Anastasia Cao
PART 2: SPARTAN SOCIETY TO THE BATTLE OF LEUCTRA 371 BC
1. GEOGRAPHICAL ENVIRONMENT
Natural features
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Located in the southern part of the Peloponnesian peninsula, in the Eurotas River Valley in Laconia (or
(Lakedaimon) Locania and Messene
The Eurotas valley was part of a rich plain which represented an agricultural treasure in the mountainous
landscape of the Peloponnese
o Mt Taygetus ranged to the west, Mt Parmon ranged to the east and Mt Arkadian ranged to the
north formed natural defence barriers against invaders but also against influencers against
influences from other city-states
Eurotas river supplies fresh water to 4 of Sparta’s original 5 villages
Resources
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Laconia had fertile soil and climate suited to faming with warm growing season and adequate rainfall
o Produced crops including wheat, barley, grapes and olives
o Grazing land for cattle, sheep, goats and pigs
o Meat, cheese, wool, skins and leather were produced (mountains were plentiful for hunting)
Conquered territory of Messenia doubled the area of farmland
o Land had fertility “greater than words can express” (Strabos)
Limestone and marble were quarried from the mountains surrounding
Wood was felled from forests
Significant sites
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Began as an amalgamation of 5 villages on the west side of Eurotas River
o Pitane, Limnae, Kynosoura, Mesoa in 8th century BC, King Teleclus absorbs 5th village (Amyclae),
making Sparta a combined site with no walls (Pausanias)
No built acropolis – hills in the city, one of which was called the Acropolic (Pausanias)
Sparta’s most impressive building, Temple of Chailkioikos (Pausanias)
o Temples were located away from town centre Temple of Athena of the Bronze House, Artemis
Orthia were on the outskirts
2. SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND POLITICAL ORGANISATION
The issue of Lycurgus (the Great Rhetra)
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Between 900 – 750BC, Sparta gained control of Laconia slowly
Greek world at the time was a period of expansion and colonisation Sparta was not a coloniser
o Instead they attacked Messenia reducing the population to serfdom
whole state became geared to a militaristic way of life to establish Eumonia “an excellent order of things”
new state emerged due to lawgiver Lyrcurgus who sought help from Delphic Oracle (Xenophon)
was instructed to establish a sanctuary to Zeus& Athena; divide the people into tribes; appoint the two
kings and a Gerousia which “allays and qualifies the fiery genius of the royal office” (Plutarch)
all reforms were directed towards the three Spartan virtues: equality (among citizens), military fitness,
and austerity and written in the form of the Great Rhetra (oral traditions and laws of Sparta)
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o was the foundation document to the Spartan constitution
Lycurgus “changed all the laws and made sure these changes should not be transgressed” when he
died they dedicated a temple to him and “revere him greatly” (Herodotus)
Lycurgus was “a man of distinction among the Spartans” (Herodotus)
Plutarch, writing in 2nd Century AD, bemoans the lack of precisive evidence of Lycurgus.
Conflicting accounts had been given of most aspects of the life of Lycurgus, particularly those relating to
his initiatives as lawmaker. The controversy still rages today.
Ancient authors, such as Herodotus and Aristotle, wrote of Lycurgus as a historical figure who handed
down the laws of Sparta after consulting the will of Gods.
“if there was a real Lycurgus, we know nothing of him” and “the perpetuation of his name was one of the
most successful frauds in history” (A.Andrewes)
Roles of the two kings
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First two kings were Eurysthenes and Prokles Sons of Aristodemus a descendent of Herakles
A duel kingship – two hereditary and co-equal kings
Kings cannot retire held office for life
Belonged to the two leading families (Eurypontids and Agiads) among original Dorian tribesmen
Succeeded by his eldest son, but a son born to prior to father’s accession had to give way to first born
Military
• “they commanded the army on foreign expedition” (Aristotle)
• after Kleomenes and Demaratos (C.510 BC) only one king led the army in battle while other remained
(Herodotus)
• the king on campaign had absolute right of deciding life or death in battle
• the kingship constituted “an independent and permanent generalship” (Aristotle)
• in war the king had a body guard of 300 hoplites
• 2 ephors accompanied the king on campaign (Xenophon)
• “the power of declaring war on who they please” (Herodotus)
• “the kings go first and return last” (Herodotus)
• “should lead the army wherever the city despatches it” (Xenophon)
Political
• prior to 6th century BC, the kings could declare war. This was then changed to the Ekklesia
• when the kings entered the Ekklesia, all stood, except the Ephors
• both kings were members of the Gerousia – one vote each (no more power than the other members)
• “definite legal matters are left to their sole decision” (Herodotus)
Religious
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The kings had two priesthoods – Zeus Lacaedaemonios, Zeus Eranous
o made sacrifices to them prior to leaving for war (Plutarch)
Good fortune of bad was seen as attributable to them
Made sacrifices to Apollo and Athena of the Bronze House on behalf of citizens on the 1st and 7th days
they made the first offerings of sacrificthe e and all hives of animal sacrificed were their property
(Herodotus)
at the dawn of battle, sacrificed a she goat to seek the omens
they were responsible for the safe keeping of oracles
nominated 4 Pithoi or sacred envoys to the Delphi oracle and were safe keepers of all prophecies
they were given seats of honour at religious festivals
Social Duties
