Unit:
Grade:
Does Music Help You Study?
9-10
DeBell
Essential Questions:
1) What scientific data is there to support the theory that music can help students
study?
2) Can a case be built for schools to allow students to listen to music in the classroom to
help them learn?
Text 1:
“Do or Don’t: Studying While Listening to Music”
(Uloop)
(informational text)
https://www.uloop.com/news/view.php/149570/Do-Or-Dont-Studying-WhileListeningTo#:~:text=Studies%20have%20shown%20that%20listening,helping%20lessen%
20depression%20and%20anxiety.
Text 2:
“The Effects of Music on a
Student's Schoolwork"
(seattlepi)
(informational text)
https://education.seattlepi.
com/effects-musicstudents-schoolwork2153.html
1.1 What information does the scientific study give you about how music help
students study?
(comprehension)
2.1 What claims does the
author make?
(comprehension)
1.2 What counter claims might there be to the author? Can you use the
internet to locate a) validation (agreement) and b)counterclaims (argument) to
this author's claims?
(research)
2.2 After analyzing the
scientific data, are the
author’s claims supported
by the scientific data
presented in the article?
(interpretation)
1.3 After performing your own experiment, does your data support the findings
in the article?
(interpretation)
Experiment:
Break students into groups where they will adminster tests to each other and
record the results:
Test 1: Math - no music
Test 2: Math - symphonic music (no words)
Test 3: Math - hiphop music (with words)
Test 4: Reading - no music
Test 5: Reading - symphonic music (no words)
Test 6: Reading - hiphop music (with words)
Test 7: Writing task - no music
2.3 Do certain types of music
help concentration more than
others?
(interpretation)
Test 8: Writing task - symphonic music (no words)
Test 9: Writing task - hiphop music (with words)
Culminating Assessment:
Write explanatory essay/letter to your Board of Education supporting your opinion on whether or not schools
should allow students to listen to music in the classroom as a study aid. Be sure to include specific text
evidence from the articles you have read to support your explanation of how the music would help the
students.
Reading Sources
Informational Text Articles:
 “Do or Don’t: Studying While Listening to Music” (Uloop)
 “Does Music Help You Study?” (Mind the Science Gap)*
*cited scientific studies available as support, see below
 “Music Can Help You study” (UNC)**
**cites the “Mozart Effect”, paper available, see below
 Fact or Fiction?: Babies Exposed to Classical Music End Up Smarter (Scientific American)**
**cites the “Mozart Effect”, paper available, see below
Scientific Studies (Summaries/Abstracts provided as the originals were not available for free)
 Study cited in “Does Music Help You Study?”
Can preference for background music mediate the irrelevant sound effect? (Applied Cognitive Psychology)
 Study cited in “Does Music Help You Study?”
Correlation between work concentration level and background music: A pilot study (IOS Press)
 Study cited in “Does Music Help You Study?”
Background Music and Cognitive Performance (University of Dayton)
 Study cited in “Music Can Help You Study”
The Mozart Effect (University of Illinois
Teaching Strategies and Styles
Auditory & Visual/ Music & Technology:
 Use SMART boards to watch clips of famous performers in the genres of music mentioned in the readings
(symphonic, jazz, R&B, pop, rap, etc.)
Kinesthetic/ Science & Math:
 Students can conduct experiments in class by administering various types of music and testing each other on
reading, writing, and math problems. They can chart their results to add to the data and to use in their
argumentative essays as evidence.
http://www.uloop.com/news/view.php/149570/Do-Or-Dont-Studying-While-Listening-To
Do Or Don't: Studying While Listening To
Music
By Elana Goodwin on January 31, 2015
Second semester is well underway, which means midterms and other tests are looming ahead in the
not-too-distant future and that it’s time to once again question how studying while listening to music
can affect a student’s studying efficiency.
Researchers and college students have often wondered whether listening to music has negative or
positive effects on the student’s studying habits and whether studying while listening to music is a
“do” or “don’t.”
Photo Credit: unistudentlife.co.uk
Studies have shown that listening to music before studying or performing a task can be beneficial as
it improves attention, memory, and even your ability to do mental math as well as helping lessen
depression and anxiety.
Many researchers, as well as students, who think listening to music helps memory have called the
practice the “Mozart Effect.” Of course, nowadays many students are not actually listening to Mozart,
but pop or other music, so the effect may not be the same.
These studies and researchers seem to indicate that music can actually help you study and those
who listen to music while studying may actually be better off for it.
However, there have also been several studies that have shown that music can actually have
negative impacts on your studying effectiveness — particularly when it comes to memorizing
something in order.
Dr. Nick Perham’s 2010 study, “Can preference for background music mediate the irrelevant sound
effect,” explored how music can interfere with short-term memory potential.
“We found that listening to liked or disliked music was exactly the same, and both were worse than
the quiet control condition,” Perham discovered. ”Both impaired performance on serial-recall tasks.”
Listening to music may diminish your cognitive abilities in these situations because when you’re trying
to memorize things in order, you can get thrown off and confused by the various words and notes in
the song playing in the background, Perham theorized.
Stanford University professor Clifford Nass had similar thoughts.
“Music with lyrics is very likely to have a problematic effect when you’re writing or reading. Probably
less of an effect on math, if you’re not using the language parts of your brain,” Nass said. “In my day,
there was no way you could take music to the library. When [today's students] go to the library to
study, they bring their noise, and music, with them.”
Photo Credit: www.cmuse.org
Today, it’s easier than ever to bring your music with you wherever you go as music has become
inherently portable. We listen to music while we walk, cook, drive — when we want to feel happy or
relaxed. Music has become a fundamental part of our lives, which is why students are so eager to
know whether it will negatively or positively impact their studying.
