KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE ANDTECHNOLOGY, KUMASI-GHANA
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ANDCHEMICAL ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ENGINEERING IN SOCIETY: CENG 291
MAN-POWER IRRIGATION SYSTEM TO ENHANCE CROP PRODUCTION IN AKIM
ACHIASE DISTRICT
AIDOO EMMANUEL
8321519
SEPTEMBER, 2020.
1
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that apart from references of other people’s work which have been duly
acknowledged, this project work is the result of my own original research and that no part of it has
been presented in this University or elsewhere.
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I want to say a very big thank you to my brothers;Ahenful Stephen Okyere and Moses Adu-kwarteng,
and the people of Achiase District.
3
ABSTRACT
Low crop production as an agricultural problem has neither spared the developed nor developing
nations. Statistics have proven that almost all the farming areas in Ghana are seriously grappling
with this bane of which Akim Achiase District is not an exception. The study therefore sought to
examine the correlation between rainfall variability and crop production as well as how man-power
irrigation system can be used to address the rain-fed nature of agriculture associated with the
inhabitants of Achiase. It employed a descriptive survey design.21crop farmers and the agricultural
department
of
the
district
were
targeted
using
purposive
sampling
technique.
Questionnaire/interview schedule, focus group discussion and observation checklist were used for
the data collection, which was subjected to the descriptive statistics of frequency and simple
percentages. The study found that the crop production in the District was mainly rain-fed in nature. It
was also revealed that considerable number of the residents produces cocoa and oil palm as their
main cash crops. The study revealed that rice, maize, cassava, plantain, tomatoes, pepper, garden
eggs among others are grown year round with respect to rain-fed seasons. Recommendations such as
creating the awareness and educating the farmers on the use of man-power irrigation system,
fertilizer application, and the use of modern technology in crop farming were mentioned. Further,
attending meetings organized by the district assembly and making enquiries concerning crop farming
were suggested.
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION……………………………………………………………….. …….
2
ACKNOLEDGEMENT………………………………………………………………..
3
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………....
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………………….
5
LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………
7
LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………
7
1. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………….
8
•
Background of the report……………………………………………………...
8
•
Objectives of the report………………………………………………………..
9
•
Report structure………………………………………………………………..
9
2. LITERATURE REVIEW …………………………………………………………….
•
Physical features……………………………………………………………...
•
Agricultural productivity………………………………………………………..
•
Population ……………………………………………………………………..13
•
Irrigation potential………………………………………………………………
10
10
12
14
3. METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………………………… 15
•
Problem identification…………………………………………………….......
•
Data collection………………………………………………………………..
5
15
16
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION…………………………………………………….
17
•
Description of the community……………………………………………………... 17
•
Description of the nature and characteristics of the problem...…………………..
21
•
Data analysis……………………………………………………………………...
21
•
Mechanical engineering as field of study…………………………………………
27
•
Conceptual designs……………………………………………………………….
34
•
Basic decision matrix……………………………………………………………...
40
•
Chosen concept…………………………………………………………………….
41
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS………………………………………
45
6. REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………
46
7. APPENDIXES…………………………………………………………………………….
47
6
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.Ppopulation size by locality of residence, region and sex ratio……………………..…
13
Table 2. Distribution of households engaged in tree or crop farming by type of crops
and population……………………………………………………………………………..…….. 14
Table 3. Total area under irrigation in Ghana (2009-2012)…………………………………….. 15
Table 4. Age distribution in the District……………………………………………………….
22
Table 5. Occupation of the People above 15 years……………………………………………. 22
Table 6. Types of crops grown in the District and proportion of farmers engage in………….. 23
Table 7. Factors affecting crop farming in the District………………………………………… 23
Table 8. Source of water for crop farming……………………………………………………... 24
Table 9. Basic decision matrix…………………………………………………………………. 41
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Annual climate summary in Akim Oda Municipal area …………………………….. 9
Figure 2. National agricultural growth versus growth in all other sectors……………………… 12
Figure 3.Map (picture) of Akim Achiase District (from Google map) ……………………….. 18
Figure 4. Plantain from Agya Adu’s farm ………………………………………………………. 19
Figure 4.1. Tomatoes from Maame Darkwaa’s farm……………………………………………. 19
Figure 5. Farms destroyed by flood …………………………………………………………….. 23
Figure 6. Solar irrigation system………………………………………………………………… 34
Figure 7. Drip irrigation system ………………………………………………………………… 36
Figure 8. Man-power irrigation system ………………………………………………………… 39
Figure 9. Mechanical transmission mechanism……………………………………………….. 43
Figure 10. Water absorption mechanism ………………………………………………………. 44
7
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Chapter content
This chapter gives introduction to the Engineering in Society Course. It also gives the background of
the report content as well as the objectives of the report.
Background of the report
The report is to enlighten more about the Achiase District. It states low crop production as their main
challenge and how this challenge is affecting their living and the country as a whole. The report
would also talk about mechanical engineering – a branch of engineering and how its application was
tapped to battle the afore-mentioned problem. The report talks about three conceptual designs with
the Man-power irrigation system being the chosen one to battle the problem. The report also gives
literature review of crop production in the Akim Achiase community and the country as a whole. It
talks about rainfall as the major climate condition and how its variability is affecting crop production.
Engineering in Society Course
Engineering in Society is a course that enables students’ to find problems in their society and address
them with the knowledge attained in their various field of engineering.Former provost of the college
of engineering, Professor S I K Ampadu, initiated the CENG 291 course during his tenure of office.
The course is in two sections; the field work and theoretical aspect.
Field Work
The course which is offered by all first year engineering students takes place during the long
vacation of the academic year. It seeks to inculcate into the young engineers, problem solving values
– key requirement of every engineer. Before the students go into their respective communities to
conduct surveys in order to determine their challenges – which they would address, a workshop is
8
organized in a form of orientation to enlighten them. This is followed by individual presentation by
the students to defend the accuracy of their report before a panel.
Theoretical Aspect
The theoretical aspect of the course which involves ethics in the workplace, challenges of the world,
Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), and Millennium Development Goals (MDG) is scheduled to
take place during the first semester of their second year.
