word-groups vs. set
expressions.
2. Different approaches to the classification of
phraseological units.
3. Ways of forming phraseological units.
4. Idioms - Grammaticality and Figurativeness
1.Phraseology. Free wordgroups vs. set expressions
• Words put together to form lexical units make
phrases or word-groups.
• The degree of structural and semantic
cohesion of word-groups may vary.
Word-groups
• The component members in some wordgroups (e.g. man of wisdom, to take lessons)
possess semantic and structural
independence.
• Word-groups of this type are defined as free
phrases and are usually studied in syntax.
• Some word-groups (e.g. by means of, to
take place ) are functionally and
semantically inseparable.
• They are set-phrases or phraseological units
that are non-motivated and cannot be
freely made up in speech but are
reproduced as ready-made .
• They are the subject-matter of
phraseology.
• Phraseology is a branch of lexicology that
studies sequence of words that are
semantically and often syntactically restricted
and they function as single units similar to
individual words.
• Phraseological units (PU), or idioms represent
the most picturesque, colorful and expressive
part of the language's vocabulary.
• Phraseology draws its resources mostly from
the very depths of popular speech.
confusion about the terminology
• Most Russian scholars use the term
phraseological unit
• It was first introduced by V.V. Vinogradov.
• The term "idiom" widely used by western
scholars has comparatively recently found its
way into Russian phraseology.
other terms
•
•
•
•
•
set-expressions
set-phrases
phrases
fixed word-groups
collocations
• The terminology confusion reflects
insufficiency of reliable criteria by which PUs
can be distinguished from FWGs.
Free word-groups
• The "freedom" of free word-groups is relative
and arbitrary.
• FWGs are so called because they are each
time built up anew in the speech process.
Idioms
But idioms are used as
• ready-made units
• with fixed and constant structures.
Free word-groups vs. set-expressions
• The criteria for distinguishing between FWGs
and set-phrases.
• 1. Criterion of stability of the lexical
components and lack of motivation.
• The constituents of FWG may vary according
to communication needs.
• Member-words of PU are always reproduced
as single unchangeable collocations.
• E.g., the constituent red in the free wordgroup red flower may be substituted for by
any other adj. denoting color, without
essentially changing the denotational
meaning of the word-group.
• But in the PU red tape
(“bureaucratic methods”) no substitution like
this is possible,
• A change of the adj. would involve a
complete change in the meaning of the whole
group.
2. Criterion of function.
• PUs function as word-equivalents
• Their denotational meaning belongs to the
word group as a single semantically
inseparable unity
• and grammatical meaning i.e. the part-ofspeech meaning is belonging to the wordgroup as a whole irrespective of the part-ofspeech meaning of the component words.
E.g.:
• the free word group a long day
• and the phraseological unit
in the long run
• 3. Criterion of context.
• FWG make up variable contexts
• PU makes up a fixed context.
• E. g. in FWG small town/ room the adj. small
has the meaning “not large”
• but in PU small hours the
meaning of small has nothing to do with the
size (early hours from 1 to 4
a.m.)
• 4. Criterion of idiomaticity.
• PU are ready-made phrases registered in
dictionaries
• FWG are made up spontaneously
• The task of distinguishing between FWG and
PU is further complicated by the existence of a
great number of
marginal cases, the so-called semi-fixed or
semi-free word-groups,
• also called nonphraseological wordgroups which share with PU their
structural stability but lack their semantic
unity and figurativeness
• e. g. to go to school, to go
•
by bus, to commit suicide
• Other major criteria for distinguishing
between PU and FWG:
• semantic
• structural
• E.G. 1. A C a m b r i d g e don: I'm told they're
inviting more American professors to this
university. Isn't it rather carrying coals to
Newcastle?
"to take something to a place where it is
already plentiful and not needed"
• E.G.2 This cargo ship is carrying coal to
Liverpool.
the semantic difference of the two
word groups
• is carrying coal is used in the direct sense in
the second context
• The first context has nothing to do either with
coal or with transporting it, and the meaning
of the whole word-group is something entirely
new and far removed from the current
meanings of the constituents.
• The meanings of the constituents merge to
produce an entirely new meaning
• e. g. to have a bee in one's bonnet means
to have an obsession about something;
to be eccentric or even a little mad
• The humorous metaphoric comparison with a person
who is distracted by a
• bee continually buzzing under his cap has become
erased and half-forgotten, and the
• speakers using the expression hardly think of bees or
bonnets but accept it in its
• transferred sense: "obsessed, eccentric".