Because music can impact and regulate your mood and the best mood to study in is a more relaxed
mood, choosing music that helps you relax but also with enough beat or rhythm to ensure you don’t
zone out while studying is crucial. But music that’s too loud or with too much of an upbeat tempo can
also be distracting, so having a playlist or specific artist you turn to for studying music can really help.
If you’re the type of person who has more difficulty multitasking and is easily distracted, listening
to music while studying may just cause your attention to drift to the music rather than help you
concentrate on your material.
If you’re really set on listening to music while studying but know your focus will probably end up
divided, choose classical music or more acoustic music with minimal words to distract you. Movie
scores, which typically consist of a bunch of orchestral pieces, may also be good background music
for you to study to.
So basically, the final decision about studying while listening to music is up to you — do you feel you
concentrate better with Taylor Swift or Hozier singing in the background? Or do you find yourself
thinking of the lyrics to the song rather than what you’re supposed to be studying?
Music’s effects on study habits will vary from person to person, and can also be affected by what
you’re listening to — the genre of the music, how loud it is, etc.
Personally, when I need some background music to study to, I’ll usually make a more acoustic playlist
consisting of songs by Joshua Radin, Cary Brothers, and Ed Sheeran, with some of The Fray and
Goo Goo Dolls thrown in, too.
But in order for you to study the most productively, you need to figure out the effect music has
on your studying ability, and then tailor your studying playlist — be it silence or music — to best suit
your needs and efficiency.
http://www.mindthesciencegap.org/2012/10/08/does-music-help-you-study/
MIND THE SCIENCE
GAP
Does Music Help You
Study?
by S HEELA D ORAI S WAMY on OCTOBER 8, 2012
Image from freedigitalphotos.net.
If you’re a student, I am almost willing to bet that
you have music playing right now. Maybe it’s Drake, maybe it’s Mumford and Sons, or maybe it’s The
Beatles. Whatever your preference, I’m sure you love listening to your favorite artists every chance
you get— maybe even while you study. Is playing your favorite song an easy way to make that
homework bearable, or are you hurting your performance?
Previous research has found numerous benefits to listening to music before performing a task– it
improves attention, memory, and even mental math ability. It has also been found to alleviate
depression and anxiety.
However, the more realistic scenario is that students will study or do homework while playing
“background music.” A recent study at the University of Wales looked at how background music
affects students’ ability to complete a serial recall (remembering items in a specific order) test.
Students were given a serial recall test in five different scenarios–
1. A quiet environment
2. With “steady state” speech. This means a single word (in this case, “three”) was repeated for the
duration of the test
3. With “changing state” speech. This means a variety of words (in this case, random digits from 1-9)
were played during the test
4. With “liked” music, meaning a song of the students choice (such as Lady Gaga, Rihanna, or Arcade
Fire). Students brought in their own music, the only requirement was that it had to have vocals
5. With “disliked” music, which in this case was a metal song called “Thrashers” by Death Angel (all
students in the study disliked metal)
The researchers expected that the changing state speech would have the most detrimental effect on
the students’ performance. Think about it like this– changing state is like having to do your
homework while someone else is talking. Steady state is more like repetitive background noise (a
noisy heater, for example), which is easier to tune out.
Surprisingly, the results actually found no significant difference between test scores with liked music,
disliked music, and changing state speech. In other words, whether students enjoyed the music or
not, having it on while they worked was just as distracting as hearing someone talk. Scores were
significantly higher for tests taken in a quiet environment or with steady-state speech. In a subjective
assessment of each scenario, students did say that the test with their liked music was “more
pleasant,” but they did not find it any less distracting. The researchers hypothesize that they would
see similar results if they were to repeat this procedure using a reading comprehension test.
But before you sadly put your iPod away, feeling that you’ve lost your only way of making homework
bearable, consider this: Another similar study that tested liked music’s effect on attention found
similar results, but the researchers also noticed something intriguing. The students who took a test
with music did have a lower average score than those who didn’t have music, but the researchers
noted that there was a lot of variation in the scores. This could imply that the effect of music can vary a
lot from person to person, and they believe that more research needs to be done on how factors such
as tempo, genre, or whether students are used to having music on, make any difference.
Furthermore, we should also note that these studies only looked at music with vocals, and not music
that was purely instrumental. Research from the University of Dayton found that students performed
better at spatial and linguistic processing if Mozart was playing in the background. So maybe having
instrumental music can help performance, since it doesn’t have any distracting vocals. Again, think
about it like you’re trying to work while someone’s talking to you (or just consider that maybe you’ll
feel like singing along instead of doing your work!)
Conclusion:
So should you listen to music while you study or do homework? Unfortunately, the answer I have to
give you is “it depends!” It seems like in general, music with vocals is distracting, while instrumental
music might actually help your performance.
We will have to wait for more research, but for now I’d say if you want some music to lighten up that
homework, go for some instrumental jazz, classical, or if you’re a movie-addict like me, try a movie
score (the soundtrack of The Social Network got me through GRE prep).
FROM THE ARTICLE: “DOES MUSIC HELP YOU STUDY?”:
However, the more realistic scenario is that students will study or do homework
while playing “background music.” A recent study at the University of Wales looked
at how background music affects students’ ability to complete a serial recall
(remembering items in a specific order) test.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/acp.1731/abstract
Research Article
Can preference for background music mediate the irrelevant sound effect?
1. Nick Perham* and
2. Joanne Vizard
Article first published online: 20 JUL 2010
DOI: 10.1002/acp.1731
Copyright © 2010 JohnWiley & Sons, Ltd.
