Chalo Trust School Geography 10 and 11 Second Handout released on July 23, 2021 – Term 2 second half
GEOGRAPHY IGCSE NOTES
SETTLEMENT (RURAL AND URBAN) AND SERVICE
Village form
Vilage form refers to shape. In a
PROVISION
linear settlement, houses are spread out along a road or a river. This
Nucleated
Nucleated settlements are those in which houses and other buildings
suggests the importance of trade and transport during the growth of
are tightly clustered around a central feature such as a church,
the village. Linear villages are also found where poor drainage
village green or crossroads.
prohibits growth in a certain direction.
Very few houses are found in the surrounding fields. Such nucleated
Cruciform
settlements are usually termed hamlets or villages according to their
Cruciform settlements occur at the intersection of roads and usually
size and/or function.
consist of lines of buildings radiating out from the crossroads. The
A number of factors favour nucleation:
exact shape depends on the position of the roads and the amount of
» joint and cooperative working of the land; people live in nearby
infilling that has since taken place. By contrast,
settlements
a green village consists of dwellings and other buildings, such as a
» defence, for example hilltop locations, sites within a meander or
church, clustered around a small village green or common, or other
within walled cities, such as Jericho
open space.
»shortage of water, causing people to locate in areas close to springs
In South Africa ring villages are formed where the houses, called
»swampy conditions, which force settlements to locate on dry
kraals, are built around an open area. Below is an image showing the
ground
different shapes of rural settlements.
»near important junctions and crossroads, as these favour trade and
communications.
In some countries the government has encouraged people to live in
nucleated settlements, such as the Ujaama scheme in Tanzania, the
kibbutzim in Israel and the communes in China.
Linear
A linear pattern occurs when settlements are found along a
geographical feature, for example, along a river valley or a major
transport route.
.
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Chalo Trust School Geography 10 and 11 Second Handout released on July 23, 2021 – Term 2 second half
Spring line villages at the foot of the ridges are good examples.
Spring line settlements occur when there is a line of sites where
water is available.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE SITE,
GROWTH AND FUNCTIONS OF
SETTLEMENTS
Cruciform site and situation
The site of a settlement is the actual land on which a settlement is
built, whereas the situation or position is the relationship between a
particular settlement and its surrounding area.
Early settlers took into account advantages and disadvantages of
alternative sites for agriculture and
housing. These included:
» availability of water: necessary for drinking, cooking, washing, as
a source of food supply, and
for transport
» freedom from flooding: but close to the flooded areas as river
deposits form fertile soils.
» level sites: to build on but these are less easy to defend local
timber for construction and fuel aspect, for example sunny, southfacing slopes (in the northern hemisphere) as these are warmer
than north-facing slopes and are therefore better for crop growth
proximity to rich soils for cultivation and lush pasture for grazing
» potential for trade and commerce; such as close to bridges or
weirs, near confluence sites, at heads of estuaries, at points of
navigation and on upland gaps.
Weirs are barriers across the width of a river that alters the flow of
water. An estuary is a tidal mouth of a large river, where the tide
meets the stream.
A dry point site is an elevated site in an area of otherwise poor
natural drainage. It includes small hills (knolls) and islands.
A wet point site is a site with a reliable supply of water from
springs or wells in an otherwise dry area.
Growth and function of settlements
A number of factors affect settlement size, growth and function. In
extreme environments settlements are generally small. This is
because the environment is too harsh to provide much food. Areas
that are too hot, cold, wet or dry usually have small, isolated
settlements. In contrast, settlements have managed to grow in areas
where food production is favoured. Settlements in the more favoured
areas had greater potential for growth, and for a wider range of
services and functions.
Some environments naturally favoured growth and hence a large
size. In the northeast of the USA, settlements on the lowland coastal
plain were able to farm and trade. Those that had links inland as
well, such as New York, were doubly favoured.