• That is what is meant when phraseological
units are said to be characterized by semantic
unity.
• In the traditional approach, PUs have been
defined as word-groups conveying a single
concept.
• whereas in FWG each meaningful component
stands for a separate concept.
• This feature makes PU similar to words:
• both words and PU possess semantic unity.
• A. V. Koonin,
• "A phraseological unit is a stable word-group
characterized by a completely or partially
transferred meaning."
The term idiom
• The term idiom is mostly applied to
phraseological units with completely
transferred meanings,
• that is, to the ones in which the meaning of
the whole unit does not correspond to the
current meanings of the components.
The structural criterion
• Structural invariability is an essential feature
of PU,
• though some of them possess it to a lesser
degree than others.
• Structural invariability of PU finds expression
in a number of restrictions.
restriction in substitution
• No word can be substituted for any
meaningful component of a PU without
destroying its sense .
• The second type of restriction is the
restriction in introducing any additional
components into the structure of a PU.
• The third type of structural restrictions in PU is
grammatical invariability.
• to find fault with somebody
e. g. The teacher always found
f a u l t s with the boy ( is not
correct)
Proverbs
• Proverbs are different from the PU.
• The first distinctive feature is the obvious
structural dissimilarity.
• PU are a kind of ready-made blocks which fit
into the structure of a sentence performing a
certain syntactical function, more or less as
words do.
• e.g. George liked her for she never put on airs
(predicate).
• Big bugs like him care nothing about small fry
like ourselves (subject, prepositional object).
• Proverbs, in their structural aspect, are
sentences,
• and so cannot be used in the way in which
phraseological units are used.
Proverbs
• In the semantic aspect, proverbs sum up the
collective experience of the community.
• They moralize (Hell is paved with good
intentions),
• give advice (Don't judge a tree by its bark),
• give warning ( You sing before breakfast, you
will cry before night),
• admonish (Liars should have good memories),
• criticize (Everyone calls his own geese swans).
• The function of proverbs in speech is
communicative (i. e. they impart certain
information).
• PUs do not stand for whole statements as
proverbs do
• but for a single concept.
• Their function in speech is purely nominative
(i. e. they denote an object, an act etc.)
• The question of whether or not proverbs
should be regarded as
a subtype of PU and studied together with the
phraseology of a language is a controversial
one.
• A. V. Koonin includes proverbs in his
classification of PU as communicative
phraseological units.
• There does not exist any rigid border-line
between proverbs and PU
• as PUs rather frequently originate from the
proverbs
• E.g. the PU the last straw
originated from the proverb The last straw
breaks the camel's back
• birds of a feather < the proverb Birds of a
feather flock together
• to catch at a straw (straws) <
A drowning man catches at straws
• Some proverbs are easily transformed into PU
• e.g. Don't put all your eggs in one basket > to
put all one's eggs in one basket
• Don't cast pearls before swine > to cast pearls
before swine
2. Different approaches to the classification of
PU
• Etymological approach considers the source
of PU
• Semantic approach stresses the importance of
idiomaticity
• Functional is focused on syntactic
inseparability
• Contextual – stability of context combined
with idiomaticity.
Etymological classification
• The traditional and oldest principle for
classifying phraseological units is based on
their original content and might be called
thematic or etymological.
• Idioms are classified according to their
sources of origin.
• “Source" refers to the particular sphere of
human activity, of life of nature, of natural
phenomena, etc.
Typical sources are
• Cultural beliefs, traditions and customs
E.g. to keep one’s fingers crossed
• Historical events
E.g. to meet one’s Waterloo
• Mythology, the Bible
• E.g. Achiles’ hill
• Names of organizations and posts
E.g. the White House,
the House of Lords
• Barbarisms and translation loans
E.g. persona non grata,
alma mater
• L. P. Smith gives in his classification groups of
idioms used by sailors, fishermen, soldiers,
hunters and associated with the realia,
phenomena and conditions of their
occupations.
In Smith's classification there are groups of
idioms associated with
• domestic and wild animals and birds,
• agriculture and cooking.
• from sports, arts
• L.P. Smith makes a special study of idioms
borrowed from other languages,
• but that is only a small part of his
classification system.