Applied Cognitive Psychology
Volume 25, Issue 4, pages 625–631, July/August 2011
Summary
Research suggests that listening to background music prior to task performance increases cognitive
processes, such as attention and memory, through the mechanism of increasing arousal and positive
mood. However, music preference has not been explored with regard to a more common and realistic
scenario of concurrent music and cognition, namely the ‘irrelevant sound effect’ (ISE). To examine
this, serial recall was tested under quiet, liked and disliked music sound conditions as well as steadystate (repetition of ‘3’) and changing-state speech (random digits 1–9). Results revealed performance
to be poorer for both music conditions and the changing-state speech compared to quiet and steadystate speech conditions. The lack of difference between both music conditions suggests that
preference does not affect serial recall performance. These findings are discussed within the music
and cognition and auditory distraction literatures.
Copyright © 2010 JohnWiley & Sons, Ltd.
FROM THE ARTICLE: “DOES MUSIC HELP YOU STUDY?”:
Another similar study that tested liked music’s effect on attention found similar
results, but the researchers also noticed something intriguing.
http://content.iospress.com/articles/work/wor00880
Correlation between work concentration level
and background music: A pilot study
Article type: Research Article
Authors: Shih, Yi-Nuo; ; | Huang, Rong-Hwa | Chiang, Han-sun
Affiliations: Department of Occupational Therapy, College of Medicine, Fu Jen Catholic University,
Xinzhuang City, Taiwan | Graduate Institute of Business Administration, College of Management, Fu
Jen Catholic University, Xinzhuang City, Taiwan | Department of Psychology, Municipal Wan Fang
Hospital, Taipei City, Taiwan | Graduate Institute of Management, College of Management, Fu Jen
Catholic University, Xinzhuang City, Taiwan | College of Medicine, Fu Jen Catholic University,
Xinzhuang City, Taiwan
Note: [] Address for correspondence: Yi-Nuo Shih, Department of Occupational Therapy, College of
Medicine, Fu Jen Catholic University. 510, Zhongzheng Rd., Xinzhuang City, Taipei County 242,
Taiwan. Tel.: +886 2 29053408; Fax: +886 2 29046743; E-mail: 062161@mail.fju.edu.tw
Abstract: It is a common phenomenon for office workers {to listen to music} while executing daily
routines at their desks. The aim of this study was to investigate the correlation between work
concentration level and background music. This research would first follow examples in previous
researches, and then explore the influence of background music on participants' scores on attention
tests. We hope to gain a preliminary understanding of the possible influence of background music on
people's focus and concentration when doing work. Thirty-two college students were separated into
three controlled groups; all were given the attention test. Group [a] listened to background music
while being tested for 10 minutes; group [b] had no background music at all; and group [c] listened to
the music for 10 minutes prior to the attention test. The test was conducted in a "noise free"
environment. The means and error rates for each group were then calculated. The findings showed
that, in comparison with "no music at all", those who listened to music prior to testing obtained higher
scores in attentiveness (most probably a supplemental effect of the music), whereas those who
listened to music during attention test showed extremely high level of variation in attention test
scoring. Background music does affect people's job-site behavior. In fact, all three test conditions –
no background music at all, background music before the work shift, and background music during
work – have affected worker performance on different levels.
Keywords: "piped-in" music, attention test, occupational form, occupational performance
DOI: 10.3233/WOR-2009-0880
Journal: Work, vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 329-333, 2009
Received 29 January 2008
|
Accepted 29 July 2008
|
Published 2009
FROM THE ARTICLE: “DOES MUSIC HELP YOU STUDY?”:
Research from the University of Dayton found that students performed better at
spatial and linguistic processing if Mozart was playing in the background.
http://www.amsciepub.com/doi/abs/10.2466/04.11.22.PMS.110.C.1059-1064?journalCode=pms&
BACKGROUND MUSIC AND COGNITIVE
PERFORMANCE1,2
LESLIE A. ANGEL, DONALD J. POLZELLA, and GREG C. ELVERS (2010) BACKGROUND
MUSIC AND COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE. Perceptual and Motor Skills: Volume 110, Issue
, pp. 1059-1064.
LESLIE A. ANGEL, DONALD J. POLZELLA, GREG C. ELVERS
University of Dayton
Summary
The present experiment employed standardized test bateries to assess the
effects of fast-tempo music on cognitive performance among 56 male and
female university students. A linguistic processing task and a spatial processing
task were selected from the Criterion Task Set developed to assess verbal and
nonverbal performance. Ten excerpts from Mozart's music matched for tempo
were selected. Background music increased the speed of spatial processing and
the accuracy of linguistic processing. The findings suggest that background
music can have predictable effects on cognitive performance.
Cited by
Mônica Medeiros Ribeiro, Isabela Lima, Leandro Malloy-Diniz, Guilherme Lage, Lucia
Gouvêa Pimentel,Antônio Lúcio Teixeira. (2014) CORPORAL ARTISTIC TRAINING
INFLUENCES ATTENTION: A PILOT STUDY.Perceptual and Motor Skills 118:3, 818-832.
http://uncc49er.com/622/music-can-help-you-study/
UNCC49’er
UNC Charlotte and University City
Online publication date: 1-Jun-201416-Jun-2014.
Abstract | Full Text | PDF (167 KB) | PDF Plus (190 KB)
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You are here: Home / College Life / Study / Music Can Help You Study
Music Can Help You Study
Did you know music can help you study? Studies have shown that the right kind of music can help
you relax your mind which enables you to concentrate better. Perfect to studying, doing homework or
studying for a test or exam. It cuts down on distractions and helps you focus on your work.
