Name: _____________________________ Class: ______
Year 9 Geography
Skills
0
1
2
3
4
5
kilometres
B. Pember 2017
CONTENTS
DIRECTION
When using compass directions, you should be aware of and use those shown in the diagram below:
N
NW
NNW
NNE
WNW
NE
ENE
E
W
ESE
WSW
SW
SSW
SSE
SE
S
It is important to realise that directions are only good for general use, and are generally not accurate
enough for things like shipping and aircraft navigation. As the diagram below shows, it often occurs
that there is no exact direction that answers a question.
In the diagram shown here, compass direction lines have been drawn over the top of a series of
locations, shown by the dots A to F. You can see that the direction:
•
•
•
From A to B is clearly South (S)
From A to C is clearly South West (SW)
From A to D is clearly South-South West (SSW)
However, the direction A to E is not covered by any
of the directions we have available to us, but since it
is obviously not West, we would settle for WSW as our
answer. If asked the direction from A to F, either SW or
WSW would have to be accepted.
You might find in the questions on page 2 that, sometimes,
there is no ‘exact’ direction. Just use your best judgement
and write what’s best in these cases.
BE CAREFUL OF THE WORD ‘FROM’!
The word from makes a big difference in questions like these. Consider:
•
•
The direction from A to B is South
The direction to A from B is North.
..but…
This is often used to trick you in a direction
question. Read each question carefully!
1
EXERCISE 1
Use the map below to answer the direction questions.
1. What is the direction:
a) From Noumea to Lord Howe Island: ______
b) From Auckland to Lord Howe Island: ______
c) To Sydney from Melbourne: ______
d) From Noumea to Norfolk Island: ______
e) To Norfolk Island from Sydney: ______
2. Name a place that is found:
a) East of Melbourne: ____________________
b) NE of Noumea: ____________________
c) WSW of Lord Howe Is: ____________________
d) NNW of Auckland: ____________________
e) SSW of Vila: ____________________
2
BEARING
It should be clear by now that directions are
not exact in many cases, so in situations like
the navigation of ships and aircraft, bearings
(often called ‘headings’) are used. A bearing
is expressed in degrees, which is indicated
by a very small circle next to the number.
For example, 45 degrees is written as: 45o
Obviously, bearings and directions are
related, and the diagram here shows that
there are bearings that go with the main
direction points. These are:
N = 0o NE = 45o E = 90o SE = 135o
S = 180o SW = 225o W = 270o NW = 315o
The best way to measure bearings is with a 360
degree protractor, like the one shown below. The procedure
for using it is as follows:
Q: What is the bearing from A to B, and from A to C?
Baseline
(vertical)
Base point
Step 1: Place the ‘base point’ of the
protractor on the spot you’re starting
from (in this case, point A). The base point
is where the vertical baseline of the
protractor and the small horizontal line on
the protractor meet. MAKE SURE THE
BASELINE IS VERTICAL!
Step 2: Using the numbers on the outside
of the protractor, see which looks closest
to showing the bearing from point A to
point B. In this case, it is approximately
110 - 111o
C
A
B
If you’re allowed to write on the map, it is
often a good idea to draw a line from one
point to the other. This allows more
accurate measurement, and also helps if
the point you’re going to is inside the
protractor, as shown with point C, or way
outside the protractor where it’s also hard
to judge. Using a ruler placed underneath
is an option if you cannot draw a line.
The bearing from point A to point C
would be approximately 296o.
3
EXERCISE 2
Use the map below and a 360o protractor to answer the bearing questions.
Wollongong NSW
Note: Use the round symbol to locate each place, placing the base point in the centre of the starting
point’s symbol and measuring to the centre of the destination’s symbol
1. Estimate the bearing:
a) From Wollongong Police Station to Wollongong Local Court: ________
b) From Surf Dive n Ski Wollongong to Optus Wollongong: ________
c) To Aurora Hair from Wollongong Local Court: ________
d) To Marketview Accommodation from Legal Aid NSW Wollongong Office: ________
2. A drone is being launched from the Wollongong Post Shop of Australia Post. The pilot wants to fly
it over the top of St. Michael’s Anglican Cathedral.