• Smith points out that word-groups associated
with the sea and the life of seamen are
especially numerous in English vocabulary.
• But most of them have developed
metaphorical meanings which have no longer
any association with the sea or sailors
E.g. to be all at sea — to be unable to
understand, be in a state of ignorance or
bewilderment about smth
• to sink or swim — to fail or succeed
• in deep water — in trouble or danger
• in low water, on the rocks — in
strained financial circumstances
• to be in the same boat with smb — to be in a
situation in which people share the same
difficulties and dangers
• to weather (to ride out) the storm — to
overcome difficulties
Conclusion
• The thematic /etymological principle of
classifying phraseological units has real merit
• but it does not take into account the linguistic
characteristic features of the phraseological
units.
The semantic principle
• Victor Vinogradov’s classification system was
based on the semantic principle.
• His classification was founded on the degree
of semantic cohesion between the
components of a PU (its motivation)
• V.V. Vinogradov developed some points first
advanced by the Swiss linguist Charles Bally.
• This classification was further developed by
Nikolai Shanskii.
• Units with a partially transferred meaning
show the weakest cohesion between their
components.
• The more distant the meaning of a PU from
the current meaning of its constituent parts,
the greater is its degree of semantic cohesion.
V. Vinogradov’s classification
• phraseological combinations/collocations
(фразеологические сочетания)
• P unities (фразеологические единства)
• P fusions (фразеологические сращения)
• N.Shanskii added one more type :
P expressions.
They are motivated FWGs and their stability is
explained by their frequent usage,
e. g. Pop music, the Department of State.
• P combinations are word-groups with a
partially changed meaning.
• They are clearly motivated, that is, the
meaning of the unit can be easily deduced
from the meanings of its constituents.
• e.g.
to be at one's wits' end,
to be good at something,
to have a bite,
to come to a sticky end
P unities
• P unities are word-groups with a completely
changed meaning.
• The meaning of the unit does not correspond
to the meanings of its constituent parts.
• They are partially motivated units.
• The meaning of the whole unit can be
deduced through the metaphoric meanings of
the constituent parts.
• The metaphor, on which the shift of meaning
is based, is clear and transparent.
• e.g. to stick to one's guns - to be true to one's
views or convictions. The image is that of a
gunner or gun
crew who do not desert their guns even if a
battle seems lost
• to sit on the fence - in
discussion, politics, etc. refrain from
committing oneself to either side
• catch/clutch at a straw/straws --when in
extreme danger, avail oneself of even the
slightest chance of rescue;
• to lose one's head -- to be at a loss about
what to do; to be out of one's mind)
• to lose one's heart to smb. -- to fall in love
P fusions
• P fusions are word-groups with a completely
changed meaning but,
in contrast to the unities, they are
demotivated.
• Their meaning cannot be deduced from the
meanings of the constituent parts.
• The metaphor, on which the shift of meaning
was based, has lost its clarity and is obscure.
• E.g. to pull one’s leg
to kick the bucket
red tape
• The border-line separating unities from
fusions is vague and even subjective. One and
the same phraseological unit may appear
motivated to one person (and therefore be
labeled as a unity) and demotivated to
another (and be regarded as a fusion).
• e.g. to come a cropper –to come to disaster
• at sixes and sevens -- in confusion or in
disagreement
• to set one's cap at smb. - to try
and attract a man ( about girls and women).
Structural Classification
• The structural principle of classifying
phraseological units is based on their ability to
perform the same syntactical functions as
words.
• In the traditional structural approach, the
following principal groups of phraseological
units are distinguished.
Verbal ( the head word is a verb)
• to run for one's (dear) life,
• to get (win) the upper hand
Nominative (the head word is a N):
• dog's life
• cat-and-dog life
• calf love
• white lie
• birds of a feather
Adjectival ( the head word is an Adj):
• high and mighty
• brand new
• safe and sound
•
•
•
•
In this group the so-called comparative wordgroups are particularly expressive :
(as) cool as acucumber,
(as) nervous as a cat,
(as) weak as a kitten,
(as) good as gold
•
•
•
•
•
(as) pretty as a picture,
as large as life,
(as) slippery as an eel,
(as) drunk as an owl (sl.),
(as) mad as a hatter/a hare in March;
•
•
•
•
Adverbial (the head word is an Adv or Adv.
element):
by hook or by crook,
in cold blood,
in the dead of night,
between the devil and the deep sea
Interjectional (the head word is an
interjection)
• My God!
