CHAPTER-1: INTRODUCTION
Introduction:
By the age of thirty, Alexander the Great had carved out one of the largest empires in
history, extending from Greece to India. In 336 BC, he succeeded his father as ruler of the
kingdom of Macedon, the dominant power in Greece. His ambitions did not end there.
Alexander aimed to conquer the great Persian Empire, which stretched from North Africa
to Central Asia. His thirst for conquest unsated, Alexander invaded the Indian subcontinent
in 326 BC. After a series of difficult battles, he faced a local king, Porus, on the banks of
the Hydaspes River in modern-day Punjab. The ensuing battle was hard-fought, but the
Greeks won through. Alexander wanted to press on east, cross the River Ganges, and
conquer more lands, but his men refused to go any further. Stung, Alexander delivered His
speech.
Speech in 326 BC Address at Hydaspes River:
–––– THE GREATEST SPEECH in HISTORY ––––
I observe, gentlemen, that when I would lead you on a new venture you no longer follow
me with your old spirit. I have asked you to meet me that we may come to a decision
together: are we, upon my advice, to go forward, or, upon yours, to turn back? [. . .] Come,
then; add the rest of Asia to what you already possess – a small addition to the great sum
of your conquests. What great……. will be allowed to go, either with me or without me. I
will make those who stay the envy of those who return.””
CHAPTER 2: MAIN BODY
Introduction/Early life:
Alexander the Great, the most celebrated conqueror of the ancient world, was born in 356
b.c, in Pella, the capital city of Macedonia. His father, King Philip II of Macedon, was a
man of truly outstanding ability and foresight. Philip enlarged and reorganized the
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Macedonian army, and converted it into a fighting force of the highest caliber. He first used
this army to conquer surrounding regions to the north of Greece, and then turned south and
conquered most of Greece itself. Next, Philip created a federation of the Greek city-states,
with himself as leader. He was planning to make war on the vast Persian Empire to the east
of Greece; indeed, the invasion had already commenced, in 336 b.c, when Philip, still only
forty-six years old, was assassinated. Alexander's tutor had been the brilliant philosopher
Aristotle, perhaps the greatest scientist and philosopher of the ancient world.
Description:
The rise of an empire:
After the Peloponnesian war, the Greek poleis, or city-states, were divided and had
exhausted many of their resources. This set the stage for a takeover by their northern
neighbors, the Macedonians, whose leaders were gaining strength and consolidating their
power. Macedonia was generally regarded by the Greeks as a backwards land, good for
little more than timber and pasture for sheep. The Macedonians spoke a Greek dialect and,
unlike the separate Greek city-states, were ruled by a monarchy and many semiP a g e 2 | 17
autonomous clans. One of the most powerful monarchs was Phillip II of Macedon.
Although he is often only remembered for being the father of Alexander the Great, Philip
II of Macedon—who reigned from 359 to 336 BCE—was an accomplished king and
military commander in his own right. His accomplishments set the stage for his son’s
victory over Darius III and the conquest of Persia. Philip inherited a weak, underdeveloped
society with an ineffective, undisciplined army and molded them into an efficient military
force that eventually subdued the territories around Macedonia and subjugated most of
Greece. He used bribery, warfare, and threats to secure his kingdom. Without his insight
and determination, history would never have heard of Alexander.
In both Greece and the northern territories, the peoples conquered by Philip saw the
occasion of his death as a good opportunity to throw off the Macedonian yoke. However,
Alexander, in the two years following his accession to the throne, was able to subdue both
regions. He then turned his attention to Persia. For two hundred years, the Persians had
governed a vast territory that stretched all the way from the Mediterranean to India.
Although Persia was no longer at the height of its powers, it was still a formidable
adversary the largest, mightiest, and wealthiest empire on Earth.