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The kings presided over the adoption of children: decided who would marry an heiress whose father had
died without petroving her; or matters affecting public groves (Aristotle)
they effectively controlled foreign affairs by selecting and appointing officials who sought to entertaining
foreign visitors (Herodotus)
privileges and restrictions
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supported at the expense of the state received income from lands of perioikoi
presented with skins and carcasses of animals sacrificed to the gods
served first at public meals and given double portions of food
given seats of honour at all festivals all stood apart from ephors at entry
mourned publicly for 10 days after their death
took an oath every 2 months before the ephors to rule in accordance with the laws
every 9 years ephors took omen to see if the gods still favoured the kings
kept a check on eachother and were accompanied by 2 ephors on campaign
“nothing much above the level of private citizens” (Xenophon)
Government:
• ephorate
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5 magistrates elected by citizens by lot each year- won gave his name to that year
Any Spartiate over 30 years of age was eligible for election (Aristotle)
An ephor could only hold office once (Aristotle)
Two (out of 5) ephors went with the king on campaign
The ephorites had power to fine other magistrates and power over all Spartiates including the
Kings (Xenophon)
They could investigate, fine, sentence to death or exile a king (Thucydides)
They exchanged oaths with the kings each month on behalf of the state (Xenophon)
The ephors shared meetings of the Gerousia
Had wide ranging police powers over the citizens and helot population
The issued orders for mobilising the Spartan army and introduced levies or taxes for its supply
(Xenphon)
Even poor men could be elected, this made some open to bribery but this was mitigated by
limitation of membership to a year (Aristotle)
• Gerousia
o A council of elder noblemen (28 citizens of noble birth plus 2 kings) – the exact role of the
gerosia in the political system is hard to assess
o Given its membership, this council can be seen as an oligarchical (Aristocratic elite) -Element in
the Lacedaemonian constitution
o Members had to be over 60 years of age but had to be the “best and most deserving” (Plutarch
quoting Lykurgus)
o Elected by eklamation in the Ekklesia (Plutarch)
o Elected for life (Aristotle)
o It serves as the court for capital offences (Xenophon)
o The Gerousia could prosecute cases against the kings or others involving lost citizenship/ exile
o they decided the agenda (probouletic function) for the Ekklesia
o had the power to annul or “setting aside” decisions of the Ekklesia (Plutarch)
o originally shared by the kings but later by the ephors
o members were possibly open to corruption because they weren’t answerable to anyone and
were appointed for life (Aristotle)
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• ekklesia
o also known as the Apella (Xenophon)
o membership consisted of all male citizens (Spartites over age 30)
o two conditions to be a citizens were that he had completed the agoge and was a member of the
Syssition
o the Ekklesia elected members of the Gerosia (Plutarch) and the Ephors (Aristotle)
This should have given it considerable power, but that was limited by the rider to the
rhetra, which allowed the Ephors to annul or cast aside decisions of the Ekklesia
(Plutarch)
o the Ekklesia decided which king led the campaign in war (Xenophon)
o voted for or against protocol proposals put by kings, Ephors or members of Gerousia – Ekklesia
could not put forward own proposals voted by acclamation (shouting) but could also
physically divide into ‘Yes’ and ‘No’ groups (Thucydides)
o the Ekklesia had power to ratify foreign treaties
o by the 5th century BC meetings of the Ekklesia presided over the Ephors (Thucydides)
Social structure:
• Spartiates
o Male citizens over age 30
o Had to be born of 2 Spartan parents and survived infantile fitness tests on Mt Taygetus as well
as passed through the AGOGE
o Held all political power
o Was a member of a Syssitia not just a dining group but the Spartan Soldier’s fighting unit
o Sacrificed their individuality to the state
o Spartiates saw themselves as homioi – “equals” who shared in a communal society. Even so
there were inequalities based on wealth (Herodotus)
o Never numbered more than 10 000 (Plutarch)
o Forbidden by laws from engaging in any profession except that of arms (Plutarch)
▪ Were forbidden to have trade or a business
Kleros (property ownership)
- Owned most of the land in the Eurotas valley and Messenia
- All land was divided into allotments
- Gained estates through being awarded by state or by receiving an inheritance
- Lycurgus implemented this system (laws saying citizen estates were not to be divided) (Plutarch)
o “persuaded the citizens to pool all the land and then redistribute it afresh”
o “they would all live on equal terms with one another”
o “the same amount of property to support each”
• Periokoi
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Lived on the outskirts and handled all the trade
Literally “surrounding” (peri-) “householders” (oiki) name means ‘dwellers around’
They were not citizens freed men
Spartan officials could be placed in Perioikoi towns
Were members of different communities spread around Laconia and Messene and were allied
to Sparta
Spartan officials, such as judges and governors, were placed in perioikoi towns
They provided half the Spartan army
▪ Did not undergo same training yet were expect to be hoplites
Had a monopoly on trade and manufacturing
They were apparently able to rule their own communities, but could not form independent
alliances
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o Representative of the communities expected to pay respects and services for death of the
kings
o Archaeological Evidence:
▪ A bronze figurine of Hermes and an engraved gem found at Gytheum.