What bearing should the drone pilot follow to reach her objective? ________
3. The same drone is launched from the roof of the Marketview Accommodation building. The pilot
is instructed to fly a heading of 180 degrees.
The drone will pass directly above which location shown on the map? ________
4
AREA & GRID REFERENCES
An Area Reference (AR) refers to the whole square in which a feature is located, whereas a Grid
Reference (GR) refers to the specific spot where a feature is found.
AR = 4 digits. This is determined by finding the square in which the feature is located, then going to
the bottom left-hand corner of that square. From this corner, trace the Easting line
(the vertical one) up or down to find its number, then return to the corner of the
square and trace the Northing line (the horizontal one) left or right to find its number.
Now, write them down in that order (Easting first, then Northing).
e.g. The area reference for point A is AR 3652.
Q: Write the AR for:
• Point B: ____________
• The Sports Field: _________
Q: How would you give an Area
Reference for a feature that is
in 2 squares, like the Industrial
Estate?
A: Write down the AR for both of
the squares, like this:
AR 3553 - 3653
GR = 6 digits. A GR has the same 4 digits as the AR does, but we need to add a 3rd and a 6th digit.
The 3rd digit shows how far across the square the feature is located, on a scale of 1-9.
The 6th digit shows how far up the square the feature is located, on a scale of 1-9.
The square that A is in is shown on the left. Notice the small marks at the bottom?
These are never there; you have to imagine them.
Starting at easting 36, we might estimate that point A is about half way across the
square, or equal to 5. This becomes the 3rd digit in the GR. Now, we have 365.
Starting at Northing 52, we do the same thing except this time we’re estimating how
far up the square point A is found. You can see that it is around 7 points up the square.
This gives us the 6th digit. Now we have 527.
Putting them together, we have the GR for Point A: GR 365527
**Note: Did you think that point A was more like 8 points up the square, not 7? It is actually about
7 ½ , which we cannot write. Therefore, an answer of GR 365528 would be just as correct.
Q: What’s the GR for something on a line, like Point C? Note that on a line is zero.
A: Point C would be approximately GR 356510
Q: Estimate the GR of Point D: ____________
What happens if you want a GR for an area (like the sports field)? Pick a spot in the middle of it, and
do your estimate based on that. Sports field = GR 395507 (approx.)
5
EXERCISE 3
Use the topographic map below (including the key) to answer the questions.
1. Give Area References for:
a) The Lake: _______________
b) The North indicator:
________________
c) The Factories:
_______________
d) The Pine Forest:
_______________
e) The Swamp:
_______________________
f) The Bridge:
_______________
g) The Housing:
________________________
2. Provide Grid References for:
a) The letter N in the North indicator:
___________________
b) The Train Station:
___________________
c) The Lake: ___________________
d) The Trig Station at 137m: ___________________
e) The point at which the River meets the Lake on its northern side: ___________________
f) The Trig station at 237m: ___________________
g) The Bridge: ___________________
6
SCALE & DISTANCE
As maps are small compared to the area that they show, scale is used to shrink the real world onto a
piece of paper. The scale of a map varies according to how big the real area is (and how big the map
itself is). There are two ways that scale is used in mapping:
The linear scale
This method is used on many maps. The two linear scales below show the same thing: 1cm on the
map = 1 km in real life.
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
1
kilometres
2
3
4
5
kilometres
Linear scales like these work fairly well when 1cm lines up with 1 km and so on, and are accurate
enough if the distance you measure on a map is in whole cm. However, they can create problems
when this is not the case, or when the scale itself forces you to make too many guesses. Look at
the example below:
0
1000
2000
kilometres
Here, 1cm = about 800km. Clearly, this can make accuracy quite difficult.
The ratio scale
This is actually called the representative fraction or “RF” method, but it is shown as a ratio
(e.g. 1:50 000). This is how it works:
Example:
• Ratio shown as 1:50 000.