Alexander launched his invasion of the Persian Empire in 334 B.C. Since he had to leave
part of his army at home to maintain control of his European possessions, Alexander had
only 35,000 troops with him when he set out on his audacious quest a very small force
compared with the Persian armies. In spite of the numerical disadvantage, Alexander won
a series of crushing victories over the Persian forces. There were three main reasons for his
P a g e 3 | 17
success. In the first place, the army which Philip had left him was better trained and
organized than the Persian forces. In the second place, Alexander was a general of
outstanding genius, perhaps the greatest of all time. The third factor was Alexander's own
personal courage. Although he would direct the early stages of each battle from behind the
lines, Alexander's policy was to lead the decisive cavalry charge himself. This was a risky
procedure, and he was frequently wounded. But his troops saw that Alexander was sharing
their danger, and was not asking them to take any risks that he himself would not take. The
effect on their morale was enormous.
Conquest of the Persian Empire:
For two hundred years, the Persians had governed a vast territory that stretched all the way
from the Mediterranean to India. Although Persia was no longer at the height of its powers,
it was still a formidable adversary—the largest, mightiest, and wealthiest empire on Earth.
Alexander launched his invasion of the Persian Empire in 334 B.C. Since he had to leave
part of his army at home to maintain control of his European possessions, Alexander had
only 35,000 troops with him when he set out on his audacious quest —a very small force
compared with the Persian armies. In spite of the numerical disadvantage, Alexander won
a series of crushing victories over the Persian forces. There were three main reasons for his
success. In the first place, the army which Philip had left him was better trained and
organized than the Persian forces.
P a g e 4 | 17
In both Greece and the northern territories, the peoples conquered by Philip saw the
occasion of his death as a good opportunity to throw off the Macedonian yoke. However,
Alexander, in the two years following his accession to the throne, was able to subdue both
regions. He then turned his attention to Persia. For two hundred years, the Persians had
governed a vast territory that stretched all the way from the Mediterranean to India.
Although Persia was no longer at the height of its powers, it was still a formidable
adversary—the largest, mightiest, and wealthiest empire on Earth.
Alexander launched his invasion of the Persian Empire in 334 B.C. Since he had to leave
part of his army at home to maintain control of his European possessions, Alexander had
only 35,000 troops with him when he set out on his audacious quest —a very small force
compared with the Persian armies. In spite of the numerical disadvantage, Alexander won
a series of crushing victories over the Persian forces. There were three main reasons for his
success. In the first place, the army which Philip had left him was better trained and
organized than the Persian forces. In the second place, Alexander was a general of
outstanding genius, perhaps the greatest of all time. The third factor was Alexander's own
personal courage. Although he would direct the early stages of each battle from behind the
lines, Alexander's policy was to lead the decisive cavalry charge himself. This was a risky
procedure, and he was frequently wounded. But his troops saw that Alexander was sharing
their danger, and was not asking them to take any risks that he himself would not take. The
effect on their morale was enormous.
P a g e 5 | 17
In the long run, the most important effect of Alexander's conquests was to bring the Greek
and Middle Eastern civilizations into close contact with each other, and thereby to greatly
enrich both cultures. During and immediately after Alexander's career, Greek culture
spread rapidly into Iran, Mesopotamia, Syria, Judea, and Egypt; before Alexander, Greek
culture had been entering these regions only slowly. Also, Alexander spread Greek
influence into India and Central Asia, areas which it had never reached before. But the
cultural influence was by no means a one-way affair. During the Hellenistic Age (the
centuries immediately following Alexander's career), eastern ideas— particularly religious
ideas—spread into the Greek world. It was this Hellenistic culture— predominantly Greek
but with strong oriental influences—that eventually affected Rome.
Asia Minor and the Battle of Issus:
In winter 334–333 Alexander conquered western Asia Minor, subduing the hill tribes of
Lycia and Pisidia, and in spring 333 he advanced along the coastal road to Perga, passing
the cliffs of Mount Climax, thanks to a fortunate change of wind. The fall in the level of
the sea was interpreted as a mark of divine favour by Alexander’s flatterers, including the
historian Callisthenes. At Gordium in Phrygia, tradition records his cutting of the Gordian
knot, which could only be loosed by the man who was to rule Asia; but this story may be
apocryphal or at least distorted. At this point Alexander benefitted from the sudden death
of Memnon, the competent Greek commander of the Persian fleet. From Gordium he
pushed on to Ancyra (modern Ankara) and thence south through Cappadocia and the
Cilician Gates (modern Külek Boğazi); a fever held him up for a time in Cilicia.