Objectives of the Report
The objectives of the report are;
1. Examine low crop production in Akim Achiase District
2. Find out the impact of rainfall and its variability especially with respect to farming
3. Make literature review of the correlation between rainfall variability, among other factors
and crop production
4. Address low crop production using conceptual designs with the aid of mechanical
engineering.
Report Structure
The report is divided into five main chapters with each having its own sub divisions. Chapter one is
the introductory chapter, it contains an introduction to the course (CENG 291), background of the
report, and the objectives of the report. Chapter two gives a literature review of Akim Achiase
District and its rain-fed nature of crop farming. Chapter three is the methodology chapter. It
contains the processes involved in the problem identification, map preparation, and how the data and
information in the report were obtained. Chapter four is the results and discussion chapter. It
contains descriptions of Akim Achiase District, the problem and its impact on the people of Akim
Achiase, and mechanical engineering. It contains conceptual designs mounted to curtail the stated
9
problem. Chapter five is the last and concluding chapter. It contains conclusions, recommendations,
references and appendix of the report.
CHAPTER TWO
Literature Review
Physical features
The physical features of the land are generally undulating and hilly. Flowing through the District are
many streams and rivers which serve many purposes – serves as source of drinking water for most
deprived communities, source of pipe borne water, source of water for agricultural purposes
especially during drought periods. These water bodies provide an avenue for future irrigation
farming in the District.
Climate
The District experiences substantial amount of rainfall ; major feature of a District which falls within
the west equatorial climatic zone .This promote serious farming activities especially during the two
peaks period of May-June and September-October. Annual rainfall is between 150cm and 200cm.
Relative humidity is about 56% (dry season) and 70% (rainy season). The temperature ranges
between 25.2ºc and 27.5ºc which tends to create a relatively good atmosphere for socio-economic
activities which are mainly trading and farming.
Figure 1. Annual climate summary in Akim Oda Municipal Area
Climatic change
Ghana has already experienced an increase in mean annual temperature of 1ºc per decade since
1960. Monthly rainfall decreased about 2.4% per decade during the same period. Achiase District is
of no exception of this change.
10
Vegetation
The vegetation is mainly characterized by tall trees with evergreen underground endowed with
economic trees. The District falls within the semi-deciduous rainforest region leading to high degree
of rainfall for crop cultivation and human use. Human activities such as lumbering, poor farming
practices and construction works have had heinous impact on the vegetation over the years resulting
in scattered parcels of secondary forest.
Agricultural sector
Major activities in the agricultural sector are crop farming also known as crop production and
livestock rearing employing about 70% of the active working population. Four types of agricultural
activities were defined namely crop farming, tree growing, livestock rearing and fish farming. The
highest proportion of farming households are engaged in crop farming (98.1%) while the least are
into fish farming (0.1%).
Crop farming
Majority of the farmers in the District are involved in crop farming and the main crops cultivated
are:
1. Starchy staples like cassava, cocoyam, and plantain
2. Vegetables like tomato, okra, garden eggs, and pepper
3. Legumes like beans
4. Tree crops like oil palm, cocoa, and citrus
5. Cereals like maize and rice. Maize is planted twice the year i.e. during the major and minor
season. The predominant farm practice is mixed cropping. The crops are grown in mixed
stands normally inter-cropped with vegetables and cultivated for both home consumption and
or sale.
Livestock rearing
Animal rearing is the second most important agricultural activity after crop farming. Most of the
farmers engaged in crop farming also keep livestock. The droppings of the livestock serves as
manure for the crops while the leaves and other parts of the crops are used to feed the livestock. The
types of animals reared are sheep, goats, pigs, cattle and poultry. There are only few known
fishponds in the District; the cost of constructing the fish pond is a major attribute.
11
Agricultural productivity
Agricultural productivity is a measurement of the amount a crop grown or product like wool per unit
land. Productivity growth, especially in agriculture, is a key requirement area of focus for any
developing economy because it is one of the fundamental pre-requisite for economic growth.
Aggregate productivity is the amount of output gained given the levels of inputs in an economy or
sector (Pulginiti and Perrin, 1998).
Figure 2. National agricultural growth versus growth in all other sectors (2008-2015)
Effects of climate change on agriculture
Climate is likely to intensify the seasonal and inter-annual rainfall variation (for example, drought in
one year and floods next year) as long-term changes and trends take place for example, rising annual
mean temperature. Climate change may create water and heat stress, the outbreak of pets and
diseases, the loss of productive lands through the deterioration of ecosystems, and additional burdens
to supply chains such as increased-harvest losses during storage and distribution. The likely
consequences of such stresses include yield reductions, post-harvest losses and reduced food
accessibility and consumption (Vermeulen et al, 2015). A study by the International Food Policy
Research Institute on the impact of the climate change on the yields of rain-fed maize, rice and
groundnut by 2050. Their results show an overall decrease in yields of all the crops.
Land tenure system
Land is acquired in several ways in the District; these include the following.
1. Individual ownership or inheritance from family;
2. Rent or hiring from landowners and
3. Mortgage.
The land tenure system arrangements include:
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1. Owner occupancy, where the farmer is the owner of the land on which he or she works and
provides all the necessary inputs for production.
2. Share tenancy – this is the “abunu” or the “abusa” share cropping system where the owners lease
the land to the farmer, and the farm produce shared equally (abunu) or a third goes to the
landlord, while two-thirds goes to the tenant (abusa). This land tenure system happens to be the
dominant in the District especially in the urban communities.
Agricultural productivity and land use
The data over the last decade indicate that while the total output of some crops has somewhat seen
an increment. Yield growth rate has lagged behind output growth, suggesting that expansion in an
area cultivated has been the driver of output growth.
Population
The population in the district is 84,757 (projected from 2010 population 77,537) representing 4.5%
of the population in the Eastern region. Below is the population size by locality of residence, region
and sex ratio (table 1)
Table 1. Population size by locality of residence, region and sex ratio
Agricultural forestry employs more than half of the active working population (between the ages of
15 and 60) which represents 57.6%.