• By George!
• Goodness gracious!
• Good heavens!
Structural + semantic principles
• A.I. Smirnitsky offered a classification system
for English PU combining the structural and
the semantic principles.
• PU in this classification system are grouped
according to
• the number and
• semantic significance of their constituent
parts.
• Two large groups are established:
• (1) one-summit units, which have one
meaningful constituent
e. g. to give up, to make out,
to pull out, to be tired,
to be surprised
• (2) two-summit and multi-summit units
which have two or more meaningful
constituents
E. g. black art, first night,
common sense,
to fish in troubled waters
• Within each of these large groups the phraseological
units are classified accordingto the category of parts
of speech of the summit constituent.
• So, one-summit units are subdivided into: a) verbaladverbial units equivalent to verbs in which the
semantic and the grammatical centers coincide in the
first constituent (e. g. to give up);
• b) units equivalent to verbs which have their
semantic centre in the second constituent and
their grammatical centre in the first
e. g. to be tired
• c) prepositional-substantive units equivalent
either to adverbs or to copulas and having
their semantic centre in the substantive
constituent and no grammatical centre
e. g. by heart, by means of
Two-summit and multi-summit phraseological
units are classified into:
• a) attributive-substantive two-summit units
equivalent to nouns
( e. g. black art);
• b) verbal-substantive two-summit units
equivalent to verbs (e. g. to take the floor),
• c) phraseological repetitions equivalent to
adverbs (e. g. now or never);
• d) adverbial multi-summit units (e. g. every
other day).
• Smirnitsky also distinguishes proper
phraseological units which are units with nonfigurative meanings
• idioms that are units with transferred
meanings based on a metaphor.
• A.V. Koonin, the leading Russian authority on English
phraseology, pointed out certain inconsistencies in
this classification system.
• 1. The subdivision into phraseological units (as nonidiomatic units) and idioms contradicts the leading
criterion of a phraseological unit suggested by
Smirnitsky:
• It should be idiomatic.
• Koonin also objects to the inclusion of such
wordgroups as black art, best man, first night in
phraseology (in Smirnitsky's classification system, the
two-summit phraseological units) as all these wordgroups are not characterized by a transferred
meaning.
• It is also pointed out that verbs with postpositions (e. g. give up) are included in the
classification but their status as phraseological
units is not supported by any convincing
argument.
Koonin’s Classification
• is based on the combined structural-semantic
principle and
• it also considers the quotient of stability of
phraseological units
• PU are subdivided into the four classes
according to their function in communication
determined by their structural-semantic
characteristics.
• 1. Nominative phraseological units are represented
by word-groups, including
the ones with one meaningful word, and
coordinative phrases of the type
• wear and tear (експлуатаційне зношення)
• well and good ( used to indicate calm acceptance, as
of a decision)
• The first class also includes word-groups with a
predicative structure,
as the crow flies (as directly as possible)
• and predicative phrases of the type
see how the land lies ( подивимося, як
ідуть справи)
ships that pass in the night (побіжні/ випадкові
зустрічі)
• 2. Nominative-communicative phraseological
units include word-groups of the type to
break the ice – the ice is broken
• that is, verbal word-groups which are
transformed into a sentence when the verb is
used in the Passive Voice.
3. Phraseological units which are
nominative nor communicative.
They include interjectional wordgroups.
neither
• 4. Communicative phraseological units :
• proverbs
• sayings
• These four classes are divided into sub-groups
according to the type of structure of the
phraseological unit.
• The sub-groups include further rubrics representing
types of structural-semantic meanings according to
the kind of relations between the constituents and to
either full or partial transference of meaning.
Ways of Forming PU
A.V. Koonin classified PU according to the way
they are formed:
• primary
• secondary ways
• Primary ways of forming PU are those when a
unit is formed
on the basis of a free word-group:
• a) Most productive in Mod E is the formation
of phraseological units
• by means of transferring the meaning of
terminological word-groups
e.g. launching pad (стартовий
майданчик, пускова платформа)
to link up (anchorperson)
b) A large group of PU was formed from free
word-groups
by transforming their meaning
e.g. Trojan horse
• c) PU can be formed by means of alliteration
e.g. a sad sack (an inept person who makes
mistakes despite good intentions)
• culture vulture( a person considered to be
excessively, and often pretentiously, interested
in the arts)
• d) They can be formed by means of
expressiveness, especially it is characteristic
for forming interjections
e.g. My aunt! (an exclamation of surprise or
amazement)
Hear, hear! (an exclamation used to show
approval of something said).