Meanwhile, Darius with his Grand Army had advanced northward on the eastern side of
Mount Amanus. Intelligence on both sides was faulty, and Alexander was already
encamped by Myriandrus (near modern İskenderun, Turkey) when he learned that Darius
was astride his line of communications at Issus, north of Alexander’s position (autumn
333). Turning, Alexander found Darius drawn up along the Pinarus River. In the battle that
followed, Alexander won a decisive victory. The struggle turned into a Persian rout and
Darius fled, leaving his family in Alexander’s hands; the women were treated with
chivalrous care.
P a g e 6 | 17
Battle of Tyre:
Next, Alexander took over the Phoenician cities of Marathus and Aradus. He
rejected a plea from Darius for peace and took the towns of Byblos and Sidon.He
then laid siege to the heavily fortified island of Tyre in January 332 B.C., after
the Tyrians refused him entry. But Alexander had no navy to speak of and Tyre
was surrounded by water.
Alexander instructed his men to build a causeway to reach Tyre. All went well
until they came within striking distance of the Tyrians. Again and again, Tyrian
forces thwarted Alexander’s clever attempts to gain entry, and he realized he
needed a strong navy to penetrate their defenses.He amassed a large fleet, finally
breached the city’s walls in July 332 B.C. and executed thousands of Tyrians for
daring to defy him; many others were sold into slavery.
Alexander Enters Egypt:
After rejecting another peace offer from Darius, Alexander set out for Egypt. He
was sidelined at Gaza, however, and forced to endure another lengthy siege. After
P a g e 7 | 17
several weeks, he took the town and entered Egypt where he established the city
that still bears his name: Alexandria.
Alexander traveled to the desert to consult the oracle of Ammon, a god of
supposed good counsel. Legends abound about what transpired at the oracle, but
Alexander kept mum about the experience. Still, the visit furthered speculation
Alexander was a deity.
Conquest of the Mediterranean coast and Egypt:
From Issus Alexander marched south into Syria and Phoenicia, his object being to isolate
the Persian fleet from its bases and so to destroy it as an effective fighting force. The
Phoenician cities Marathus and Aradus came over quietly, and Parmenio was sent ahead
to secure Damascus and its rich booty, including Darius’s war chest. In reply to a letter
from Darius offering peace, Alexander replied arrogantly, recapitulating the historic
wrongs of Greece and demanding unconditional surrender to himself as lord of Asia. After
P a g e 8 | 17
taking Byblos (modern Jubayl) and Sidon (Arabic Ṣaydā), he met with a check at Tyre,
where he was refused entry into the island city. He thereupon prepared to use all methods
of siegecraft to take it, but the Tyrians resisted, holding out for seven months. In the
meantime, (winter 333–332) the Persians had counterattacked by land in Asia Minor—
where they were defeated by Antigonus, the satrap of Greater Phrygia—and by sea,
recapturing a number of cities and islands.
While the siege of Tyre was in progress, Darius sent a new offer: he would pay a huge
ransom of 10,000 talents for his family and cede all his lands west of the Euphrates. “I
would accept,” Parmenio is reported to have said, “were I Alexander”; “I too,” was the
famous retort, “were I Parmenio.” The storming of Tyre in July 332 was Alexander’s
greatest military achievement; it was attended with great carnage and the sale of the women
and children into slavery. Leaving Parmenio in Syria, Alexander advanced south without
opposition until he reached Gaza on its high mound; there bitter resistance halted him for
two months, and he sustained a serious shoulder wound during a sortie. There is no basis
for the tradition that he turned aside to visit Jerusalem.
In midsummer 330 Alexander set out for the eastern provinces at a high speed via Rhagae
(modern Rayy, near Tehrān) and the Caspian Gates, where he learned that Bessus, the
satrap of Bactria, had deposed Darius. After a skirmish near modern Shāhrūd, the usurper
had Darius stabbed and left him to die. Alexander sent his body for burial with due honours
in the royal tombs at Persepolis.