• This means that 1 cm on the map = 50 000 cm in real life
• As 50 000 cm isn't very useful in the real world, we change it like this:
1cm = 50 000 cm
1cm = 500 m
(or 1cm = 0.5km)
If the distance between two points on a map was 8.5cm, and the scale was 1:50 000, the real
distance would be 8.5 x 500m = 4250m = 4.25km. Obviously, this is more accurate.
On the next page is a map to try out, using both types of scale.
** A NOTE ABOUT MEASURING DISTANCE:
When using your ruler, be sure to measure from the MIDDLE of the dot / feature to the MIDDLE of
the other dot / feature. Be sure to line the zero on your ruler up exactly in the middle of your start
point before measuring.
7
EXERCISE 4
Map of Boxsell’s Island
KEY
100m
Peak (with height a.s.l.)
220m
Jones Bay
Helicopter base
Town
Solar Power Station
Green Village
SCALE:
0
Port Fraser
300m
1
2
3
4
Km
Karendale
1. Calculate the distance (to the nearest whole kilometre) from:
a) Karendale to the 300m Peak: _________
b) Port Fraser to the 300m Peak: _________
c) Green Village to the northern helicopter base: ________
d) Karendale to Jones Bay: ________
2. In these examples, you need to estimate using millimetres, too. Try to find the distance from:
a) Green Village to Karendale: _________
b) Solar station to the 220m Peak: _________
---------------------------------------------------------In the following calculations, assume that the scale of the map has been changed to 1:25,000 *
3. Using this new scale, calculate the distance from:
a) The southern helicopter base to the 300m Peak: __________
b) Karendale to the northern helicopter base: _________
c) The northern helicopter base to the southern helicopter base: _________
*Note: This is not realistic, as once a map has been drawn you cannot simply change its scale
(unless you re-draw it). This has been done here to save space.
8
LATITUDE & LONGITUDE
Latitude and longitude are done in a grid fashion, with latitude lines being horizontal and longitude
lines being vertical. You have done calculations in degrees before, and should remember that
latitude in Australia is expressed in degrees South of the Equator, and longitude is expressed in
degrees East of the Prime Meridian. When calculating co-ordinates, latitude is always done first.
However, what you may not have seen before is how to calculate co-ordinates in degrees and
minutes. If you look at the map on page 10 and find a place called Trangie, you’ll see it is at the
intersection of the 32oS latitude line and the 148oE longitude line. This gives us its co-ordinates of
32oS 148oE, but life isn’t usually this easy!
In a grid square near Trangie are two other places: Condobolin and Wyalong. Below is an enlarged
snapshot of this grid square, with the degrees of latitude and longitude from the page 10 map AND
some extra markings in place that we need to do ourselves. Being able to do this well involves you
being able to estimate and draw ‘half-way lines’ as shown below.
**1 degree of latitude or longitude is broken up into 60 minutes (60’)
Step 1: Notice that there is a step of 2 degrees between
The top and bottom lines? We need to add the
33o line by finding half way between 32o and 34o
Step 2: As a place ‘belongs to’ the latitude line above it,
the latitude for Condobolin begins with 33oS
Step 3: Draw in a half way line between 33o and 34o.
Because there are 60 minutes in a degree, and
this is half way between them, this line represents
30 minutes. It is written like this: 30’
So, if Condobolin lined up with this mark, it would be
33o 30’S. But, unfortunately, it doesn’t.
33o
147o
Step 4: We need to draw in another half way line, this time in between 33 oS and 33o30’S
As this is half way between 33oS and 33o30’S, this line is called 15 minutes (15’).
If Condobolin lined up with this mark, it would have the latitude 33o15’S. But, again, it doesn’t.
Step 5: Finally, we need to estimate how many minutes the dot for Condobolin lines up with. You
can see an arrow leading to the left from the Condobolin dot, and this seems to line up with
about where 6 minutes would be (being closer to zero minutes than the 15 minute mark).
SO:
The latitude co-ordinate for Condobolin would be approx. 33o06’S.