Trade and communications have always been important. Cairo grew
as a result of being located at the meeting point of the African, Asian
and European trade routes. It also benefited from having a royal
family, being the government centre, and having a university and all
kinds of linked trades and industries such as food and drink, and
textiles (clothing factory).
Similarly, Paris grew because of its excellent location on the Seine.
Not only could the river be crossed at this point, it could also be
used for trade. Other centres had good raw materials. In South
Africa, the gold deposits near Johannesburg, and the diamonds at
Kimberley and Bloemfontein, caused these settlements to grow as
important mining and industrial areas.
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Chalo Trust School Geography 10 and 11 Second Handout released on July 23, 2021 – Term 2 second half
Functions change over time. Many settlements that were formerly
fishing villages have become important tourist resorts. The Spanish
costas are a good example. Many Caribbean settlements, such as
Soufrière in St Lucia, have evolved into important tourist
destinations. In the developed world, many rural settlements have
now become dormitory settlements- this is related to good
accessibility to nearby urban centres (as shown in the image below)
than 100 people, will only support low-order services such as a
general store, a small post office or a pub.
By contrast, a village is much larger in population. Hence it can
support a wider range of services, including a school, church or
chapel, community centre and a small range of shops.
Higher up the hierarchy are towns and cities, offering many more
services and different types of service. There are more settlements
lower down the hierarchy- the higher up you go, the fewer the
number of each type of settlement. Thus, for example, there are far
fewer cities in a country than there are villages.
Rural settlements offer certain functions and services. Only basic or
low-order functions are found in the smaller hamlets, whereas the
same functions and services are found in larger settlements (villages
and market towns) together with more specialised ones.
Low-order functions refers to unspecialised goods and services that
have a low population threshold and a small range. These goods are
usually inexpensive and people buy them on a regular basis (often
daily). Examples include, newspapers, bread, milk and vegetables.
While high-order functions and services are goods and services that
are specialised and required by fewer people, e.g, jeweries, car
dealers, universities, stationery, hospitals and legal services and
specialists.
The maximum distance that a person is prepared to travel to buy a
good is known as the range of a good.
Low-order goods have a small range whereas high-order goods have
a large range. The number of people needed to support a good or
service is known as the threshold population. Low-order goods
may only need a small number of people (for example 1000) to
support a small shop, whereas a large department store might require
50,000 people in order for it to survive and make a profit.
Increasingly, many rural settlements in the developed world are also
becoming centres of industry, as new science parks locate in areas
such as Silicon Valley in California, formerly an agricultural region.
Settlement hierarchy
The term hierarchy means 'order. Settlements are often ordered in
terms of their size.
Dispersed, individual households are at the base of the rural
settlement hierarchy.
At the next level are hamlets. A hamlet is a very small settlement,
consisting of a small number of houses or farms, with very few
services. The trade generated by the population, which is often less
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Chalo Trust School Geography 10 and 11 Second Handout released on July 23, 2021 – Term 2 second half
The area that a settlement serves is known as its sphere of
influence. Hamlets and villages generally have low spheres of
influence whereas larger towns and cities have a large sphere of
influence.
In general, as population size in settlements increases the number
and range of services increases. However, there are exceptions.
Some small settlements, notably those with a tourist-related
function, may be small in size but have many servíces. In contrast,
some dormitory (commuter) settlements may be quite large but
offer few functions or services other than a residential one. In these
settlements, people live (reside) in the village but work and shop
elsewhere. Below is an image showing the hierarchy of settlements
and later another image showing the relationship between population
size and number of services.