Alexander’s reign:
In 336 BCE, after Philip was killed, Alexander was quickly crowned as the king. After
subduing any serious threats to his rule, and with the Greek city-states now firmly under
Macedonian rule following Charonea, Alexander embarked on the great campaign his
father had been planning: the conquest of the mighty Persian Empire.
P a g e 9 | 17
Alexander was able to take advantage of political instability in Persia, and he expanded
beyond Persia into Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Bactria. Alexander did
not, however, drastically challenge existing administrative systems. Rather, he adapted
them for his purposes. Alexander was not interested in imposing his own ideas of truth,
religion, or behavior upon conquered populations as long as they willingly kept the supply
lines open to feed and equip his troops, which was an important aspect of his ability to rule
vast areas. This does not mean, however, that he did not ruthlessly suppress uprisings or
hesitate to viciously annihilate those who opposed him.
Over the course of his conquests, Alexander founded some 20 cities that bore his name,
most of them east of the Tigris River. The first, and greatest, was Alexandria in Egypt,
which would become an important Mediterranean urban center. The cities' locations
reflected trade routes as well as defensive positions. At first, the cities must have been
inhospitable and little more than defensive garrisons. Following Alexander's death, many
Greeks who had settled in these cities tried to return to Greece. However, a century or so
P a g e 10 | 17
after Alexander's death, many of these communities were still thriving and featured
elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that included both Greek and local
peoples.
Campaign eastward to Central Asia:
Darius’s death left no obstacle to Alexander’s claim to be Great King, and a Rhodian
inscription of this year (330) calls him “lord of Asia”—i.e., of the Persian empire; soon
afterward his Asian coins carry the title of king. Crossing the Elburz Mountains to the
Caspian, he seized Zadracarta in Hyrcania and received the submission of a group of
satraps and Persian notables, some of whom he confirmed in their offices; in a diversion
westward, perhaps to modern Āmol, he reduced the Mardi, a mountain people who
inhabited the Elburz Mountains. He also accepted the surrender of Darius’s Greek
mercenaries. His advance eastward was now rapid. In Aria he reduced Satibarzanes, who
had offered submission only to revolt, and he founded Alexandria of the Arians (modern
Herāt). At Phrada in Drangiana (either near modern Nad-e ʿAli in Seistan or farther north
at Farah), he at last took steps to destroy Parmenio and his family. Philotas, Parmenio’s
son, commander of the elite Companion cavalry, was implicated in an alleged plot against
Alexander’s life, condemned by the army, and executed; and a secret message was sent to
Cleander, Parmenio’s second in command, who obediently assassinated him. This ruthless
action excited widespread horror but strengthened Alexander’s position relative to his
critics and those whom he regarded as his father’s men. All Parmenio’s adherents were
now eliminated and men close to Alexander promoted. The Companion cavalry was
reorganized in two sections, each containing four squadrons (now known as hipparchies);
one group was commanded by Alexander’s oldest friend, Hephaestion, the other by Cleitus,
an older man. From Phrada, Alexander pressed on during the winter of 330–329 up the
valley of the Helmand River, through Arachosia, and over the mountains past the site of
modern Kābul into the country of the Paropamisadae, where he founded Alexandria by the
Caucasus.
An incident that occurred at Maracanda widened the breach between Alexander and many
of his Macedonians. He murdered Cleitus, one of his most-trusted commanders, in a
P a g e 11 | 17
drunken quarrel, but his excessive display of remorse led the army to pass a decree
convicting Cleitus posthumously of treason. The event marked a step in Alexander’s
progress toward Eastern absolutism, and this growing attitude found its outward expression
in his use of Persian royal dress. Shortly afterward, at Bactra, he attempted to impose the
Persian court ceremonial, involving prostration (proskynesis), on the Greeks and
Macedonians too, but to them this custom, habitual for Persians entering the king’s
presence, implied an act of worship and was intolerable before a human. Even Callisthenes,
historian and nephew of Aristotle, whose ostentatious flattery had perhaps encouraged
Alexander to see himself in the role of a god, refused to abase himself. Macedonian
laughter caused the experiment to founder, and Alexander abandoned it. Shortly afterward,
however, Callisthenes was held to be privy to a conspiracy among the royal pages and was
executed (or died in prison; accounts vary); resentment of this action alienated sympathy
from Alexander within the Peripatetic school of philosophers, with which Callisthenes had
close connections.