(In a test, minute numbers close to this, from about 2 mins to 10 mins would be accepted)
WHAT ABOUT LONGITUDE? Other marks have been drawn at the bottom of the grid square in a
similar fashion. As a place ‘belongs to’ the longitude line on its left, Condobolin’s longitude coordinate would be about 147o11’E.
FINALLY:
We put the two together and come up with the full co-ordinates for Condobolin:
33o06’S 147o11’E
9
Q: Which of these would be the co-ordinates for Wyalong?
a) 34o15’S 148o26’E
(b) 33o49’E 147o34’S
(c) 33o49’S 147o34’E
EXERCISE 5
Map of NSW
1. Provide latitude and longitude co-ordinates
for these places :
2. Name the place that is closest to these
co-ordinates :
• Armidale : __________________________
• 32o26’S 142o23’E : __________________
• Trangie : __________________________
• 30o12’S 145o58’E : __________________
• Camden : __________________________
• 31o43’S 150o33’E : __________________
• Coffs Harbour : __________________________
• 34o12’S 142o11’E : __________________
10
GRADIENT, ASPECT & RELIEF
These concepts are all related to topographic maps. In order to calculate gradient or relief, or to
state the aspect of a slope, an examination of contour lines is needed.
CONTOUR LINES
These are the lines drawn on topographic maps to indicate height above sea level (a.s.l.). Any point
along the same contour line is equal in height. You can see from the map on this page that not all
contour lines are labelled, but you should be able to work out that there is 10m in height between
each of the contour lines. This difference is known as the contour interval. It is sometimes shown in
the key, but it is not the same for all maps.
The height of point B on the map is clear, as it is on the line labelled 60, which means 60m a.s.l.
The height of point A is not labelled, but it should be clear that it is 10m a.s.l.
GRADIENT
Another term for gradient is ‘steepness’. Gradient is a measure of how steep a slope is between two
points. Look at the map below:
If you were asked to calculate the gradient between point A
and point B, you need to:
i) Calculate the difference in height between the two
points (the rise) in metres
B
60
ii) Measure the distance between the two points
(the run) in metres
iii) Express as:
Gradient =
40
A
Make sure both
measurements
are in metres
Rise
Run
20
Scale: 1 : 4 000
So, in the example on the right:
i) Difference in height = 60m – 10m = 50m (rise)
ii) Distance between points = 5 cm. Scale = 1 : 4000, meaning 1cm = 40m
Therefore distance = 5 x 40m = 200m (run)
iii) The gradient =
50 =
200
1
4
The answer can be expressed this way (as a fraction), OR:
• As a ratio (gradient = 1:4)
• In words (a rise of 1 metre in every 4 metres along the ground)
11
Another important thing to remember is the relationship between gradient/steepness and the
closeness of the contour lines. The closer they are together, the steeper the slope:
B
B
A
A
Even though the contours aren’t marked, the fact
that they are close together tells you that the gradient
of the slope between A and B is quite steep
Here, the space between the contour lines tells you
that the gradient of the slope between A and B is
much more gentle.
ASPECT
Aspect refers to the direction that a slope faces. A good way to understand is to ask:
“If I was standing on that slope, facing downhill, in which direction would I be looking?”
In order to answer an aspect question, you need to find the direction indicator
on the map (similar to that shown on the right) to check where north is. Usually
it is straight up, but it’s best to check anyway.
N
Once you have established where north is, aspect can be calculated. For example:
The north indicator on this map shows that
north is straight up. Looking at the contour
lines, you can see that this area is a hill top
that slopes down on all sides.
B
C
200
A
275
If you were standing at point A, and facing
downhill (that is, away from the peak), you
would be facing towards the left of the map.
This is west.
D
N
Spot height (m)
Contour interval: 20m
Therefore, the aspect of the slope at point A is
west. This can also be expressed as: “The slope
at point A has a westerly aspect”.