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Chalo Trust School Geography 10 and 11 Second Handout released on July 23, 2021
– Term 2 second half
GEOGRAPHY GRADE 10 AND 11 HOLIDAY ASSIGNMENT DUE ON JUNE
28TH, 2021
Stick the following case study pages in your Geography exercise book. Study the case
study of population size and number of services in Lozere and answer the questions
that follow.
a
Chalo Trust School Geography 10 and 11 Second Handout released on July 23, 2021
– Term 2 second half
b
Chalo Trust School Geography 10 and 11 Second Handout released on July 23, 2021
– Term 2 second half
c
Chalo Trust School Geography 10 and 11 Second Handout released on July 23, 2021
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BLANK PAGE
d
Chalo Trust School Geography 10 and 11 Second Handout released on July 23, 2021 – Term 2 second half
there are secondary peaks at the intersectians of main
roads and ring roads. Change in levels
of accessibility, due to private transport as opposed to
public transport, explains why areas on the edge of town
are often now more accessible than inner areas.
URBAN SETTLEMENTS
Topic objectives
1. What are the characteristics of urban land use?
2. How does urban land use vary between countries at different
levels of development?
3. What is the effect of change in land use and rapid urban
growth?
Urban land use
The growth of cities in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries
produced a form of city that was easily recognisable by its urban
land use. It included a central commercial area, a surrounding
industrial zone with densely packed housing, and outer zones of
suburban expansion and development. Geographers have spent a lot
of time modelling these cities to explain 'how they work’.
Every model is a simplification. No city will fit' these models
perfectly, but there are parts of every model that can be applied to
most cities in the developed world. All models are useful because
they focus our attention on one or two key factors.
Land value
The value of land (bid rent) varies with different land uses. For
example, it varies for retail, office and residential land uses. Retail
land uses are attracted to more expensive central areas.
Land at the centre of a city is the most expensive for two main
reasons: it is the most accessible land to public transport
and there is only a small amount available. Land prices
generally decrease away from the central area, although
Burgesss concentric model (1925)
This is the basic model. Burgess assumed that new migrants to a city
moved into inner city areas where housing was cheapest and it
was closest to the sources of employment. Over time residents move
out of the inner city area as they become wealthier. In his model,
housing quality and social class increase with distance from the city
centre.
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Chalo Trust School Geography 10 and 11 Second Handout released on July 23, 2021 – Term 2 second half
Land in the centre is dominated by commerce as this sector is best
able to afford the high land prices, and requires highly accessible
sites. In the early twentieth century, public transport made the
central city the most accessible part of town. Beyond the centre is a
manufacturing zone that also includes high-density, low-quality
housing to accommodate the workers.
As the city grows and the central business district (CBD) expands,
the concentric rings of land use are pushed further out. The area of
immediate change next to the expanding CBD is known as the zone
in transition (usually from residential to commercial). This is shown
in the image below.
Hoyt's sector model (1939)
Homer Hoyť's sector model emphasises the importance of transport
routes and the incompatibility of certain land uses. Sectors develop
along important route ways, while certain land uses, such as highclass residential and manufacturing industry, deter each other and
are separated by buffer zones or physical features. This is shown in
the image below.
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Chalo Trust School Geography 10 and 11 Second Handout released on July 23, 2021 – Term 2 second half
areas are found scattered along major transport routes, with the latest
developments at the edge.
Urban land use in developing countries
There are a number of models of cities in
developing countries. One of the most common is
the model of a Latin American city (shown below).
Land use zoning in developing countries
A number of models describe and explain the development of cities
in developing countries. These include several key points:
» The rich generally live close to the city centre whereas the very
poor are more likely to be found on the periphery.
» Better-quality land is occupied by the wealthy. Segregation by
wealth, race and ethnicity is evident.
» Manufacturing is scattered throughout the city.
Internal structure of towns and cities
The Central Business District
The Central Business District (CBD) is the commercial and
economic core of the city, the area that is most accessible to public
transport and the location with the highest land values. It has a
number of characteristics which include;
» Multi-storey development – High land values force buildings to
grow upwards, so the total floor space of the CBD is much greater
than the ground space.
» Concentration of retailing – High levels of accessibility attract
shops with high range and threshold characteristics, such as
department stores in the most central areas, while specialist shops
are found in less accessible areas.