• e) By means of distorting a word group
e.g. odds and ends
• f) By using archaisms
e.g. in brown study (a mood of deep
absorption or thoughtfulness; reverie)
• g) By using a sentence in a different sphere of
life
e.g. that cock won’t fight (не буде діла)
• h) By using some unreal image
e.g. to have butterflies in the stomach,
to have green fingers
• i) By using expressions of writers or
politicians in everyday life
e.g.corridors of power,
American dream( James Truslow
Adams in 1931 )
the winds of change
• The "Wind of Change" speech was a
historically important address made by British
Prime Minister Harold Macmillan to the
Parliament of South Africa, on 3 February
1960 in Cape Town.
• The speech signalled clearly that the British
Government intended to grant independence
to many of its territories,
• the British possessions in Africa became
independent nations in the 1960s.
• Secondary ways of forming PU are those
when a phraseological unit is formed on the
basis of another phraseological unit.
• They are:
a) conversion: to vote with one’s feet → vote
with one’s feet;
• b) changing the grammar form: make hay
while the sun shines → to make hay while the
sun shines;
• c) analogy: curiosity killed the cat → care
killed the cat
• d) contrast: acute surgery → cold surgery
• e) shortening of proverbs and sayings: you
can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear → a
sow’s ear
• f) borrowing PU from other languages, either
as translation loans,
• living space (German),
• to take the bull by the horns (Latin)
• or by means of phonetic borrowings:
sotto voce (in an undertone) (Italian)
Idioms - Grammaticality and Figurativeness
• Idioms have a great extent use in everyday language, and they
are considered as one of the most frequently used means of
non-literal language.
• Since idioms, metaphors, proverbs, similes and fixed
expressions belong to the nonliteral or figurative language,
then it seems difficult to identify an idiom from the other
forms of figurative language, but although there are some
similarities between idioms and other forms of non- literal
language, some differences are obvious, and thus, one can
recognize an idiom quite easily.
Idioms and Metaphors
• Metaphors constitute a large part of the everyday language.
They have been recognized as rhetorical devices that compare
two seemingly different objects.
• King (2000:216) defines metaphors as ‘describing something by
using an analogy with something quite different’.
• For example, ‘the words are clear as crystal’ is an idiom that
expresses the similarity between the words and the crystal in the
degree of clarity while examples such as: New ideas blossomed
in her mind / His temper boiled over. / Inner peace is a stairway
to heaven / His advice is a valuable guiding light. / The wind in
the trees is the voice of the spirits are metaphors.
• King (2000:216) considers that metaphors are beautiful due to their
ability to explain a complex vague expression making it more
understandable and clear.
• According to Maalej (2005), both idioms and metaphors have in
common the fact that they cannot be understood if taken literally.
• He identifies idioms and metaphors as culture-specific aspects of a
particular language, i.e., the non-existence of a direct one to one
correspondence between a target language and a source language is
the result of culture-specific metaphors and states:
• Culture-specific metaphors are best represented in phraseology. Native
language idioms and set phrases can blend together ethno-specific
concepts pertaining to the world view of it speakers, to their national
character, as well as their traditional social relations, thus becoming an
embodiment of national dispositions and spiritual values. They are
presented metaphorically indirectly and figuratively, which is why
culture-specific metaphors produce idioms that have no corresponding
counterparts in another language. (Maalej 2005:215).
Idioms and Clichés
•
•
•
•
•
A very interesting aspect is given by the prefabricated speech which is often used
in performed language. Idioms, which may also be defined as ‘complex bits of
frozen syntax, whose meanings are more than simply the sum of their individual
parts’ (Nattinger and De Carrico, 1992:32), are considered as one feature of this
type of speech.
However, they are not the only kind of prefabricated speech; there are many
other kinds of formulaic fixed phrases, among which the clichés.
Clichés resemble idioms because they also include patterns which are relatively
frozen, but they differ from these, in the sense that these patterns are usually
made up of extended stretches of language.