Following the same method, you should be able to see that:
• The slope at point B has a northerly aspect
• The slope at point C has a north-easterly aspect
• The slope at point D has a south-westerly aspect
12
RELIEF
The relief of an area is the variation in height of the land. This can be looked at over the whole map,
or by looking at specific points or areas.
Look at the map below and consider the points underneath:
Example 1: What is the relief in AR 8345 ?
This area on the map has two contour
lines going through it:
300m
250m
To calculate relief, we take the highest
height shown and subtract the lowest height shown.
In AR 8345, the relief would be 50m. (300m – 250m = 50m).
Example 2: What is the relief between points B and H ?
You can see on the map that point B is on the contour line labelled 300.
Its height is 300 m a.s.l.
Point H is on the contour line labelled 200.
Its height is 200 m a.s.l.
The relief between the two points is therefore 100m. (300m – 200m = 100m).
13
EXERCISE 6
D
E
C
B
A
Scale
1: 10 000
1. Calculate the gradient between points A and B. Show your working.
2. What is the contour interval on this map? ________
3. Give a Grid Reference for Point C: _________________
4. State the relief in AR 0257: ___________
5. Which would have the steeper slope: Point C or Point D? Explain your answer.
___________________________________________________________________________
6. State the aspect at Point D: _________
7. In which general direction does Clear Creek flow? _________
8. Without using a protractor, estimate the bearing from Point B to Point A: ___________
14
DENSITY
Density refers to the number of specific features in a given area. Density is expressed as:
The number of features per km2
Obviously, if there are many things in a given area, the density will be high (and vice-versa). An
example might be the density of buildings, like that shown below:
16
15
41
0
42
1 km
43
building
In this diagram, the density of buildings in a given area is calculated by counting the buildings and
expressing it in the manner stated above.
For example: The density of buildings in AR 4215 = 4/km2
EXERCISE 7
1. State the density of buildings in:
a) AR 4315: _____________
2. Give the AR of the area with the lowest density
of buildings.
_____________
b) AR 4015: _____________
c) AR 4216: _____________
3. Give the AR of the square with the highest density
of buildings.
_____________
15
AREA
The area of an irregular shape (like an island) is best calculated using the ‘grid square method’. Here,
a grid of 1cm squares is drawn over the top, and we count the full and partial squares SEPARATELY.
Notice that each grid square is 1 km2 (as shown by the scale). The idea is to create a tally of how
many full squares are contained within the island and how many partial squares are contained
within the island. It is best to use a system of different symbols to show each.
Using ticks to show the full squares and dots to show the partial squares, we need to mark every
square or partial square that is contained within the island with the correct symbol. Then, on each
line, we make a tally as we go of full and part squares. The first two lines have been done for you.
STEP 1: Complete the ticks & dots tallies.
STEP 2: Make a total of each column at the bottom.
FULL PARTIAL
SQUARES SQUARES
TALLY TALLY
MAP OF BLOB ISLAND
0
4
4
2
TOTALS
STEP 3: Take the total of the partial squares column and divide by 2. Answer = _______
STEP 4: Take the answer to step 3 and add it to the total of the full squares column. Answer = _______
The answer you got in Step 4 gives you the estimate for the total area of the island. It is expressed in km2.
COMPLETE: The estimated area of Blob Island is ___________.
16
SYNOPTIC CHARTS
A synoptic chart (or ‘weather map’) is a record of weather conditions being experienced across part
of the earth’s surface at a given point in time.
There are many concepts that you need to understand with regard to synoptic charts. A summary is
shown below:
Rainfall: Sometimes, synoptic charts
will show rainfall that has been
experienced. This chart shows rainfall
in the past 24 hrs.
SYDNEY
NOON
7 DECEMBER 2006
High Pressure system: Also known as
an anti-cyclone. Air moves in an anticlockwise direction. Often shown
simply as H
Cold Front: This is where moving cooler
air meets warmer air. A cold front has this symbol.
Cold fronts cause changes to weather, including:
• Cooler temperatures
• Higher wind speeds / possible direction change
• Falling air pressure
• Increased chance of rain/storms
• Generally cold & unstable conditions until the
front passes.