Invasion of India:
In early summer 327 Alexander left Bactria with a reinforced army under a reorganized
command. If Plutarch’s figure of 120,000 men has any reality, however, it must include all
kinds of auxiliary services, together with muleteers, camel drivers, medical corps, peddlers,
entertainers, women, and children; the fighting strength perhaps stood at about 35,000.
Recrossing the Hindu Kush, probably by Bamiyan and the Ghorband Valley, Alexander
divided his forces. Half the army with the baggage under Hephaestion and Perdiccas, both
cavalry commanders, was sent through the Khyber Pass, while he himself led the rest,
together with his siege train, through the hills to the north. His advance through Swāt and
Gandhāra was marked by the storming of the almost impregnable pinnacle of Aornos, the
modern Pir-Sar, a few miles west of the Indus and north of the Buner River, an impressive
feat of siegecraft. In spring 326, crossing the Indus near Attock, Alexander entered Taxila,
whose ruler, Taxiles, furnished elephants and troops in return for aid against his rival Porus,
who ruled the lands between the Hydaspes (modern Jhelum) and the Acesines (modern
Chenāb). In June Alexander fought his last great battle on the left bank of the Hydaspes.
P a g e 12 | 17
He founded two cities there, Alexandria Nicaea (to celebrate his victory) and Bucephala
(named after his horse Bucephalus, which died there); and Porus became his ally.
On reaching Patala, located at the head of the Indus delta, he built a harbour and docks and
explored both arms of the Indus, which probably then ran into the Rann of Kachchh. He
planned to lead part of his forces back by land, while the rest in perhaps 100 to 150 ships
under the command of Nearchus, a Cretan with naval experience, made a voyage of
exploration along the Persian Gulf. Local opposition led Nearchus to set sail in September
(325), and he was held up for three weeks until he could pick up the northeast monsoon in
late October. In September Alexander too set out along the coast through Gedrosia (modern
Baluchistan), but he was soon compelled by mountainous country to turn inland, thus
failing in his project to establish food depots for the fleet. Craterus, a high-ranking officer,
already had been sent off with the baggage and siege train, the elephants, and the sick and
wounded, together with three battalions of the phalanx, by way of the Mulla Pass, Quetta,
and Kandahar into the Helmand Valley; from there he was to march through Drangiana to
rejoin the main army on the Amanis (modern Minab) River in Carmania. Alexander’s
march through Gedrosia proved disastrous; waterless desert and shortage of food and fuel
caused great suffering, and many, especially women and children, perished in a sudden
monsoon flood while encamped in a wadi. At length, at the Amanis, he was rejoined by
Nearchus and the fleet, which also had suffered losses.
Consolidation of the empire:
Alexander now proceeded farther with the policy of replacing senior officials and
executing defaulting governors on which he had already embarked before leaving India.
Between 326 and 324 over a third of his satraps were superseded and six were put to death,
including the Persian satraps of Persis, Susiana, Carmania, and Paraetacene; three generals
in Media, including Cleander, the brother of Coenus (who had died a little earlier), were
accused of extortion and summoned to Carmania, where they were arrested, tried, and
executed. How far the rigour that from now onward Alexander displayed against his
governors represents exemplary punishment for gross maladministration during his
absence and how far the elimination of men he had come to distrust (as in the case of
P a g e 13 | 17
Philotas and Parmenio) is debatable; but the ancient sources generally favourable to him
comment adversely on his severity.
Consequences of his greatest speech in History:
Despite Alexander’s eloquence, honed during his studies under his childhood tutor
Aristotle, he was unable to persuade his armies to advance further east. Instead, they turned
south and marched homewards. The Hydaspes marked the eastern limit of Alexander’s
conquests.
Why was Alexander, an inspirational leader who fought side-by-side with his men, unable
to rouse his troops? First, they had been away from Greece for years and were desperate
to see their homeland and enjoy the plunder from their numerous victories. Second, they
were exhausted – in the battle against Porus they had faced war elephants and heavy rain.