In clichés like there is no doubt about it, a good time was had by all and have a
nice day the distinction from idioms is obvious, being easily understandable from
the meaning of their individual constituents.
In contrast, idioms are often learnt as a single unit without taking into account the
meaning of their parts.
Idioms and Proverbs
•
Just like idioms, proverbs ‘are special, fixed, unchanged phrases
which have special, fixed, unchanged meanings’ (Ghazala 1995:142).
• They differ from idioms in that they display shared cultural wisdom.
Therefore, proverbs are easily understandable and, sometimes, the
first part of the proverb might be enough to express the whole
meaning.
• For instance, ‘do not count your chickens’ is used instead of ‘do not
count your chickens before they have hatched’. Even if proverbs
may be considered as culture-specific because they are very bound
to culture, many proverbs have equivalents in different languages.
Idioms and Proverbs
• Idioms and proverbs are not always transparent, and
their meanings are sometimes ambiguous. Yet learners
are fascinated by them since they are always intrigued
with expressive colorful language. Idioms and proverbs
are also a part of figurative language that produces
cultural information, and their use shows that the person
is a part of that social group that uses them (Hartch and
Brown 1995:202-203).
Idioms and Fixed Expressions
• There are fixed expressions like having said that, as a matter of fact, not at
all, ladies and gentlemen, all the best which allow a little or no variation in
form, just as idioms do. Fixed expressions, however, are distinguished from
idioms since they have almost transparent meanings. Thus, the meaning of
as a matter of fact for example, can easily be inferred from the meaning of
its constituents, in contrast to idioms like pull a fast one or fill the bill
where the meaning of the whole expression is different from the meaning
of its parts. In spite of its clarity, the meaning of a fixed expression, as that
of an idiom, is not just the sum meanings of its components.
• Fixed expressions may bring up in the mind of the reader all the aspects of
experience associated with the different contexts in which the expression is
used. This characteristic seems to be the cause of the widespread use of
fixed and semi-fixed expressions in any language. (Baker 1992: 63)
• Although they have many features in
common with other forms of non-literal
language, idioms have their own
characteristics.
• Generally speaking, an idiom is a kind of
lexical unit in which the whole meaning of
the expression is not apparent from the
meanings of its components.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
According to Bell (1974:3), there are certain essential features which help in the
recognition of idioms. Some of these features are:
Alteration of Grammatical Rules
The idiomatic expression is not always grammatical, but it is established, accepted
and used by native speakers of the language with a fixed structure and meaning.
E.g. It’s ages since we met (singular with a plural noun)
Conventional Phrases Idioms
are special expressions which are almost known and agreed by all the members of
a particular community. E.g. How are you doing? (Expression used to ask someone
about his health). Once in a blue moon (rarely, infrequently).
Alteration of Word Order
English Idiomatic expressions, usually, do not respect the English word order. E.g. It
may be well ahead of time (normal word order). It may well be ahead of time
(probably): idiomatic expression.
Figurativeness
• The basic characteristic of idiomatic expressions is
that the words are used metaphorically. Therefore,
the surface structure has a little role to play in
understanding the meaning of the whole expression.
• For example, in ‘to bury the hatchet’, meaning to
become friendly again after a disagreement, the
meanings of the words ‘to bury’ and. ‘the hatchet’
are different from the meaning of the whole
expression.
Phrasal Verbs
• Phrasal verbs are the most common type of idioms
in English.
• Many of them carry idiomatic meanings that cannot
be inferred from the form, unless the phrase is
already known.
• E.g. After war began, the two countries broke off
diplomatic relations (discontinue).
• Most automobile companies bring out new modals
each year (to show or introduce).
According to Baker (1992:63)
• According to Baker (1992:63), there can be identified some
grammatical and syntactic restrictions of idioms, i.e. a speaker or
a writer cannot normally do any of the following with an idiom
because the meaning would be changed:
• Addition
• Deletion
• Substitution
• Modification
• Comparative
• Passive
According to Baker (1992:63)
• Addition
• Adding any word to an idiomatic expression may alter
its meaning, or remove its idiomatic sense. For
instance, adding the adverb very to the adjective red
in red herring. (*very red herring) affects the
figurativeness of its meaning completely.