Low Pressure system: Also known as a
cyclone. Air moves in a clockwise
direction. Often shown simply as L
Wind indicators: Some places show these small symbols,
which show wind direction and speed. Direction is shown by
the way the tail faces (away from the town). Speed is shown
by the small marks on the end of the tail. The key at the
bottom is used for speed in km/h. In this case, the wind at
Charleville is from the SE, at a speed of 5-13 km/h.
Isobar spacing: If the space between isobars is
big, there is little wind. Here, you can see they are
close together. The closer the isobars are
together, the stronger the winds are.
Isobars: These are lines drawn that
join places of equal air pressure. Air
pressure (or barometric pressure) is
measured in hectopascals, which is
abbreviated to hPa. All places along
this isobar have an air pressure of
1014 hPa.
Often, you are asked to estimate air pressure at a particular place. If an isobar is
present, this is simply the number on the isobar (eg: Rockhampton = 1012 hPa).
Some places, like Hobart, are in between isobars. Here, we use a range: Hobart’s
air pressure is somewhere between 1022 and 1024 hPa. The most correct way to
express this is by stating that Hobart’s barometric pressure is greater than
1022 hPa, but less than 1024 hPa.
*We know Hobart cannot be 1022 or 1024, because it would have to be on one of
those isobars, which it is not.
17
EXERCISE 8
1. What is the weather feature
approaching Perth
from the west?
C
_____________________
2. Which of the
following weather
conditions will be
experienced in Perth in the
next few hours?
a) Snow, hail & sleet
D
b) Warm, stable
conditions
c) High winds & heat
d) Cold, unstable
conditions
3. Place a dot with this letter
at a point where the barometric pressure would be
A
More than 1010 hPa, but less than 1012 hPa
B
1016 hPa
4. State the barometric pressure at Adelaide. _________________
5. Near which capital city has rain recently fallen? _________________
6. Estimate the wind speed and direction at these locations :
a) Darwin: ____________________ (b) Townsville: ____________________
b) Kalgoorlie: ___________________
7. At which point on the map would the wind speed be higher: C or D? Explain how you know.
__________________________________________________________________________
8. Use pressure system rotation to estimate the wind direction at point C. ___________
9. Correctly state the barometric pressure at Charleville. _______________________________
18
TYPES OF MAPS
You’ve used a topographic map a number of times already in this book
(like the one shown on the right). A topographic map shows the shape of the
land (using contour lines), together with features of the natural and built
environments in the area shown.
Many other types of maps are used in Geography. Some examples follow.
POLITICAL MAPS
These show political (government) units, such as
countries or states. They also show cities and main
towns, marking capital cities with a red or other
coloured dot, or sometimes underlining them (some
means of making them stand out).
Often different colours are used to show different
political areas.
CHOROPLETH MAPS
These use different colour shades to show the
amount or value of something. Darker shades
show the highest concentrations, while lighter
shades show the lowest.
The map on the right shows rainfall between
January and March. The North and East of
Australia receive the most, so they are shaded
in the darkest colours.
PRECIS MAPS
These are topographical maps that have been
simplified. Rather than show all details, like
contour lines and details of the natural and built
environments, they pick on one main detail to
show (although extra things can be included). They
are similar to choropleth maps in this way, but the
difference is they do not use darker and lighter
shades to represent concentrations or levels;
rather, they simply use a colour or shading key to
show different types of the same thing.
The precis map shown here shows land uses in
Darwin, NT.
19
CADASTRAL MAPS
These are maps used to show property boundaries.
They are commonly seen when new sub-divisions
of land are released.
On the right is an example. You can see that the
properties have numbers to identify them and you
can also see the placement of roads.
They are useful for looking at the size, shape and
position of a property relative to those around it.
FLOWLINE MAPS
These maps are designed to show movement. The
movement of things like goods or people are
common sources of information for flowline maps,
and they have the advantage of being quickly and
easily read (rather than tables of information that
might take a while to sort through).