Table 2 shows the major crops and trees grown by various households in the District. From the table,
most households engage in plantain followed by oil palm and maize.
13
Table 2.Distribution of households engaged in tree growing or crop farming by type of crop and
population
Population growth and crop farming
The district has an annual population growth rate of approximately 2.2% (from 2010 population).
Crops growth rate continues to lag behind. This is a threat to food security of to the District and the
country as a whole.
Irrigation potential
Currently there is no formal documentation of irrigation systems in the District. However, there are
opportunities available for such system because of the availability of streams and rivers in the
District. Financial constraint is a major setback to the development of irrigation system. An
14
assessment of the total agricultural land under irrigation carried out by the Ghana Irrigation
Development Authority (GIDA) and International Water Management Institute (IWMI) in 2011
indicates that there is 206,866 hectares of land under irrigation (GIDA, IWMI 2015). This figure
represents 2.6% of the total land area under cultivation and 41% irrigable land.
Table 3. Total area under irrigation in Ghana (2009-2012)
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
Chapter content
This chapter presents the methodological approach for the study. It considers the various methods
and approaches employed to solicit the needed information to explain and analyze the correlation
between rainfall variability and crop production as well as how man-power irrigation system can be
used to address the rain-fed nature of agriculture associated with the inhabitants of Achiase. It states
the problem and its identification model. It talks about the map preparation and how the data and
information in the report were collected.
PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
Poverty and food insecurity have been one of the paramount challenges facing the Akim Achiase
community. A community with over 60% of its population being farmers, hardly would there be a
year without complaints of low crop yields. The problem was, therefore, identified based on;
15
Personal experiences
Both my parents are farmers growing what we mainly fed on, with less than 10% of their produce
being sold for money. One could tell the strike of hunger and poverty whenever there’s climate
(rainfall) variability.
Interviewing the people of Akim Achiase
The people of the district proved the fact that agriculture (crop growing) is the major occupation they
engage in. They attest to the fact that agriculture is not rewarding anymore due to climate variability
hence could not fetch them the fortune they wish to attain – response by most of the youth who have
migrated in search of greener pastures elsewhere.
Questionnaire issued to selected individuals, authorities and Agencies.
Further research on the internet
A thorough research on the internet was made to fish out the correlation between crop production
and rainfall variability. The above aided the problem identification criteria.
MAP PREPARATION
The drawn map of the District could not be attained because the District has just been carved out of
the Birim South District. The map of the Birim South District which clearly shows the drawn map of
the Achiase District has been provided in the appendix. However, with Google map, an app installed
from Google Playstore, the map (picture) of the Achiase District was obtained.
DATA COLLECTION
The data used in processing the information of the report were obtained mainly from:
Interviewing the people of the Akim Achiase
Random interview were conducted to know what trouble the district. Most of the interviews were
conducted in the various homes of the people during evenings and weekends. Some also took place
16
on the streets of the district as most of the youth were found here. The questions were unstructured
and depend on the response of the individual.
Questionnaire issued to selected individuals and bodies
Structured and well planned sets of questions were prepared for the District’s Department of
Agriculture – samples found in the appendix of the report.
Research on the internet
The internet as we say embodies tons of information related to almost every aspect of life. After the
people raised concerns about climate variability being the key setback to crop production, a further
research on the internet was made to affirm the claim.
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Chapter content
This chapter looks at the interventions and data analysis procedures used to conduct the research. A
clear picture of the Akim Achiase District would be drawn in this chapter. Included in this chapter
too is the description and nature of the afore-mentioned problem and its repercussions on the Akim
Achiase District and the country at large. Mechanical engineering as a branch of engineering would
also be explained and how its application was tapped to battle the problem identified in chapters
above – Low crop production. Three conceptual designs are discussed and the man power irrigation
system chosen using the basic decision matrix in accordance with the Product Design Specifications
(PDS) stated.
DESCRIPTION OF THE COMMUNITY
Coordinates: 5 50ºN 1 00ºW
Elevation: 551ft (168m)
17
Achiase District was carved out of the Birim South District in February 2019. Other towns in the
district include Aperade, Akenkansu, Osorase, Akim Anyinam and Anomase among others. Achiase
is a new district requiring infrastructural developments across all sectors.
Figure 3. Map (picture) of Akim Achiase District (from google map)
Boundaries
The Akim Achiase district covers a land area of 443 sq km. Shares borders with;
1. Birim South in the West
2. Birim Central in the North – East
3. Asikuma Odobeng – Brakwa in the South
Population
The population of the district is 84,757 (projected from 2010 population, 73,537) representing 4.5
percent of the population of the Eastern Region (3,050,124). Sex disaggregation of the population in
the district follows both the regional and national trends where females out number males. Females,
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51.6 percent of the population against 48.4 percent males. The sex ratio is 93.8 implying that every
100 females there are 94 males.
Culture
The people of the district pay much reverence to culture and tradition. They dress nicely in their
kente and festive wears to their most celebrated occasions like funeral, outdooring, engagement, and
festivals – the Ohum festival is the festival of the land. Twi is dominant language of the people
which include Akyem, Asante, Fante and Akuapim.
Agriculture
Major activities in Agricultural sector are crop farming and livestock production employing about 70
percent of the active working population. Four types of agricultural activities are defined namely
crop farming, tree growing, livestock rearing and fish farming. The highest proportion of farming
households are engaged in crop production (98.1%) while the least are into fish farming (0.1%).
More than 9 in 10 rural households are engaged in crop farming (98.4%) compared to a slightly
lower proportion of urban households (97.7%).
Figure 4. Plantain from Agya Adu’s farm
Figure 4.1 Tomatoes from Maame Darkwaa’s farm
Education
The urban areas in the District have most of the educational facilities with Achiase having most of
them. The rural areas have up to a maximum of junior high school while most communities have no
19
school. There are more than fifteen basic schools with two senior high schools – Achiase Senior
High School, Akim Achiase and Aperade Senior High School, Akim Aperade.
Road Network
Transport facilities in the district include road and footpaths. Road transport is by far the most
important mode of transport in the district. The total length of road network in the district is 127.1km.