According to Baker (1992:63)
• Deletion
• Deleting the adjective sweet and the article the
from the expressions have a sweet tooth and
spill the beans would change totally their
meanings. Hence, (*have a tooth) and (*spill
beans) have no idiomatic sense.
According to Baker (1992:63)
• Substitution
• Idioms accept no replacement of words even if those
words are synonyms. For example, the long and short
of it means the basic facts of a situation. The adjective
long cannot be substituted by another adjective, like
tall, despite they have nearly the same meaning.
According to Baker (1992:63)
• Modification
• Any change in the grammatical structure of an idiom
leads to the destruction of the idiom meaning. For
instance, the expression (*stock and barrel lock) is no
more idiomatic because of the altered order of the
items in the expression lock, stock and barrel
completely.
According to Baker (1992:63)
• Comparative
• Adding the comparative form -er to the adjective hot
in the expression be in hot water changes the
conventional sense of the idiom which has the
meaning of be in trouble.
• Passive
• The passive form some beans were spilled has a
different meaning from its active one.
Classification according to degree of
idiomaticity
• Researchers interested in idioms have tried to
classify them according to different criteria.
• The main feature that differentiates between
the different kinds of idioms is the degree of
idiomaticity that an idiom carries.
• Idioms are categorized in a continuum from
transparent to opaque called the spectrum of
idiomaticity.
Therefore, idioms can be divided into:
Transparent-Opaque Idioms which include:
• Transparent Idioms
• Semi - Transparent Idioms
• Semi-Opaque Idioms
• Opaque Idioms
Therefore, idioms can be divided into:
• Transparent Idioms
• These idioms have a very close meaning to that of the
literal one. Hence, transparent idioms are usually not
difficult to understand and translate, because their
meanings can be easily inferred from the meanings of
their constituents, both components have a direct
meaning but the combination acquires figurative sense.
(Fernando 1996) Phraseological combinations are
commonly included in this category.
• E.g. to see the light = to understand
Therefore, idioms can be divided into:
• Semi - Transparent Idioms
• The idiom usually carries a metaphorical
sense that could not be known only
through common use. i.e., the meaning of
its parts has a little role to play in
understanding the entire meaning.
• E.g. break the ice = relieve the tension
Therefore, idioms can be divided into:
• Semi-Opaque Idioms
• This type refers to those idioms in which the figurative
meaning is not joined to that of the constituent words
of the idiom. Thus, the expression is separated into
two parts; a part with a literal meaning, and another
part with a figurative sense. Phraseological unities
belong to this category. E.g. to know the ropes = to
know how a particular job should be done to pass the
buck = to pass responsibility
Therefore, idioms can be divided into:
• Opaque Idioms
• Opaque idioms are the most difficult type of idioms, because
the meaning of the idiom is never that of the sum of the
literal meanings of its parts. So, it would be impossible to infer
the actual meaning of the idiom from the meanings of its
components, because of the presence of items having cultural
references. These culture-specific items have a great influence
on the comprehensibility of idiomatic expressions.
• E.g. To burn one’s boat = to make retreat impossible. Kick the
bucket = to die Spill the beans = reveal a secret
According to Jennifer Seidl and W.
McMordie,
• According to Jennifer Seidl and W. McMordie, idioms may be
classified into:
• Informal Idioms
• Formal Idioms
• Verbal Idioms
• Idiomatic Pairs
Pairs of adjectives
Pairs of nouns
Pairs of adverbs
Pairs of verbs
Identical pairs
According to Jennifer Seidl and W. McMordie,
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Informal Idioms
Such as: a mug's game | alive and kicking | at sixes and sevens Formal Idioms
Such as: as regards | in the first instance | on either/every hand
Verbal Idioms
Such as: break even | burn the midnight oil | call a halt | catch it
Idiomatic Pairs
Pairs of adjectives born and bred | bright and early | safe and sound | Pairs of
nouns aches and pains | bits and pieces | body and soul
• Pairs of adverbs far and wide | first and foremost
• Pairs of verbs do and die | fetch and carry | pick and choose
• Identical pairs again and again | all in all | Bit by bit | little by little | Step by
step | round and round
According to Jennifer Seidl and W. McMordie,
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Idioms Used in Special Fields
Banking
Buying and selling
Politics and Law
Telephoning
Travel
Health , Illness, Death
According to Jennifer Seidl and W. McMordie,
Idioms related to special themes
• Anger
• Speed
• Deterioration
• Success
• Happiness
• Surprise
• Wealth
According to Jennifer Seidl and W. McMordie,
Idioms containing special keywords
Animals
Parts of the body
Colours
Clothes
Time
Idioms with Comparisons
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Comparisons with as…….as
Comparisons with like
Pure idioms
Semi-idioms
Literal idioms
These expressions may be considered idioms because
they are either completely invariant or allow only
restricted variation.