It is also common for the arrows to vary in
thickness, with thicker arrows indicating a greater
volume of movement (e.g. More people).
This is the case in the flowline map on the left. It
shows the countries from which overseas-born
people came to Australia.
It is easy to see that the U.K. was by far the biggest
source in 2011, followed by NZ, China and India.
A disadvantage of these maps is that some places
are shown as being the same (such as the
Philippines and Vietnam in this map), whereas in
reality they would not be identical at all.
THEMATIC MAPS
These illustrate a particular theme, such as
the location of minerals in a country. The
thematic map on the right shows the locations
of Australia’s reserves of uranium.
Thematic maps must be used with their keys,
as they usually use a range of symbols to show
where things are, and the symbols are often
meaningless without the key/legend.
20
EXERCISE 9
Answer the questions below the flowline map. It might be best if your teacher projects this map onto
the screen to make it easier to read in colour (and the same for the map in Exercise 10).
1. True or False: Australia gets its oil from the Middle East region. __________
2. True or False: The Middle east does not import oil. __________
3. How much oil does Australia import? _________________
4. Name 4 places from which the U.S.A. imports oil. __________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
EXERCISE 10
1. Name 4 cities in high risk areas for tsunami.
___________________________________
___________________________________
2. Which state has the lowest overall risk of
earthquakes? _______________________
3. Describe the risk of tsunami in Hobart.
_____________________
4. How does the earthquake risk for Alice
Springs compare to Canberra’s?
___________________________________
5. Write a general statement describing the
risk to Australians from these hazards.
________________________________________________________________________________
21
GRAPHING
In Geography, a wide range of graphs can be used. However, all graphs should have the following
features:
•
•
A title
A scale of some kind (note that this can be done using numbers, the size or area of each
section of the graph, or possibly the size of the graph itself)
Labels (these will vary according to the type of graph)
•
Graphs are usually drawn using information
from a table. The first two graph types
shown in this section are drawn using
information from the table shown here:
State / Territory
NSW
VIC
QLD
WA
SA
TAS
ACT
NT
Population (millions)
COLUMN GRAPHS
Approx. population
(2006)
6,820,000
5,080,000
4,040,000
2,050,000
1,550,000
400,000
330,000
210,000
These graphs are very common. You can see
these features on the column graph shown:
• A title
• A scale (from 0 to 7)
• A label on the vertical axis telling us what the
scale means. In this case, for example, 3
actually means 3 million
• A label under each column (NSW, VIC etc)
• A label on the horizontal axis telling us what is
shown (states and territories in this case)
• The columns drawn to the correct height
using the information from the table.
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
States & Territories
Two problems often arise when drawing these graphs:
• What scale should I use?
This will be determined by the numbers that you have to graph (eg. whether they are big numbers
or small numbers).
• Where exactly do I draw the line to show the top of each column?
This is especially hard when the numbers you are using are difficult. For example, if the
population of NSW was exactly 7 million, this would be easy to graph. But, because it is 6,820,000
it is harder.
This shows one of the weaknesses of column graphs (and of most graphs): the need to estimate. In
the case of NSW, you would draw the top of your column just under the 7 million line. In the case of
Victoria, you would draw the top of your column just above the 5 million line, and so on. Don't worry
about not being exact, but do the best job you can. In most cases, the graphs you will draw will use
numbers much easier than these.
22
LINE GRAPHS
Again, the same information is shown in this graph,
and you can also see that the basic structure is the
same as the column graph.
This time, though, we draw a dot that lines up with
each state's population number, then we join the
dots.
When using grid paper, the dot is drawn in the
middle of the box when going from left to right.
CLIMATE GRAPHS
Climate is the conditions in the atmosphere over long periods of time (usually a year). A climatic
graph is a combination of a column graph and a line graph (it is actually two graphs drawn in the
same space).
Climate data is used to draw climate graphs. Climate data involves average temperature (measured
in degrees Celsius) and average rainfall (also known as precipitation, measured in millimetres).