This is as a result of a network of highways and feeder roads of the district. Roads in the urban areas
constitutes about 31.8 percent of the road are bituminous surface while earth covers 95.3km of the
total network. Road accessibility are generally poor. Most of the feeder roads have deteriorated.
Accessing these roads is very difficult especially in rainy season.
Market
Akim Achiase is the main commercial centers with two major market days in a week on Tuesdays
and Fridays. On such days, the district capital gets busy with heavy trading primarily from traders
across towns and villages in the district and also from nearby districts like Birim South, Birim
Central and Asikuma Odobeng – Brakwa. Commerce in the district is centered mainly on trading of
foodstuffs, meat, clothes, and vegetables among others. The commercial activities are undertaken at
the market centered mainly at Akim Achiase, Aperade and Osorase and serve as income generating
avenues of the district Assembly. Farmers have the opportunity to market their produce on such days.
Others
There’s a railway coverage in the district which extends through Aperade to the South but currently
require investment as the line have idly been abandoned for over a decade.
The Ghana Armed Forces has a jungle warfare training school in Akim Achiase called Seth Anthony
Barracks as it was named after Major Seth Kobla Anthony (15 June 1915 – 20 November 2008), the
first black African soldier to become an officer in the British Army.
20
DESCRIPTION OF THE NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROBLEM
Data analysis
40 people above 15 years were selected for the interview and the results analyzed.
Age distribution
From the 40 people interviewed in the District, 57.5% were between the age ranges of 15-45, 27.5%
were between the age range of 45-60 and the rest above 60 years.
Table 4. Age distribution in the District
Age range
Number of respondents
15-45
45-60
23
11
Above 60
6
Occupation of the people
From the 40 respondents, farming employs the larger proportion of the people (52.5%), 20% are into
the civil service, 15% are into the public.
Table 5. Occupation of the people above 15 years
Occupation
All ages
Number
15-45
Number
45-60
Number
Above 60
Number
farming
21
8
9
4
Public service
5
2
3
0
Civil service
8
3
5
0
other
6
3
2
1
Crops produced in the district
The 21 farmers were further interviewed to find out the type of crops they grow. Table 6 reveals the
different types of crops grown in the District and the proportion of farmers engaged in each.
However, some farmers are engage in two or m crops at a time, so their major crops were assigned.
21
Table 6. Types of crops grown in the District and the proportion of farmers engage in
Crops
Number of farmers
engaged in
Percentage (%)
Cereals
6
28.57
Tree crops e.g. cocoa
6
28.57
Vegetables
3
14.29
Starchy staples e.g.
plantain
4
19.05
Other
1
9.52
Factors affecting agriculture
Most of the farmers attest to the fact that their annual crop yields keep varying and it’s really bad.
They further responded by giving the factors affecting crop yields. Table 7 reveals the factors
affecting crop yields. Climatic conditions e.g. excess rainfall, drought and untimely got the major
response with a percentage of 66.7%.
Table 7. Factors affecting crop farming in the District
factor
Number of respondent
Climatic conditions e.g. low
rainfall, drought
14
Poor soil
1
Lack of tools and technology
3
Other
3
Source of water for crop farming activities
The farmers proved to be dependable on the rainfall for most of their farming activities. Further
questions reveal that almost all the farmers practice rain-fed agriculture (95.24%). A few engage in
traditional irrigation (they fetch the water from near-by streams for the irrigation using watering
cans). Table 8 reveals the response
22
Table 8. Source of water for crop farming
Source of water
Number of respondents
Rainfall
Irrigation
20
1
Rainfall in perspective
Rainfall can be excess, scanty or untimely. The total amount of rainfall in a particular season is not
the ultimate criteria, but its distribution over a large area is a critical factor. Rainfall is measured
with an instrument called the rain gauge. It measures the amount of rainfall in millimeters (mm).
1mm rainfall means every one square meter area is filled with the water of height 1mm. Rainfall can
be scanty, excess or drought. Rainfall or precipitation between 2.5mm and 7.6mm or 10mm per hour
is considered a moderate. When the precipitation rate is greater than 7.6mm per hour or between
10mm and 50mm per hour, it is considered heavy or excess.
Impact of excess rainfall on crop production
1. Excessive of water in the soil alter various chemical and biophysical process
2. Free movement of oxygen is blocked thereby releasing toxic compounds into the roots of
crops. The roots take up these toxic compounds for crop usage. This results in the crops
wilting and dies out.
3. Heavy rains interfere with pollination and flowering of crops. Storms (heavy rains with
winds) blow off pollen grains of crops away to unsuitable areas – where it cannot settle on
stigma for fertilization to occur. Flowers too are blown away which is a major challenge to
crop yields.
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4. Floods results in areas drained by larger river system – floods submerge crops as a result.
Figure 5. Farms destroyed by flood
Impact of scanty rainfall of on crop production
Scanty rainfall is also referred to as inadequate rainfall or drought.
1.
Plants show wilting symptoms. This is due to the fact that the plants lack water which is an
essential condition for photosynthesis.
2.
Falling off of leaves, fruits and seeds due to water deficit (Abscission).
3.
Respiration and photosynthesis are greatly reduced – plants die out as a result.
4.
Drought reduces the size of inflorescence, reducing the final crop yield as a result
Impact untimely rainfall on crop production
Rainfall received too early or too late in the crop season in accordance with the normal crop
production is referred to as untimely rainfall.
5.
Too early rains do not permit proper preparation of seedbeds. Most crops – mostly vegetables
are prepared in beds before some of them are transplanted. This bed preparation normally
takes place just before the beginning of the crop season so its germination would be
enhanced by the rain. Too early rains, therefore, interrupts the bed preparation.
6.
Too late rains delay sowings and germination. As stated above, most farmers grow their
seeds to meet the rainfall so it will germinate and flourish. Too late rains, however, leads to
delay in sowing of seeds thereby exposing seeds to pests attack. Germination is also greatly
reduced by late rains.
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The abnormal pattern of rainfall over the past years has caused great fluctuations in crop production.