The most cited study is the “Mozart effect” a set of research results that indicate that listening to
Mozart’s music may induce a short-term improvement on the performance of certain kinds of mental
tasks known as “spatial-temporal reasoning” which is the ability to think out long-term, more abstract
solutions to logical problems that arise.
What Kind of Music Helps You Study?
There are many types of music that have been shown to put your mind in study mode. Here are a few
of the most mentioned.

Baroque classical music is said to have mind-boosting effects. Productivity writer David Allen of
“Getting Things Done” fame has said he prefers music like Vivaldi’s “Four Seasons,” Bach’s
Brandenburg Concerto #3, and other Baroque tunes.

Others say that music at 60 beats-per-minute is required to put the brain in a “bright and breezy”
frame of mind. In this state your thinking and creativity are said to be easier. Concertos for
Recorder – Telemann & Vivaldi is recommended.

Since classical music may not be your thing there are other types of music that have been shown
to increase your concentration levels. Ambient music or sound is designed to keep your brain
engaged at a lower, subconscious level. Waterfalls, rain, seashore, whatever your taste.

More modern electronic “Chill out” music genres such as Trip-hop, Nu jazz, Ambient House,
Ambient Trance, New Age and other sub-genres of Down tempo are designed to relax the mind
and allow it to roam.

Eno’s “Music for Airports” has been noted as being useful for serious studying and deep
concentration. This music was designed to relax stressed out travelers at the airport and put them
at ease.
Okay, so most of these listed you may have never heard of or even care for. Just give them a try and
see. It really does not matter what kind of music you listen to as long as it puts your mind in study
mode.


http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fact-or-fiction-babies-ex/
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
THE SCIENCES
Fact or Fiction?: Babies Exposed to
Classical Music End Up Smarter
Is the so-called "Mozart effect" a scientifically supported,
developmental leg up or a media-fueled "scientific legend"?
By Nikhil Swaminathan on September 13, 2007
2



© ISTOCKPHOTO/DARKO RADANOVIC
The phrase "Mozart Effect" conjures an image of a pregnant
woman who, sporting headphones over her belly, is
convinced that playing classical music to her unborn child
will improve the tyke's intelligence. But is there science to
back up this idea, which has spawned a cottage industry of
books, CDs and videos?
A short paper published in Nature in 1993 unwittingly introduced the supposed Mozart effect to the
masses. Psychologist Frances Rauscher's study involved 36 college kids who listened to either 10
minutes of a Mozart sonata in D-major, a relaxation track or silence before performing several spatial
reasoning tasks. In one test—determining what a paper folded several times over and then cut might
look like when unfolded—students who had listened to Mozart seemed to show significant
improvement in their performance (by about eight to nine spatial IQ points).
Rauscher—whose work, unlike most scientists, is sometimes cited on the liner notes of CDs—remains
puzzled as to how this narrow effect of classical music extended from a paper-folding task to general
intelligence and from college students to children (and fetuses). "I think parents are very desperate to
give their own children every single enhancement that they can," she surmises.
In addition to a flood of commercial products in the wake of the finding, in 1998 then-Georgia
governor Zell Miller mandated that mothers of newborns in the state be given classical music CDs.
And in Florida, day care centers were required to pipe symphonies through their sound systems.
A 2004 Stanford study tracked the media's coverage of Rauscher's study relative to other studies
published in Nature around the same period. In the U.S.'s top 50 newspapers, her paper, titled
"Musical and Spatial Task Performance," was cited 8.3 times more often than the second-most
popular paper (co-authored by famed astronomer Carl Sagan).
"It seems to be a circumscribed manifestation of a widespread, older belief that has been labeled
'infant determinism,' the idea that a critical period early in development has irreversible
consequences for the rest of a child's life," the researchers wrote in their analysis. "It is also anchored
in older beliefs in the beneficial powers of music."
Some still argue for such musical powers. "Music has a tremendous organizing quality to the brain,"
notes Don Campbell, a classical musician who has written more than 20 books on music, health and
education, including The Mozart Effect® and The Mozart Effect® for Children. Referencing French
physician Alfred Tomatis's work in music therapy on children with dyslexia, attention-deficit
disorders and autism in the mid-20th century, he believes music that's not highly emotional or overly
rhythmic has a multilayered influence on the individual, from modulating mood to alleviating stress.
"I know it improves our ability to be intelligent," he adds.
But in 1999 psychologist Christopher Chabris, now at Union College in Schenectady, N.Y., performed
a meta-analysis on 16 studies related to the Mozart effect to survey its overall effectiveness. "The effect
is only one and a half IQ points, and it's only confined to this paper-folding task," Chabris says. He
notes that the improvement could simply be a result of the natural variability a person experiences
between two test sittings.
Earlier this year, the Federal Ministry of Education and Research in Germany published a second
review study from a cross-disciplinary team of musically inclined scientists who declared the
phenomenon nonexistent. "I would simply say that there is no compelling evidence that children who
listen to classical music are going to have any improvement in cognitive abilities," adds Rauscher, now
an associate professor of psychology at the University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh. "It's really a myth, in
my humble opinion."
Rather than passively listening to music, Rauscher advocates putting an instrument into the hands of
a youngster to raise intelligence. She cites a 1997 University of California, Los Angeles, study that
found, among 25,000 students, those who had spent time involved in a musical pursuit tested higher
on SATs and reading proficiency exams than those with no instruction in music.
Despite its rejection by the scientific community, companies like Baby Genius continue to peddle classical
music to parents of children who can purportedly listen their way to greater smarts.
Chabris says the real danger isn't in this questionable marketing, but in parents shirking roles they are
evolutionarily meant to serve. "It takes away from other kinds of interaction that might be beneficial
for children," such as playing with them and keeping them engaged via social activity. That is the key
to a truly intelligent child, not the symphonies of a long-dead Austrian composer.