» Concentration of public transport- there is a convergence of bus
routes on the CBD.
» Concentration of offices- centrality favours office development.
»Vertical zoning- shops occupy the lower floors for better
accessibility, while offices occupy upper floors.
The CBD has developed around the colonial core, and there is a
commercial avenue extending from it. This has become the spine of
a sector containing open areas and parks, and homes for the upperand middle-income classes. These areas have good-quality streets,
schools and public services.
Further out are the more recent suburbs, with more haphazard
housing and fewer services.
More recent squatter housing is found at the edge of the city. Older
and more established squatter housing is found along some sectors
that extend in towards the city centre. Conditions in these
areas near the city centre are better than in the more recent areas at
the edge. In addition, those living in the central areas are closer to
centres of employment and are more likely to find work. Industrial
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Chalo Trust School Geography 10 and 11 Second Handout released on July 23, 2021 – Term 2 second half
» Functional grouping - similar shops and similar functions tend to
locate together (increasing their thresholds).
» Low residential population - high bid rents can only be met by
luxury apartments.
» Highest pedestrian flows due to the attractions of a variety of
commercial outlets and service facilities. Traffic restrictions are
greatest in the CBD pedestrianisation has reduced access for cars
since the 1960s.
» The CBD changes over time-there is an assimilation zone (the
direction in which the CBD is expanding) and there is a discard zone
(the direction from which it is moving away).
» Historically, more central areas developed first and supported high
population densities. Large numbers of Workers were densely
packed into inner city areas to be close to manufacturing jobs.
» There is greater availability of land with increased distance from
the CBD. Improvements in transport and technology allow people to
live further away from their place of work in lower-density areas.
» Wealthy households may be able to afford to live in more
attractive areas, such as close to rivers, high ground and open
spaces/parks.
» Some communities might desire to live away from other
communities-this may be based on levels of wealth, ethnicity or
government policy.
» Some communities may have to locate in areas where building
may be difficult.
However, this pattern can be disrupted by:
» low densities in the CBD, as residential land use cannot compete
with commercial land use to meet the high bid rents
» the location of high-rise peripheral estates, increasing densities at
the margins of the urban area.
» green-belt restrictions, which artificially raise population densities
in the suburbs.
Population densities tend to change over time, with peak densities
decreasing and average densities increasing.
The pattern of population density declining with distance can be
observed in many cities, but this pattern also changes over time.
After a period of expansion, city centres start to decline following
suburbanisation (movement of people from cities to suburbs).
There are, however, many problems in the CBD, such as a lack of
space, the high cost of land, congestion, pollution, a lack of sites,
planning restrictions and strict government controls.
The core-frame concept
The core-frame concept suggests that the CBD can be divided into
two-an inner core where most of the department stores and
specialist shops are found, and an outer frame where coach and
train stations, offices and warehouses may be located. The CBD core
and the frame are closely connected and the CBD core may advance
into the frame, just as the frame may advance into the core as parts
of the CBD become run down.
Residential zones
In most developed countries, as a general rule, residential densities
decrease with distance from the CBD. This is due to a number of
reasons:
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Chalo Trust School Geography 10 and 11 Second Handout released on July 23, 2021 – Term 2 second half
GRADE 10 AND 11 GEOGRAPHY TASK
1. Copy the notes for Urban Settlements in your Geography
exercise books. They are a continuation of the first handout
you received in the first half paged 1 to 4.
2. Crop this image out and stick it in your geography exercise
book where you left space for it under the sub-topic of
population density and distribution.
3. You must be done with copying of these notes by 19 hours
today and immediately hand them back to Mr Mwape who
will then give them to Gessica and Namaya. This is the
reason why there are three identical images printed twice to
make 6 copies for 5 students.
4. Ensure to go through your Holiday Assignment and see to it
that you completed the work nicely.