The performance of crops is directly related to rainfall received during the crop season. The effects
of rainfall are obvious. Water plays a vital role in the growth of plants and production of crops
(Ayoade, 2004). It provides the medium by which food and nutrients are absorbed by roots of plants.
“Ezedimma, (1986) reported that water is the main constituent of the physiological plant tissue and
a reagent in photosynthesis.” A report study by Cudjoe et al. (2011) brings out some of the major
climatic variation experienced in Ghana and their corresponding periods:
1. January – July,1976; very hot weather conditions making farming very difficult
2. 1983 – 1984; Drought – A year of prolong bush fires putting the nation into starvation
3. October – December 1989; very hot weather conditions
4. 1991; lots of rain throughout the year – uncommon weather condition
5. 1995; About 40 days of intensive rain
6. 2004; very cold winds experienced during March – April and November – January was very
cold
7. August 2006; One week of intensive rains
8. 2007; Lots of rain in August and September
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Also in 2012- 2013, there was several floods in some parts of Accra claiming lives and rendering
many homeless. There is a projected climate change and variations in different zones in Ghana.Also
a review report by Asante et al. (2015) shows there is a projected high temperatures and low rainfall
in the years 2020, 2050, and 2080 and an increased desertification at a rate of 20,000 hectares per
annum. This is a major threat to a country with an increasing population rate of almost 2.2% per
annum.
Effects of low crop production on the Achiase District
Among the continents which are responsible for climate change, Africa is the least contributor,
however, the continent is more vulnerable to the effects of climate change due to its overdependence on rain-fed agriculture (Asante et al, 2015). The main long-time impacts of climate
change – changing rainfall patterns causing reduction in agriculture production and reducing food
security, worsening water security, and decreasing fish resources. Listed below are but few impacts
of low crop production in Akim Achiase.
Rural urban drift
Migration of the youth to find greener pastures elsewhere (mostly urban areas) has become the norm.
The youth are desperate to make fortune for themselves hence, take advantage of the slightest
opportunity available; however, the youth in Akim Achiase find no opportunity in farming. It is
either they are getting blue-collar job or they are migrating elsewhere. They don’t find farming as an
avenue for fortune creation because of its peasant and rain-fed nature in the district. Our annual crop
production hardly provides food security to talk of creating wealth. Most farmers and the youth do
not invest into agriculture due to climate variability.
Poverty and Hunger
Though agriculture is the major occupation in the district, food security is really at stake especially
during periods of drought and scanty rainfall. There are smaller and fewer yields of crops. Hot and
26
dry weather becomes obstacles to the harvesting of some crops – especially the root tubers. With an
increasing population in the district, there is a threat to food security if this rain-fed crop production
continues.
Deforestation and or Lumbering
The coveted aim at increasing crop production with the same method and techniques by farmers puts
our forest resources into jeopardy. More lands are cleared and cultivated in order to have a general
increase in crop yields (which is not an effective increase in crop yield growth). Wild life and
vegetation cover suffer this mess.
Low level of development
A major natural occurrence which is also indispensable in food production especially in the
developing world is rainfall (Adu-Acheampong et al.2019). More than 60% of stable crops are
produced from rain-fed agriculture which is practiced by all farmers in the district. Cocoa production
which is the main cash crop grown in the district contributes a sterling amount to the country’s Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) is also rain-fed. Agriculture is undoubtedly the most contributor to the
district revenue. This revenue is the basis of development in the district. Decrease in cocoa
production, therefore, slows down development, reducing the GDP per capita – major threat to
development of every nation.
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING AS A FIELD OF STUDY
History of mechanical engineering
Mechanical engineering is one of the broadest engineering disciplines. Mechanical engineers design,
develop, build and test products. They deal with anything that moves; from components to machines
to human body. Mechanical engineering has been in existence almost the primitive man was born on
earth; tools in very crude form must have been used by the primitive man. The application of
mechanical engineering can be seen in the archives of various ancient and medieval societies. The
27
six classic simple machines were known in the ancient near East. The wedge and the inclined
plane were known since prehistoric times. The wheel, along with the wheel and axle mechanism,
was invented in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) during 5th millennium BC, 5000 years ago. The
distinction between science and engineering was blurred. Different disciplines of engineering did not
separate identity. However, in the 19th century developments in physics led to the development of
mechanical engineering. Mechanical engineering emerged as separate strong discipline of
engineering. The Institution of Engineers was formed in 1847 in UK. The field has continually
evolved to incorporate advancement.
Mechanical engineering explained
Mechanical engineering is an engineering branch that combines engineering physics and
mathematical principles with materials science to design, analyze, manufacture and maintain
mechanical systems. Mechanical engineering is undoubtedly one of the oldest and broadest branches
of engineering. It also concerned with reducing or eliminating physical effort of humans or domestic
animals with the help of tools and or machines. Mechanical engineering deals with everything that
moves. The field touches virtually every aspect of modern life, including the human body, a highly
complex machine.
Roles of mechanical engineers
The ultimate role of a mechanical engineer is to take a product from an idea to the marketplace. To
accomplish this, the engineer must be able to determine the forces and thermal environment that a
product, its parts, or its subsystems will encounter: design them for functionality, aesthetics, and
durability; and determine the best manufacturing approach that ensures operation without failure.
Mechanical engineers play a wide range of work in the development of every nation under industries
such as automotive, aerospace, biotechnology, computers, electronics, micro electrochemical system,
28
energy conversion, robotics and automation, and manufacturing. Listed below are but few key tasks
mechanical engineers performed
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Conceptual designing and evaluation
Analysis
Report writing and presentation
Project management
Prototyping and testing
Measurement, data collection and their interpretations
Sales
Consultation
Customer service
Skills required of mechanical engineers
The essence of engineering is problem solving, with this at its core, mechanical engineering also
require special skills like;
1. Creativity – hands on understanding of the work involved
2. Interpersonal skills – teamwork
3. Design skills
4. Commercial skills effective technical skills
5. Verbal and written communication skills
Fields of mechanical engineering
STATICS
Statics focuses on how forces are transmitted to and throughout a structure. Analyses loads (force,
torque and or moments) acting on physical systems that do not experience an acceleration.