The Mozart Effect:
A Closer Look
Donna Lerch
EDPSY399OL
Dr. Thomas Anderson
UIUC Spring 2000
Introduction
The Mozart Effect®
The Mozart Effect Studies
Scientific Explanations for the Mozart Effect
Conclusion
References
Introduction
We are living in an exciting time of exploration into the most mysterious and complex object
known to man: the brain. Recently created technological procedures such as positron emission
tomography and magnetic resonance imaging now allow researchers to study the working brain in
great detail. This research is rapidly increasing our understanding of various mental disorders and
disabilities, of the neurological basis for behavior, of memory and learning -- of quite literally how
we think.
As early as 1989, Congress noted the enormous rate at which scientific information on the brain
was amassing. The sophistication of computer science which had become sufficient to process
neuroscience data, maximizing usefulness to both researchers and clinicians, and the advances in
math, physics, and brain imaging, led them to declare the last decade of the twenty-first century
"The Decade of the Brain."
Changes in the attitudes of the scientific community have also added to this expanding collection of
knowledge:
For nearly a century, the science of the mind (psychology) developed independently from the
science of the brain (neuroscience). Psychologists were interested in our mental functions and
capacities -- how we learn, remember, and think. Neuroscientists were interested in how the brain
develops and functions. It was as if psychologists were interested only in our mental software and
neuroscientists only in our neural hardware. Deeply held theoretical assumptions in both fields
supported a view that mind and brain could, and indeed should, be studied independently. It is only
in the past 15 years or so that these theoretical barriers have fallen. Now scientists called cognitive
neuroscientists are beginning to study how our neural hardware might run our mental software,
how brain structures support mental functions, how our neural circuits enable us to think and learn.
This is an exciting and new scientific endeavor, but it is also a very young one. As a result we know
relatively little about learning, thinking, and remembering at the level of brain areas, neural circuits,
or synapses; we know very little about how the brain thinks, remembers, and learns.
John T. Bruer
One area that has generated much interest in the scientific and business communities, as well as the
media, is the role (or roles) that music plays in the processes of thought and learning. There is an
ever building volume of research suggesting that music may actually hard wire the brain, building
links between the two hemispheres that can thereafter be utilized for a variety of cognitive
activities. The effect of learning to play music is thought to be strongest in early childhood, but
there may be a connection between merely listening to music and improved intelligence throughout
maturity. I chose to research one aspect of this theory, and found an amazing abundance of both
serious and pseudo/commercial scientific literature.
The Mozart Effect®
People interested in easy ways to boost the IQs of themselves and their children, along with
entrepreneurs whose apparent motivation centered on easy profits, eagerly embraced a recently
released pop psychology book by Don Campbell called "The Mozart Effect : Tapping the Power of
Music to Heal the Body, Strengthen the Mind and Unlock the Creative Spirit" .
Campbell based his book loosely on:



The works of Dr. Alfred Tomatis, a French Ear, Nose, and Throat Doctor that hypothesized
the lack of sound stimulation, or abnormal stimulation in utero and/or early childhood can
cause aberrant behaviors and delayed or disabling communication skills
Common music therapy experimentation
The title topic, which I have chosen to scrutinize: research specifically involving the works
of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
While the proposition that listening to Mozart's music increases I.Q. might actually have some
merit, the benefits that Campbell promotes are overstated and generally unfounded. Michael
Linton, professor of Music Theory and Composition at Middle Tennessee State University wryly
observed, "Trademarking the name "Mozart Effect," Campbell has even gone cable with
infomercials for his book and its accompanying compact discs and cassettes. In the great tradition
of P. T. Barnum and the "Veg-O-Matic", Mozart has now hit the mainstream of American life."
Indeed, the book, along with subsequent speaking engagements, CDs, tapes, and a well orchestrated
media blitz, has created the impression that listening to the music of Mozart will magically
"increase verbal, emotional and spatial intelligence, improve concentration and memory, enhance
right-brain creative processes and strengthen intuitive thinking skills", as the promotion for one of
the many Mozart Effect CDs promises.
While Campbell's book and the unfortunate mass of commercially motivated hyperbole it has
generated are generally aimed at an unsophisticated audience, there is serious research that suggests
that music does have a impact on cognitive ability.
The Mozart Effect Studies
Early experimentation on the effect of music on the brain was conducted in 1988, when
neurobiologist Gordon Shaw, along with graduate student Xiaodan Leng, first attempted to model
brain activity on a computer at the University of California at Irvine . They found in simulations
that the way nerve cells were connected to one another predisposed groups of cells to adopt certain
specific firing patterns and rhythms. Shaw surmises that these patterns form the basic exchange of
mental activity. Inquisitively, they decided to turn the output of their simulations into sounds
instead of a conventional printout. To their surprise, the rhythmic patterns sounded somewhat
familiar, with some of the characteristics of baroque, new age, or Eastern music.
Shaw hypothesized: If brain activity can sound like music, might it be possible to begin to
understand the neural activity by working in reverse and observing how the brain responds to
music? Might patterns in music somehow stimulate the brain by activating similar firing patterns of
nerve clusters?
He later joined two other researchers, Frances Rauscher and Katherine Ky, in creating the study
that coined the term "Mozart Effect". In the October 14, 1993, issue of "Nature" they published a
short summary of the findings from their experiment. They assigned thirty six Cal-Irvine students
to one of three groups, and offered the same "pretest" to each of the students. One group then
listened to a selection by Mozart (Sonata in D major for Two Pianos, K488). A second group
listened to what was called a "relaxation tape," and the third group was subjected to ten minutes of
silence. All of the students were given the same test, which was designed to measure spatial IQ.