Below is a table of climate data and the graph that goes with it:
Climate Graph for Albany WA
You can see a few things here:
• This has two separate graphs
that use two different scales.
• The line graph is for temperature.
It uses the scale on the left hand
side.
• The column graph is for
precipitation. It uses the scale on
the right hand side.
When you draw a climate graph, you draw one of the graphs first, then the other. It doesn't really
matter which one you draw first. It is important, though, to make sure you use the scale from the
correct side when graphing each one. It is easy to mix them up.
23
EXERCISE 11
CLIMATE GRAPH ACTIVITY
Using the grid sheet supplied by your teacher, construct a climate graph using the information
below:
Points to remember
•
Use PENCIL, as it is easy to make a mistake.
•
BEFORE you begin, have a discussion about the best scales to use for the temperature and
precipitation sides of the graph.
•
When placing a dot for your line graph (temperature), place the dot in the middle of the box
when going from left to right. For example:
The dot for January’s temperature would go here
•
Be careful to use the correct scale for
each of your graphs. Temperature is
graphed using the scale on the left,
and precipitation is graphed using the
scale on the right.
•
It is common for the two graphs to overlap
each other. For this reason, it is best to
shade in your column graphs using light colours.
•
Don't forget to label your axes
properly. See the graph on p.23 if
you're unsure.
•
Take your time. Get it right.
WHEN YOU’RE DONE AND SURE IT’S CORRECT, PASTE IT
ONTO PAGE 25 OF THIS BOOK.
24
Paste your climate graph
for Bulli NSW here
25
PIE CHARTS
A pie chart is also known as a circular graph or a
sector graph. While it is not useful if you’re
interested in high levels of accuracy, it is very useful
for showing proportions of a total very quickly, and
allowing you to compare one proportion to another.
As an example, look at the table and the
pie chart that goes with it on the right (have it
projected onto the classroom screen so you can see
colours).
It is quick to see that brown hair is by far the most
common, and you can also see that it represents
almost 50% of all hair colours because it takes up
almost half of the graph. This is where proportion is
easy to assess. Blonde looks close to 25%, too, which
would be much harder to work out by looking at the
table above it. However, proportions of the smaller
groups (like ‘red’ or ‘other’) are difficult to judge with
any accuracy. Obviously, if you cannot see colours,
the graph becomes hard to read, too.
Hair colour of Year 9
students
Black
Blonde
Brown
Red
Other
EXERCISE 12
Using pencil, try and construct a pie chart of the
information contained in the table shown on the
right. The best way to do this is to take the
percentage of every category and use that
information to judge where to draw the chart lines
(given that the total students surveyed was 100,
each number is already a percentage). A dot is
included to show the centre of the circle.
Fast food brand
# of students
McDonald’s
KFC
Hungry Jack’s
Domino’s
Pizza Hut
Subway
40
10
10
30
5
5
Total =
100 students
Key
McDonald’s
KFC
Hungry Jack’s
Domino’s
Pizza Hut
Subway
26
IMAGES
In Geography, we use all sorts of diagrams and maps. We also use images, including photographs
and satellite images. The different types are:
i)
The ground-level photograph / ground-level image.
This is how we would normally take a photo of something, looking at the subject horizontally:
ii)
The vertical aerial photograph / vertical image.
This is an image taken from an aircraft, looking straight down on a subject:
iii)
The oblique aerial photograph / oblique image.
These are taken from an aircraft on an angle to the subject. This angle allows us to get some
idea of the height of objects:
27
iv)
The satellite image.
These are photographs taken from space using satellites:
EXERCISE 12
Source A
Source B
1. Which of the following statements is correct?
a) Source A is a ground-level photograph and Source B is a vertical aerial image
b) Source A is a line drawing and Source B is a ground level image
c) Source A is a ground-level image and Source B is an aerial oblique image
d) Source A is a satellite image and Source B is an aerial oblique image
2. Source A is an example of an environment that is:
a) Cultural
b) Physical
c) Human
d) Political
3. What type of environment is illustrated by Source B? __________________________________
28