DYNAMICS
Dynamics involve system in motion; their velocities, accelerations and resulting forces that come to
play with such systems.
29
KINEMATICS
Kinematics examines how a mechanism behaves and changes as it moves through its range of
motion. A subfield that describes the motion of points, bodies (objects) and systems of bodies
without making consideration to the forces that cause them to move.
MATERIALS SCIENCE
Materials science determines the best material for different applications. A part of it that is material
strength - testing support loads, stiffness, brittleness and other properties – which is essential for
many construction, automobile, and medical materials.
THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics deals with how energy gets converted into useful power as well determining what
energy is lost in the process. It deals with heat, work, and temperature, and their relation to energy,
radiation and physical properties of matter.
FLUID MECHANICS
Fluid mechanics has a variety of applications, looks at many properties including pressure drops
from fluid flow and aerodynamic drag forces.
MANUFACTURING
Manufacturing is an important field in mechanical engineering. Researchers investigate the best
processes to make manufacturing more efficient. It requires the ability to plan, research and develop
tools, processes, machines, and equipment; and to integrate the facilities and systems for producing
quality products with the optimum expenditure of capital.
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Electrical engineering is concerned with the study, design and application of equipment, devices and
systems which use electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism.
30
ROBOTICS
Robots can range from simple machinery to complex creations that perform repetitive tasks in
manufacturing, setting, hazardous tasks too dangerous for human or more nuanced motions. Deals
with designing and fabricating design machines and devices that interact with their environment can
be operated remotely.
ENGINEERING ECONOMICS
Engineering economics makes mechanical engineers design relevant products and usable in the real
world by making manufacturing estimations and deductions. It deals with life cycle costs of
materials, designs, and engineered products.
Future of mechanical engineering
Mechanical engineering has been the backbone of several developmental projects and seeks to do
better. With the rapid population growth and faster pace of development, mechanical engineering
needs more enhancements to meet the present needs. Breakthrough in materials and analytical tools
has operated new frontiers for mechanical engineers. Nanotechnology, Biotechnology, Composites,
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), and Acoustical engineering have all expanded the
toolbox of mechanical engineering.
Nanotechnology allows for the engineering materials on the smallest of scales. With the ability to
design and manufacture down to the elemental level, the possibilities for objects grow immensely.
Composites are another area where the manipulation of materials allows for new manufacturing
opportunities. By combining materials with different characteristics is innovative ways, the best of
each material can be employed and new solutions found.
CFD gives mechanical engineers the opportunity to study complex fluid flows analyzed with
algorithms. This allows for the modeling of situations that would previously have been impossible.
31
Acoustical engineering examines vibrations and sound, providing the opportunity to reduce noise in
devices and increase efficiency in everything from biotechnology to architecture. Mechanical
engineering has indeed been greatly advanced. With more relevant and simple ways of building
products, the world would be a better place.
The next chapter brings out how this branch of engineering could be used to enhance crop
production in the Achiase District.
Conceptual designs
This section brings about how mechanical engineering was used to find innovation ideas to battle the
problem of low crop production due to rainfall variability. Three conceptual designs are discussed in
this section: the solar powered irrigation system, drip irrigation system and the man-power irrigation
system. Product Design Specifications were initially made and analyzed using the Basic Decision
Matrix after which the Man-power irrigation system was chosen.
Product Design Specifications
Aesthetics
The product should be dynamic and reassuring. Safety handles and soft but tough PVC cables are
required
Cost
The product should not be much expensive for most of the targeted customers. The cost of the
product should not exceed the manufacturing and material cost by 20%.
Customer
The main customers for the product are crop farmers. They depend on rainfall for their farming
activities which does not help them enough due to the rainfall variability and scarcity. A product like
a dependable irrigation system would help them.
32
Ergonomics
The user group for the product is farmers who are above eighteen years of age. The product should
not produce much noise.
Materials
The materials for the product should be water friendly. The materials should not contain any toxic
substances as it can damage crops. Tough and soft PVC cables are needed for the water transmission.
Installation
The product is to be installed by the manufacturer or any mechanical engineer or any technician.
Farmers who have undergone training on the product usage and specifications can also install.
Legal/statutory
The product needs to be approved the Ministry of Food and Agriculture and the Food and Drugs
Board Authority after its successful testing.
Maintenance
The product will need maintenance. The metallic parts should be cleaned and greased regularly.
Cables should also be checked regularly for leakages. The maintenance can be done by any
technician or the farmer.
Safety
Keep all moving parts of the product out of reach when in operation. Care should be taken when
handling components to avoid cuts in the cables
Environment
The product will be working mostly in crop farms and gardens in an optimum temperature, humidity
and pressure. Avoid into contact with dirt as it can block the holes of the PVC cable. The product
should not be hazardous to the environment by emitting radiations and making excessive noise.
33
Performance
The specific function of the product is to transmit water from a reliable source to the farms. It should
spread the water across the land in question to reach all crops.
Conceptual designs
CONCEPT ONE
Solar irrigation system
This is an irrigation system which utilizes the sunlight from the sun to power water pumping
machine.
Figure 6. Solar irrigation system
The system has been divided into three mechanisms:
1. The power production
2. The water pumping
3. The water distribution
Power production mechanism
34
This mechanism comprises the solar panel, inverter, battery and switch.
Solar panel
The panel is used colloquially for a photo-voltaic (PV) module. A PV module is an assembly of PV
cells mounted in a framework for installation. The PV cells use sunlight as a source of energy and
generate direct current (DC) electricity. The solar cells convert sunlight into electricity by means of
the photovoltaic effect. This occurs when photons are absorbed by a solar cell which generates a
voltage across its terminal. A collection of PV module is called PV panel.
Inverter
The inverter is power electronic device that converts direct current to alternating current (AC). It
converts the DC produced by the solar panel to AC to be used by the Pumping machine.
Battery
Stores the power produced by the solar system for use at a later time.
Switch
It is the device used for opening and closing the circuit system under normal conditions
Pumping mechanism
The pumping mechanism is made up of the water pump.
Water pump
The water pump moves water from the source (traditional well, river or lake) to the fields and crops.