This test is described as mentally unfolding a piece of paper is that has been folded over several
times and then cut. The object is to correctly select the final unfolded paper shape from five
examples. The students who listened to the Mozart sonata averaged an 8&endash;9 point increase
in their IQ as compared to the average of the students who had listened to the relaxation tape or
who had experienced silence. The increase in IQ of the Mozart group was transitory, lasting only
about the time it took to take the test-- from ten to fifteen minutes.
This test stirred enough interest in the academic community to induce several other research teams
to conduct similar experiments, with disparate results.
In 1994, Stough, Kerkin, Bates, and Mangan, at the University of Aukland, failed to produce any
Mozart effect. This may be due in part to the fact that the spatial IQ test used in New Zealand was
from Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices, while the Rauscher et al. study used the StanfordBinet Intelligence Scale. However, Kenealy and Monseth (1994) did use the same test (StanfordBinet) to measure the thirty subjects they used in their study; these subjects showed no mean
differences in scores after listening to Mozart, disco music, and silence.
Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky reproduced and augmented their original Mozart Effect experiment in
1995, by dividing seventy-nine students into three groups. This time a work by the modern
experimental composer Philip Glass was substituted for the relaxation tape. Again, the group that
listened to the Mozart selection showed an increase in spatial IQ test scores. A further test showed
that listening to other types of music (non-specified "dance" musis) did not have the same effect.
In 1995, researchers (Newman, Rosenbach, Burns, Latimer, Matocha, and Vogt) at State University
of New York at Albany replicated the original test. They broadened the test group to 114 subjects,
and the age spread from 18 to 51 years with a mean age of 27.3. Not only did they find no similar
increase in spatial IQ scores after listening to Mozart, but they also polled the subjects on previous
musical background, and found no correlation to higher spatial IQ scores and music lessons earlier
in life, or a correlation to higher spatial IQ scores and a preference for classical music.
Similar results were found the same year in a study by two Canadian University researchers,
Nantais and Schellenberg. They reproduced the fundamental Mozart Effect experiment, and
extended the study to investigate the relationship between listening to other forms of music and IQ.
They found that the listener's preference--to either music or the narration of a story, and not
particularly listening to Mozart, made for improved test performance.
In 1996 and 1997, however, two studies at Ursinus College in Collegeville, Pennsylvania, by
Rideout and Taylor supported and added further evidence to suggest a "Mozart effect". One study
replicated the Rauscher et al. study and, using two different spatial-reasoning tasks, measured
higher spatial IQ scores after listening to a Mozart selection. In the other study, Rideout and
Laubach required 8 college students to listen to a Mozart piano sonata in one condition and no
music in another condition. They measured changes in EEG ( brain wave activity) prior to listening
to the Mozart and then again after listening to the Mozart while engaged in two spatial-reasoning
tasks. The EEG recordings were somewhat correlated with the students' performance, as increased
brain activity was associated with an increase in spatial-reasoning performance after listening to the
Mozart.
In 1998, Rideout, this time with Dougherty and Wernert, found that music with characteristics
similar to the works of Mozart provided the same increase in temporary spatial IQ test scores.
Two other studies, both published in 1997, contradicted the "Mozart effect". Kenneth Steele, Ball,
and Runk of Appalachian State University presented 36 college students a backwards digit span
task, described as recalling 9-digit strings in reverse order, in three conditions--after listening to
Mozart music, a recording of rain, or silence. The results found no difference between these three
conditions. Carlson, Rama, Artchakov, and Linnankoski of the Institute of Biomedicine affiliated
with University of Helsinki, Finland, chose monkeys to see if any "Mozart effect" would show up
in another animal. He used a memory task to test various experimental conditions including Mozart
music, simple rhythms, white noise, and silence. The results were intriguing. The monkeys actually
performed highest in the white noise condition and lowest in the Mozart music condition.
Perhaps inspired by the Carlson et al. test using monkeys, Rauscher and her colleagues chose to
study the "Mozart effect" on laboratory rats in 1998. These rats were exposed both in utero and for
two months postpartum to Mozart's piano sonata. The other comparison groups included rats that
were exposed in the same time frame to minimalist music, white noise, or silence. The rats who
were exposed in the Mozart group learned to maneuver a T-maze considerably faster and with
fewer errors than rats in the other three groups.
Christopher Chabris, in 1998 a graduate student at Harvard University (now a research fellow at
Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital), questioned the net result of studies
on the Mozart effect that had been done over the previous five years. He examined sixteen of the
studies and analyzed their conclusions. "The results do not show any real change in I.Q. or
reasoning ability. There's a very small enhancement in learning a specific task, such as visualizing
the result of folding and cutting paper, but even that is not statistically significant. The
improvement is smaller than the average variation of a single person's I.Q. test performance." His
conclusion was that "There's nothing wrong with having young people listen to classical music, but
it's not going to make them smarter."
Other skeptics have been convinced that a Mozart effect does exist. Lois Hetland of the Harvard
Graduate School of Education attempted to replicate earlier Mozart effect studies in broader depth,
including a total of 1014 subjects. Her findings were that the Mozart listening group outperformed
other groups by a higher margin than could be explained by chance, although factors such as the
subject's gender, musical tastes and training, innate spatial ability, and cultural background made a
difference in the degree to which the Mozart would increase test scores. She did not find the Mozart
effect to be as strong as Rauscher et al. had found, however. Her belief, however, is that even these
small effects are impressive because so many other factors could obscure them. "In the early stages
of research in a field, we would expect the measured effect to be small until we learn to separate the
signal from the noise in the research method." She noted that Chabris had only studied the
experiments that compared listening to Mozart to silence, and which had not included listening to
other compositions.