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Chalo Trust School Geography 10 and 11 Second Handout released on July 23, 2021 – Term 2 second half
fashion
a variety of labour is already available, including
skilled and unskilled workers, decision makers,
politicians and innovators.
Industrial areas
There are a number of industrial zones in most cities in developed
countries. These include:
traditional inner-city areas close to railways and/or
canals
"industries needing access to skilled labour, such as
medical instruments; those needing access to the
CBD, such as fashion accessories; and those that
require an urban market for distribution, for example
newspapers and bakeries- these industries have
traditionally located close to the CBD
areas that require access to water- for example,
where industries such as imports and exports are
located close to docks
» radial transport routes, for example Samsung
electronics at Suwon, South Korea
areas where there is good access and good
availability of land, for example the Hyundai car
works at Busan, South Korea
»edge-of-town/greenfield suburban sites close to
airports.
Open spaces
In general, the amount of open space increases
towards the edge of town. This is because the value
of land is lower towards the edge, and there is more
land available. Nevertheless, there are important
areas of open space în many urban areas. Central
Park in New York is a good example. In the centre,
any areas of open land tend to be small. Many of
the open spaces are related to areas that are next to
rivers or formerly belonged to wealthy landowners.
Transport routes
Most city centres are characterised by small,
congested roads. As the roads were built when the
cities were still small, they are quite small. Now,
as private transport is the main form of transport,
the volume of trafic for the roads is too great.In
contrast, towards the edge of town there are larger
motorways and ring roads. These take advantage of
the space available. Natural routeways, such as river
valleys, are important for the orientation of roads.
However, given that many cities are in lowland areas,
constraints of the natural environment are generaly
not great.
The rural-urban fringe
The rural-urban fringe is the area at the edge of a
Large cities are attractive for industries for many reasons: many
capital cities, such as Paris and Moscow, are the major
manufacturing centres of their country cities are large markets port
cities have excellent access to overseas markets and goods
» cities are major centres of innovation, ideas and
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Chalo Trust School Geography 10 and 11 Second Handout released on July 23, 2021 – Term 2 second half
city where it meets the countryside. There are many
pressures on the rural-urban fringe. These include:
»urban sprawl
more housing
» industrial growth
»recreational pressures for golf courses and sports
stadia
transport
agricultural developments.
The nature of the pressure depends on the type
of urban fringe (Table 1.15). For example, an area
of growth, such as Barra de Tijuca outside Rio de
Janeiro, can be contrasted with an area of decline,
such as some parts of Detroit.
The growth of out-of-town
shopping centres
Shoppingin many more developed countries has
changed from an industry dominated by small firms
to one being led by large companies. The retailing
revolution has focused on superstores, hypermarkets
and out-of-town shopping centres (Figure 1.83 and
Table 1.16). These are located on 'greenfield' suburban
sites with good accessibility and plenty of space for
parking and future expansion. The increasing use of
out-of-town shopping centres, and the trend for less
frequent shopping, has led to the closure of many
small shoDs that relied on regular sales of daily items.
The changes in retailing have been brought about by:
»suburbanisation of more affluent households
»technological change, for example more families
own a deep-freezer
economic change, with higher standards of living,
especially including car ownership
traffic congestion and inflated land prices in city
centres
social changes, such as more working women.
The initial out-of-town developments came in the
late 1960s and early 1970s. Now more than 20 per
cent of shopping expenditure in developed countries
takes place in out-of-town stores.
Problems associated with
urban growth
A number of problems are associated with the growth
of urban areas. These include:
pollution (air, noise, water, light)
»inequality
»housing issues
»traffic congestion
»conflicts over land-use change.
These problems are found in most large cities
worldwide. Cities in developing countries have the
added problems of shanty housing and squatter
settlements.