Halliday (1985, as quoted by Fernando 1996:72)
• Fernando (1996:37) admits the difficulty of
drawing a clear boundary between these
three idiom types.
• Taking into consideration the function of the
phrase,(1985, as quoted by Fernando
1996:72) groups idioms into ideational,
interpersonal and relational idioms.
Ideational idioms
• Ideational idioms either signify message content, experiential
phenomena including the sensory, the affective, and the
evaluative, or they characterize the nature of the message
(Fernando 1996:72).
• These expressions may describe: - actions (tear down, spill the
beans), - events (turning point), - situations (be in a pickle), people and things (a red herring), - attributes (cut-and-dried),
evaluations (a watched pot never boils) - emotions (green with
envy).
Interpersonal idioms
• Interpersonal idioms on the other hand, ‘fulfil either an
interactional function or they characterize the nature of
the message’: they can, for instance, initiate or keep up
an interaction between people and maintain politeness
(Fernando 1996:73).
• These expressions include: - greetings and farewells
(good morning), - directives (let’s face it), - agreements
(say no more), - "feelers" which elicit opinions (what do
you think?) and - rejections (come off it).
Relational idioms
• Halliday (1985:74) distinguishes relational (or
textual) idioms, which ensure that the
discourse is cohesive and coherent.
• Examples of relational idioms are on the
contrary, in addition to and on the other
hand.
Strässler (1982:42), Adam Makkai’s book Idiom
structure in English (1972)
• Other classifications of idioms are more detailed and
complicated.
• According to Strässler (1982:42), Adam Makkai’s
book Idiom structure in English (1972) is the most
extensive work ever written on idioms.
• Makkai (1972:117) identifies two major types of
idioms: those of encoding and those of decoding.
• Makkai (1972:117) classifies idioms of decoding into
lexemic and sememic idioms.
Idioms of Encoding (Identifiable)
• Idioms of encoding are those idiosyncratic lexical
combinations that have transparent meanings.
• This type of idioms could be best recognized
through making a comparison between different
languages by the use of proper prepositions.
Therefore, ‘at’ is used instead of „with‟ in the
English expression ‘drive at 70 mph’ (not drive
with as in French).
Idioms of Decoding (Non-Identifiable)
• • Idioms of decoding refer to those non-identifiable
and misleading lexical expressions whose
interpretation could not be figured out by using only
independently learned linguistic conventions. They
include expressions like „beat around the bush‟ and
‘fly off the handle’. This type of idioms could be
classified into lexemic and sememic.
Idioms of Decoding (Non-Identifiable)
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Lexemic idioms include:
a. Phrasal verbs: e.g., to come up with, to turn off, to take part in.
b. Phrasal compounds: e.g. black ice, black board.
c. Incorporating Verbs: e.g. man-handle.
d. Pseudo-Idioms: e.g. spick and span, kit and kin
Sememic Idioms, on the other hand, usually, convey pragmatic
meanings related to a particular culture. They include:
• a. Proverbs: e.g. Chew of something over, A bird in hand is worth two
in the bush.
• b. Familiar Quotations: e.g. Not a mouse stirring
McCarthy and O’Dell (2003:06) give another
classification
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McCarthy and O’Dell (2003:06) give another classification to the English idioms types
focusing on their possible combinations:
-Verb + object/complement (and /or adverbial) Kill two birds with one stone
(=Produce two useful results by just doing one action.)
-Prepositional phrase In the blink of an eye (= In an extremely short time.)
-Compound A bone of contention (= Something which people argue and disagree
over.)
-Simile (as + adjective + as or like + a noun). As dry as a bone (= Very dry indeed)
-Binominal (word + and + word ) Rough and ready (= Crude and lacking sophistication)
-Trinomial (word + word + and+ word)
Cool, calm and collected (= Relaxed, in control, not nervous)
-Whole clause or sentence To cut a long story short (= To tell the main points, but not
all the fine details)