Distribution mechanism
The distribution mechanism is made up of the PVC water hose, storage tank and sprinkler.
PVC water hose
The water hose serves as the distribution lines for the water from its source through the pumping
machine, to the storage tank, to the fields and crops.
35
Storage tank
The storage tank stores the pumped water for future use. The tank is placed on a height above
ground level such that water can flow to the water hose when there is not enough power to operate
the system.
Sprinkler
The sprinkler is connected along vantage points of the water hose on the field where it distributes the
water onto the crops.
Advantages of the solar irrigation system
1.
2.
3.
Saves costs of fuel
Saves manual resources (doesn’t require much physical energy )
Less labor and maintenance
Disadvantages of solar irrigation system
7.
8.
9.
The system is costly
Dependent on sunlight hence cannot operate when there is no sunshine (humid conditions)
Requires expertise in its operation.
CONCEPT TWO
Drip irrigation system
This system makes use of fuel (diesel or petrol) powered water pumping machine to distribute water
across the entire field or crops. The system makes it possible to fertilize the crops through the
irrigation water.
36
Figure 7. Drip irrigation system
Suction filter
Water is drawn into the PVC pipe by the pumping machine through the suction filter. It also prevents
any filth from entering the pipe.
PVC pipe
Transport water to the pumping machine, filter tank, fertilization tank and the control box.
Pumping machine
Draws water from its source – the source of water can be lake, river, or pond. The water is
transported into the pipe to be distributed to the field. The machine works due to the pressure
difference built up between its inlet and outlet tanks.
Filter tank
Filters the water received from the pumping machine.
37
Fertilization tank
The amount of fertilizers and nutrients needed by the crops may be mixed with the irrigation water
in the fertilization tank.
Pressure regulator
Controls the pressure of the water so as the right volume reaches the control box.
Control box
Water is distributed into sections from the control box. Each is made of related water hose with a
valve to manipulate their flow.
PVC hose
The hose transports the water to its destinations. Holes are made along vantage points of the Hose
where water leaks out into the field. The Hose is held firmly in position to the ground using wire
stables.
Advantages of the drip irrigation system
1.
The system is not labor intensive
2.
Ensures efficient supply of water throughout the field
3.
Fertilization and pests control are enhanced
4.
Suitable for vegetables and parks and gardens
Disadvantages of the drip irrigation system
1.
Hazardous to the environment due to burning of fossil fuel
2.
Unreliable water source
3.
The system is costly (the pumping machine and fuel costs)
4.
Requires expertise in its operation.
CONCEPT THREE
Man-power irrigation system
38
This system uses shear physical strength to drive gears connected with pumping rods and valves to
move underground water to the fields and crops.
Figure 8. Man-power irrigation system
Handle
The handle rotates to drive the shaft thereby providing rotary motion to the shaft.
Shaft
Transmit the rotary motion of the handle to the gearbox
Gearbox
The gearbox contains the mechanical parts of the system. Transmit rotary motion of the shaft to
pump rod inside the metallic cylindrical pipe.
39
Cylindrical pipe
The cylindrical pipe contains the pipe rod which serves as the distribution line for water from the
ground. The pipe extends deep into the ground where it absorbs and pulls water with the aid of
plunger and check valve.
PVC water hose
Transport water to the sprinklers
Sprinkler
Have outlets that water passes through to the field and crops.
Advantages of the man-power irrigation system
1. Reliable source of water
2. No special expertise is required in its operation
3. System is available and ever ready to operate.
4. Environmental friendly
Disadvantages of man-power irrigation system
1. It is costly – the manufacturing, installation and maintenance
2. System is not movable
3. Labor intensive
Basic Decision Matrix
The Basic decision matrix also known as the DATUM was used to analyze the concepts before the
final concept was selected. Below is a table showing the DATUM of the three conceptual designs
40
Table 9. Basic Decision Matrix
Criterion
Importance Concept
one Concept two Concept
three
(solar powered (drip
(man-power
irrigation
irrigation
irrigation
system)
system)
system)
13
s
s
+
water 25
s
+
s
17
s
s
+
the 15
+
-
s
Safety of use
10
+
+
+
Cost of materials
20
s
+
s
Total number of s
3
2
2
Total number of -
1
2
1
Total number of +
2
2
3
Overall total
1
0
2
Frequency of use
Reliability
of
source
Product life span
Effect
on
environment
CHOSEN CONCEPT
Man-power irrigation system
Due to the complex nature of the system, it has been sub divided into four mechanisms.
1. The manual transmission mechanism
2. The mechanical transmission mechanism
3. Water absorption mechanism
4. Water distribution mechanism
41
The manual transmission system
The manual transmission is made of the handle and the shaft
Handle
The handle is for providing rotary motion of the shaft by turning the handle.
Shaft
Transmit the rotary motion of the handle to the gears.
Mechanical transmission mechanism
The mechanical transmission system is made of connected gears, pitman arm, pitman guide and
guide wheel.
Figure 9. Mechanical transmission mechanism
Gears
The gears represent number 2 and 3 on figure 9. The two smaller gears on the shaft rotate due to the
rotation of the shaft. This motion is transmitted to the bigger gears making them turn in the reverse
direction of the smaller gears.
42
Pitman arms
Pitman arms represent number 4 on figure 9. They connect the bigger gears to the guide wheel.
Guide wheel
Guide wheel is number 6 on figure 9. The guide wheel provides support to the pump rod and the
pitman arm.
Pitman guide
Pitman guide is number 5 on figure 9. It allows the upward and downward movement of the guide
wheel when the connected bigger gears are in motion.
Water absorption mechanism
The water absorption mechanism includes the pump rod, plunger, check valve and cylindrical pipe.
Figure 10. Water absorption mechanism
Pump rod
The pump rod is extended into the ground where it connects with the plunger. Water is absorbed into
the pump rod to the external environment.
43
Check valve
A check valve has two openings, an inlet and outlet that allows water to flow through it only in one
direction. The check valve has strainer beneath it that absorbs and filters the water. The strainer also
pumps water few centimeters into the check valve. Water passes through the check valve during
upstroke when the plunger moves up to open it.