Air pollution
Poor air quality affects half the world's urban
population. Each year thousands of people die
because of poor air quality, and many more are
seriously affected. The problem is increasing as
population growth increases in urban areas, with
industrial development and the increase in the
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Chalo Trust School Geography 10 and 11 Second Handout released on July 23, 2021 – Term 2 second half
number of vehicles worldwide. The world's population
is growing by about 90 million people each year. This
increases the demand for energy, transport, heating
and so on. More and more people are living in urban
areas. In low-income countries (LICs) population
growth is very rapid, and cities have fewer resources
to cope than cities in high-income countries (HICs).
In many LICs, indoor air pollution is high due to
the burning of fuelwood and paraffin for cooking and
heating. Up to 700 million people in LICs and newly
industrialising countries (NICs) are thought to be at
risk of high levels of indoor air pollution, especially
those living in slums.
LICs and NICs have weaker economies and so
investment in pollution control is minimal. Instead,
such countries favour industrialisation and the
use of cheap, inefficient energy resources, such as
lignite and low-grade coal, as a source of energy. By
contrast, HICs- which may have gone through the
process of deindustrialisation - have the capital and
the technology to tackle air pollution.
One of the major sources of pollution is motor
vehicles. At present, LICs/NICs account for about
10 per cent of the world's motor vehicles and
about 20 per cent of the world's cars, but some
countries, such as India and China, are expanding
their car industries as a key part of their economic
development. Cars and other vehicles in LICs tend
to be less fuel-efficient and produce more pollution
because they are older, poorly serviced and lack
clean, environmentally friendly technology.
Noise pollution
Road traffic noise is related to traffic volume,
traffic composition, speed, reflection of noise from
barriers, retaining walls or mitigation techniques,
weather conditions, terrain and road surface. Noise
disturbance may cause people in urban areas to move
or consider moving from cities of high population
density to quieter environments. Noise from road
traffic and other sources has been associated with
raised blood pressure, coronary heart disease,
psychological stress and annoyance, and sleep
disturbance.
Water pollution
Water pollution is a major problem in many cities as
a result of the large number of people, industries and
vehicles that might discharge pollutants into rivers.
Some rivers and lakes have become so polluted that
they have even caught fire. The most famous case is
the Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, USA, which caught
fire in 1969, but there have been recent cases in
China in 2014, for example when a river in Wenzhou,
Zhejiang Province caught fire, and in 2017 when the
Bellandur Lake in Banglalore, India caught fire. It
regularly forms a froth due to the amount of pollution
in it (Figure 1.89).
Inequality
In all cities there is inequality. There are contrasts between
the rich and the poor. In most HICs, the poor are located
in inner-city areas, edge-of-town estates and high-rise
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Chalo Trust School Geography 10 and 11 Second Handout released on July 23, 2021 – Term 2 second half
» young people leaving home earlier
» more families splitting up and moving into
separate homes
more people preferring modern houses with good
facilities.
flats, whereas, in LICs, the poor tend to be located in
shanty towns or informal settlements. There are important
variations in terms of educational achievements, access
to healthcare, employment opportunities and so on. One
way of showing inequality is a Lorenz curve. This shows
the proportion of income that the rich and the poor
have. Figure 1.91 shows a Lorenz curve for inequality in
Brazil. It shows that the top 10 per cent of households
have 40 per cent of the wealth and that the bottom
25 per cent have less than 5 per cent of the wealth.
Light pollution
Light pollution (Figure 1.90) refers to excessive artificial
lighting. It is common in large urban and industrial
areas, and can have an impact on human health,
leading to loss of sleep and headaches, and is disruptive
to nocturnal animals. It is also a waste of energy
Housing issues
Provision of enough quality housing is also a major
problem in LICs. There are at least four aspects to the
management of housing stock:
»quality of housing - with proper water,
sanitation, electricity and space
» quantity of housing having enough units to
meet demand
»availability and affordability of housing
» housing tenure (ownership or rental).
Increased demand for housing is generated by:
» people moving to urban areas in search of work
and a higher standard of living
» longer life expectancy
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