Psychologist Eric Seigel at Elmhurst College, Illinois, (who had been a self-described skeptic), set
out to disprove the Mozart Effect. He chose a different spatial reasoning test, one that involves the
subject's ability to discriminate between shifted positions of the letter E as various rotations are
given. The brief time that it takes to judge whether the letter is the same or different effectively
measures spatial reasoning. Subjects in the Mozart listening group did significantly better. "It was
as though they had practiced the test...we have another way to measure the Mozart Effect" says
Seigel.
Rauscher and Shaw explained the inconsistent results of the Mozart effect tests in a work published
in Perception and Motor Skills (1998) , Vol. 86, p. 835-841). They stated that the reason the results
do not concur is that the various studies designed to find the "Mozart effect" have utilized diverse
subjects and different methodological designs, such as music compositions, listening conditions,
and measures.
The most recent Mozart effect study was by Kenneth Steele of Appalachian State University, this
time with Karen Bass and Melissa Crook in 1999. They chose to precisely replicate the 1995
Rauscher et al. with the rationale that "the comparison was methodologically cleaner than the 1993
study published in Nature" (Steele).
The results:
The experiment compared the performance of 44 college students who had just listened to the
Mozart piano sonata against 39 students who had just listened to a performance by Phillip Glass
and 42 students who had waited an equivalent time period in silence. The two musical selections
used the same performances used in the 1995 study. Immediately after exposure to a listening
condition, all subjects were tested on their ability to solve paper-folding and cutting items, the task
used in both original experiments. A paper-folding and cutting item is a visual puzzle that
represents a piece of paper undergoing a series of fold and cut transformations on the top row of a
display. On the bottom row are several possible outcomes of this folding and cutting sequence. The
task for the subject is to pick the outcome that would be produced by the changes in the top row.
The subjects had training with this task in a prior session, consistent with the procedure used in the
1995 UCI study. On average, the students answered 10 of 16 items correctly in the training session
and 12 of 16 items correctly in the experimental session, on average. This general improvement
from the training session is a "practice" effect, reflecting familiarity with the task and indicating the
importance of evaluating changes against comparison or "control" conditions. The average number
of correct answers in the experimental session was 11.77 for the Mozart group, 11.6 for the Silence
group, and 12.15 for the Glass group. These small differences were not statistically different,
failing to support the original experiment. An additional statistical technique that checked for
differences in individual improvement also produced non-significant results. Gary Kliewer
Steele seems to have taken offense at Rauscher's defensive stance of her research, saying, "There
has been considerable concern about the existence of the Mozart Effect among researchers, despite
its popular acceptance by politicians and educators. Several immediate attempts in other
laboratories in England, New Zealand, and the United States to produce the effect were
fruitless...Replication is one of the most important items in the scientist's toolbox. This experiment
took investigators back to a common starting place, the UCI experiments, and the results showed
that the effect was not present. This experiment, in combination with several others, suggests
strongly that the original positive reports were in error."
What sense can be made of all this conflicting information?
One ought not to be concerned about the current lack of consensus, because this is a normal part of
the scientific enterprise. Rather, we should be delighted that the subject has become important,
because it has been largely ignored in the past. We can look forward to exciting developments in
the search to fully understand the roles of music in cognitive processes and behavior.
N. M. Weinberger
Scientific Explanations for the Mozart Effect
While no definitive results have yet been attained, scientists who are gaining knowledge of the
neurological wirings and workings of the brain, as well as those trained in the science of the mind
and behavior, are slowly beginning to develop theories as to why music might have an effect on
intelligence.
Neurological Basis
Rauscher et al. hypothesized that the effect of music on intelligence may be explained by the initial
research by Shaw and Leng that proposed hearing complex music actually excites the cortical firing
patterns that are analogous to those used in spatial reasoning.
"The researchers were testing the suspicion that there might be a kind of "music box" analogous to
Chomsky's famous yet-undiscovered "language box." Might the symmetries and patterns
characteristic of music be fundamentally connected to the symmetries and patterns researchers were
tracking in brain waves? If so, might not music really be tapping into a structure inherent in the
brain itself? And if this were true, ultimately might music be a kind of fundamental, or prelinguistic--or even supra-linguistic--speech?"
Michael Linton
Musical perception is processed in the right hemisphere of the brain--the same hemisphere that
performs spatial cogitation and long-term sequencing operations. "Musical perception does involve
the analysis of spatial excitation patterns along the auditory receptor organ.." (Roederer)
Other researchers agree that there are neurological foundations for music's effects on cognitive
ability. John Hughes, a neurologist at the University of Illinois Medical Center in Chicago,
examined hundreds of compositions and concludes that music sequences that regularly repeat every
20 - 30 seconds, just as Mozart's compositions do prevalently, "may trigger the strongest response
in the brain, because many functions of the central nervous system such as the onset of sleep and
brain wave patterns also occur in 30-second cycles." He notes that Minimalist music by the
composer Philip Glass and popular tunes score among the lowest on this measure, while music of
Mozart scores two to three times higher.
Hughes used Mozart's music on a group of patients described as severely epileptic, constantly
seizing to the point of being comatose. Twenty-nine out of the 36 subjects showed significant
improvement by suffering fewer and less severe seizures when listening to Mozart. The same test
group showed no improvement while they listened to a Glass composition, popular melodies from
the 1930's, or silence. "Skeptics could criticize the IQ studies," Hughes says, "but this is on paper:
you can count discharges and watch them decrease during the Mozart music."