Plunger
The plunger acts as piston with valves. Water passes through it only during down stroke when the
check valve closes.
Cylindrical pipe
The cylindrical pipe contains and offers protection to the pump rod, plunger and check valve.
Water distribution mechanism
The water distribution mechanism is comprises the PVC water hose and sprinkler.
PVC water hose
The water hose distributes water from the pump rod to the sprinkler.
Sprinkler
The sprinkler has outlets that water passes through to the field and crops in a splash form.
Mechanism involve in the system.
During a down stroke, the plunger descends to the bottom and held into contact with the check valve
thereby closing the check valve. Water then passes through the plunger into the pump rod through
the open valve. During upstroke of the pump, the plunger moves up, the plunger forces the plunger
full of water up the cylindrical pump into the connected water hose.
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CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Chapter content
This chapter summarizes the findings and the conceptual design and makes remarks concerning the
report and recommendations for future studies. References and prefixes are outlined in the sections
of the chapter.
Conclusions
Through the compilation of this report work and further research, I can conclude that climate is one
of the major factors pulling global concerns today. Rainfall is the major climatic factor which affects
every pace of life. Crop farming in Achiase District and the country at large is entirely rain
dependent. With the changing nature of our climate, the agricultural industry suffers great reductions
every year. With the introduction of the man-power irrigation system, the rain-fed nature of crop
farming could be greatly reduced. Average crop yield would be increased without purposefully
increasing land size.
Recommendations
I recommend strongly that a body should be established to share intermediate climatic and other
relevant information to farmers. Also technology and mechanized methods need to be employed to
reduce the negative impact of rainfall variability on crop farming. Farmers should also adopt tillage
practices especially in lowlands.
45
References
1. Felix A. Asante and Franklin Amuakwa-Mensah (2015). Climate change an variability in
Ghana: stocktaking
2. World Bank Economics of Adaptation to climate change. Ghana country study, World Bank:
Washington DC, USA, 2010
3. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), climate change implications for food and natural
resources management in Africa. In proceedings of the twenty-sixth Regional Conference to
Africa, FAO, Rome, Italy 3-7 May 2010
4. Samuel Adu-Acheampong and Rosina Kyeremanteng (2019). Impact of rainfall variability
on crop production within Worobong Ecological Area of Fanteakwa District, Ghana,
Research Article
5. Cudjoe S.N.A and Owusu G. (2011). Climate change or variability and food systems.
Evidence from Afram Plains, Ghana. Regional Environment Change
6. Carol Mcsweeny, Mark George New, G. Lizcanoand X Lu (2010) The UNDP climate
change country profiles. American Meteorological Society, 91, 157-1662020
https://www.geog.ox.ac.uk/research/climate/project/undp-cp/UNDP-
(Retrieved
from
reports/Ghana/Ghana.lores-report.pdf; Accessed on September 2)
7. Pulginiti L.E and Perrin, R.K (1998) Agricultural productivity in depriving countries,
Agricultural Economics
8. https://www.me.colombia.edu/what-mechanical-engineering ( Accessed on 6th October,
2020)
9. https://www.mtu.edu/mechanical/engineering/ (Assessed on 13th October, 2020)
10. Birim South District analytical report (2014) 2010 Population and Housing Census
11. Ministry of Food and Agriculture (2010) .Agriculture In Ghana, Facts and Figures
12. Composite budget for 2020-2023 (2020). Akim Achiase District Assembly.
13. Ezedimma F. O. C., Youndeowei A. and Onazi O. C (1986). Introduction to Tropical
Agriculture.
14. Ayoade J. O (2004). Climate Change: Synopsis, Impacts and Adaptation.
15. Sonja J. Vermeulen, Bruce M. Campbell and John S. I. Ingram (2017). Climate Change and
Food System.
46
Appendix A
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ENGINEERING IN SOCIETY: CENG 291
MAN-POWER IRRIGATION SYSTEM: ENHANCING CROP PRODUCTION IN AKIM
ACHIASE.
Questionnaire schedule for The Department of Agriculture.
You are kindly requested to provide answers to the following questions. Please tick in appropriate
box. Your responses remain confidential and in no case will it be used against you.
Position of Respondent: .............................................................................
Date of Response: .......................................................................................
SECTION A
Crop Production
Please record answers in the spaces provided
Q1.What are the major crop produced in the district? (List them)
...............................................
…………………..
..............................
...............................................
.. ………………….
.............................
Q2. What are the average farm sizes for the crops listed in Q1 above?
.................................................................
...................................
...........................
..................................
…………………..
Q3. i. How would you explain effective crop production increment?
……………………………………………………………………………………..……………
……………………………………………………………………………………..….…………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
47
Q4. How do you see crop production in the district? (Support your response with data)
Increasing
Varies
Decreasing
None
Q5.What are the factors accounting for your answer in Q4 above?
List them
1..........................................................................................................................................
2.........................................................................................................................................
3.........................................................................................................................................
4.........................................................................................................................................
SECTION B
Correlation between rainfall variability and crop production
Q6. What is the major climatic factor that influences crop production in the district?
Rainfall
Temperature
Humidity
Wind
Q7. If rainfall, what is the average rainfall distribution in the district? (Support with data for at least
three consecutive years)
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
Q8. Is there any correlation between rainfall and crop production? Yes
No
Q9. Give your reason:
…………………………………………………….................……………………………………..
………………………………………………….…………………………………………………..
48
………………………………………………..……………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Q 10. What is the effect of rain-fed system with respect to crop production?
……………………………………………………....................…………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
SECTION C
Enhancing Crop Production Using Irrigation System
Q 11. What are the measures put in place to address the inconsistent rain-fed nature of our crop
production?
……………………………………………………....................…………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Q 12. Do you think irrigation system could be of help?
Yes
No
Q13. Is there any record on irrigation farming within the district?
Yes
No
Q14. If no, what is the reason?
……………………………………………………....................………………….………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Q15. How is the crop farmers supported in their farming activities? ............................................
……………………………………………………....................…………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
THANK YOU
49
APPENDIX B
50
51