Third, there was tension between Alexander and some of his officers due to his adoption
of Persian dress and customs, as well as his recruitment of Persians.
Alexander himself would never see his homeland again. He settled in the great city of
Babylon and died after a fever in June, 323 BC, amid rumours he was poisoned.
P a g e 14 | 17
Alexander’s empire ruptured into separate realms, as his senior officers battled for preeminence. Despite the break-up of his conquests, Alexander’s greatness is undoubted.
Undefeated in war, he had carved out an empire spanning three continents.
Why Was Alexander The Great ‘Great’?
Many conquered lands retained the Greek influence Alexander introduced, and several
cities he founded remain important cultural centers even today. The period of history from
his death to 31 B.C., when his empire folded, would come to be known as the Hellenistic
period, from “Hellazein,” which means, “to speak Greek or identify with the Greeks.”
Alexander the Great is revered as one of the most powerful and influential leaders the
ancient world ever produced.
Death of Alexander the Great:
By 323 B.C., Alexander was head of an enormous empire and had recovered from the
devastating loss of his friend Hephaestion—who was also reputed to be one of Alexander’s
male lovers. Thanks to his insatiable urge for world supremacy, he started plans to conquer
Arabia. But he’d never live to see it happen. After surviving battle after fierce battle,
Alexander the Great died in June 323 B.C. at age 32.
The generals who were around him advanced to his bed-side, and one after another kissed
his hand. Their old affection for him revived as they saw him about to take leave of them
forever. They asked him to whom he wished to leave his empire. "To the worthiest," said
he. He meant, doubtless, by this evasion, that he was too weak and exhausted to think of
such affairs. He knew, probably, that it was useless for him to attempt to control the
government of his empire after his death. He said, in fact, that he foresaw that the decision
of such questions would give rise to some strange funeral games after his decease. Soon
after this he died.
Some historians say Alexander died of malaria or other natural causes; others believe he
was poisoned. Either way, he never named a successor. His death—and the bloody in
P a g e 15 | 17
fighting for control that happened afterwards—unraveled the empire he’d fought so hard
to create.
CHAPTER 3: CONCLUSION
Conclusion:
Alexander was perhaps the most dramatic figure in history, and his career and personality
have remained a source of fascination. The true facts of his career are dramatic enough,
and dozens of legends have grown up around his name. It was plainly his ambition to be
the greatest warrior of all time, and he seems to deserve that title. As an individual fighter,
he combined ability and courage. As a general, he was supreme, and in eleven years of
fighting, he never lost a single battle. At the same time, however, he was an intellectual
who had studied under Aristotle and treasured the poetry of Homer. Indeed, in his
realization that non-Greeks were not necessarily barbarians, he showed far more vision
than most Greek thinkers of his day. In other ways, however, he was surprisingly
shortsighted. Although he repeatedly risked his life in battle, he made no provisions for a
successor, and his failure to do so was in large part responsible for the rapid breakup of his
empire after his death. Alexander reputedly could be very charming, and he was often
extremely conciliatory and charitable to defeated enemies.
REFERENCES
1.
Heckel, Waldemar; Tritle, Lawrence A., eds. (2009). "The Corinthian
League". Alexander the Great: A New History. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 99. ISBN 9781-4051-3082-0.
2.
Green, Peter (1970), Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.: a historical biography,
Hellenistic culture and society (illustrated, revised reprint ed.), University of
California Press, p. xxxiii, ISBN 978-0-520-07165-0, 356
3.
Briant, Pierre (2010) [1974]. Alexander the Great and His Empire: A Short
Introduction. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-69115445-9.
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4.
Kosmetatou, Elizabeth (1998). "The Aftermath: The Burial of Alexander the
Great". Greece.org. Archived from the original on 27 August 2004. Retrieved 16
December 2011.
5.
We Shall Fight on the Beaches: The Speeches That Inspired History; 326
BC Address at Hydaspes River – Alexander the Great. P 6-10
6.
Noll, Thomas (2016). "The Visual Image of Alexander the Great". In Stock, Markus
(ed.). Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives.
Translated by Boettcher, Susan. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press.
p. 258. ISBN 978-1-4426-4466-3.
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