Julene Johnson of the Institute of Brain Aging and Dementia at the University of California at
Irvine found that people that suffer from Alzheimer's disease show improvement on the paper
folding portion (measuring spatial IQ) of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale after 10-minute
portions of Mozart, but not after silence or popular music from the 1930s. Patient's scores generally
improved by a margin of 3 to 4 correct answers out of 8 test items.
Neurobiologist Gordon Shaw, co-researcher of the original Mozart effect joined fellow
neurobiologist Mark Bodner of the University of California at Los Angeles in a study using
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to chart the regions of subjects' brains to determine the specific
area that responds while listening to various types of music. They used the Mozart Sonata in D
major for Two Pianos K488, some '30s pop music, and Beethoven's Für Elise. Shaw and Bodner
found that all the styles of music activated the auditory cortex (where the brain processes sound)
and periodically triggered the parts of the brain that are associated with emotion. Only the Mozart,
though, also activated areas of the brain known to process fine motor coordination, vision, and
other higher thought processes, all of which could explain improved spatial reasoning.
Christopher Chabris, the skeptic who steadfastly maintains that a Mozart effect does not exist
observes, "this effect, if indeed there is one, is much more readily explained by established
principles of neuropsychology--in this case, an effect on mood or arousal--than by some new model
about columnar organization of neurons and neuron firing patterns".
Psychological Basis
Nantais and Schellenberg also have a alternate theory, based from a psychologist's perspective:
On the surface, the Mozart effect is similar to robust psychological phenomena such as transfer or
priming. For example, the effect could be considered an instance of positive, nonspecific transfer
across domains and modalities (i.e., music listening and visual-spatial performance) that do not
have a well-documented association. Transfer is said to occur when knowledge or skill acquired in
one situation influences performance in another (Postman, 1971). In the case of the Mozart effect,
however, passive listening to music-rather than overt learning--influences spatial-temporal
performance.
Kristin M. Nantais and E. Glenn Schellenberg
Maria Spychiger of the University of Fribourg, Switzerland concurs with this theory. She asked an
incisive question. "…why does no one even ask … whether maths can improve the mind? Or
whether language could? Probably, these questions are too silly or strange; everyone knows the
answer is 'yes'."
Spychiger conducted a study which showed that children given a curriculum which increased music
education and decreased language and mathematics improved at language and reading, and did no
worse at math than students who had increased time on these "academic" subjects without the
additional music instruction. Spychiger theorized that the transfer effects between music and other
subjects was probably specific and based on the similarities between the two activities, just as are
many other known transfer effects.
Thus, instead of speaking about "music's" effects, one needs to determine which aspects of music
account for which transfer effects. This position heralds the theme that the effects of music cannot
be understood unless one specifies which components of the musical experience may be relevant to
specific aspects of other tasks or areas. An example is music's facilitation of learning to read. This
is believed to result from learning to listen for changes in pitch in music, which is thought to
promote the ability to sound out new words.
Norman M. Weinberger
Sensory Stimulation
Another explanation for increased test scores after listening to music would be the established
theory of sensory stimulation. Stimulation excites the brain. It propagates more synapses between
brain cells, ultimately creating more and more efficient conduits of brain function. Research
indicates that there are "windows" of prime times for this activity. Most of the studies conducted so
far demonstrate that much of this hard wiring occurs prenatally and in early childhood. However,
new studies are ever increasingly discovering that the brain can create new neural pathways long
after childhood.
When the brain is deprived of proper stimulation, it is believed that the neural pathways atrophy
and ultimately are lost. Robert Dolman. M.D., founder of the National Academy for Child
Development, stated,"Sensory deprivation studies show us that sudden and nearly complete
deprivation of stimulation through the five senses can lead to dramatic changes in the brain's
efficiency with a partial loss of memory, a lowering of the I.Q., and personality changes..." G. F.
Reed, after analyzing studies of the cognitive effects of sensory deprivation, adds documentation.
He found that subjects tested lower on most parts of tests of complex intellectual processes after
periods of sensory deprivation, noting that "..logical, analytical thought, based on verbal symbols,
deteriorates at the same time that there is more involuntary imagery in various sensory modalities,
particularly the visual....stimulus deprivation appears to increase the kind of information processing
(such as) intuitive, configurational procedures at the expense of analysis, language, and logic."
Music is aural stimulation. The "successful" Mozart effect studies at best indicated that one area of
cognitive processing increased only for a very short time, after listening to music for a short period
of time. However, this does lead to speculation that listening to certain types of music will facilitate
and improve mental function. Many people express an increased ability to concentrate when certain
background music is played. Karen Allen, associate director, and Jim Blascovich, associate
professor of psychology research associate with the University of Buffalo, NY Center for the Study
of Biobehavioral and Social Aspects of Health found that surgeons performed a basic surgeonrelated task better and more efficiently while listening to music.
Conclusion
The music of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart is both physically and aesthetically accessible to the
general public. A number of studies have indicated that listening to Mozart's work may temporarily
increase cognitive skills. Other studies have found no statistically significant "Mozart effect". It is
unfortunate that the media and commercial ventures have taken the initial modest, unverified study
and conjured up a pseudo-science which gave rise to, and which continues to promote, a full-blown
industry.
Exaggerated and even false claims that listening to Mozart's music will augment intelligence have
become so prevalent that the truth of the matter has become hopelessly obscured. This has been a
disservice to legitimate scientists, music therapists, and the public.
Music educators should be aware of the controversy, and neither center music curricula around
certain types of music for maximum intelligence building, nor exclude the possibility that there
may be a link between listening to music and intelligence. There needs to be further serious
research into this intriguing area of science, and far less unsubstantiated, profit motivated action.
5/6/00
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