▪ A Krater found in the tomb of a Celtic woman at Vix, in France, is believed to have been
made in Laconia and was the greatest of its sort and contained 1100 L of wine
• ‘inferiors’
o Hypomeiones – were those who failed the Agoge (educational system from 7years to 30 years)
or could not maintain their contributions to the Syssitia (mass halls)
o Tresantes – those who had lost their citizenships through cowardice in war
o Partheniai – were illegitimate children of Helot mothers and Spartiate fathers
o Neodamodeis – Helots who had become freed men through services in war
o Mothocles – sons of Helots who had been taken into Spartiate households as play companions
for Spartiate children and had subsequently shared in the training of the Agoge
• helots
o Lowest strata of Spartan society and comprised up to 70% of the population, but had no
political rights
o They were not chattel slaves (as in Athens), but state owned Serfs (rural workers) bound to the
land (each Kleros) and could not be bought and sold (Theopompus)
o There were occasions where they could be given freedom – near neodamodeis
o Most Messenians were made Helots when their land was conquered by the Spartans
o Helots worked alone and did most labour – thus freeing Spartiates from such work to
concentrate on military training and Spartan women from many household chores
o They were entitled to a portion of what they produced
o They were obliged to pay a fixed amount (possibly half) to the (Spartiates) owner of the Kleros
they worked (Tyrtateus)
o Spartiate who took more than his entitlement of Helot produce was liable to be cursed in
public
o Helots lived in family units, some in separate communities
o They were seen as having been part of the “Messenian Revolt” (7th century BC) and were
viewed with suspicion by subsequent leaders (Pausanias)
o Messianian helots were ‘traditionally’ seen as more troublesome than their Lykanian
counterpart vacancies
o According to the ancient writer Critias, the Spartans took extra precautions due to vast
numbers/extensive population:
▪ Removable arm bands on shields
▪ Special locks
▪ Always carried spar in fear of helot attack
o According to Xenophon, Helots were;
▪ Often publicly humiliated by their Spartan masters
▪ Sometimes required to fight in foreign wars
▪ Subject to random killing by the Kryptaeia, if found roaming at night
▪ Could be selected for public beatings as an inducement to other Helots to behave
▪ Have war declared on them each year by newly elected magistrates
The Spartan army
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Spartan reputations among Greek Polis based on pre-eminence at war (Xenothon)
Maintain Spartan hegemony in the Peloponnesian because of its military proudness
All training and education of Spartiates focused on their role as Hopolites in the Phalanx
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In peace, the army served to protect the Polis – a safeguard against the possibility of a Helot uprising
Support oligarchies against democracies
Be constantly ready for warfare, particularly against Argos leading power in the Peloponnese and
always remained Sparta’s enemy
By the 4th century BC, army was no more than 4000 of whom only 1000 were Spartiates rest made
up of perioikoi and freed helots (Peter Connolly)
Equipment/armour
• Carried a large round bronze and leather shield (hoplon) – average 1m and weighs 7-8kgs
• Carried a Spartan blazon – a 2-3m wooden spear tipped in bronze and a short iron stabbing sword for
hand-to-hand combat
• Wore a Corinthian style bronze helmet
• Those men who did not have wealth to own horses were expected to serve on foot
o Calvary played less of a role in 7th and 6th centuries due to establishment of tight formation
Organisation
• Hoplites did not fight as individuals but in a phalanx: mass formation standing as close as possible to
each other with shields interlocking
• Phalanx consisted of 12 rows of soldiers and if the front rank fell, those in 2 nd and 3rd stepped up to
replace them tactic was to create a rolling effect that pushes the enemy off balance and collapse
o Once phalanx was broken, it was soon overwhelmed
• Poetry of Tyrtaios, “Now of those, who dare, abiding one beside another, to advance to the close fray,
and the foremost champions, fewer die, and they save the people in the rear; but in men that fear, all
excellence is lost. No one could ever in words go through those several ills, which befall a man, if he
has been actuated by cowardice. For ’tis grievous to wound in the rear the back of a flying man in
hostile war. Shameful too is a corpse lying low in the dust, wounded behind in the back by the point of
a spear.”
• Those liable for military service included:
o Spartiates 18-60 but generally only those 20-50 were called (sons taking their place were
chosen for the most dangerous tasks)
o Perioikoi selected their own men for service originally brigaded separately but later
incorporated into the Spartan units
o Scritae (from rough hill country on the northern edges) formed the special corps and were
placed on the left wing adaptable and often used as scouts and night-time lookouts
o Inferiors – Neodamodeis were helots generally sent on overseas campaigns
o Helots earlier used as shield carriers but later volunteered for service as hoplites
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Strengths
Hoplite phalanx – strong and reliable
High level of preparation – discipline and training
Ability to raise other forces from perioikoi and
helots
Military reputation ensured leadership of allies
in the Peloponnesian league
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Weaknesses
Lacked sufficient cavalry to protect hoplite
infantry from back and flanks (sides)
Training and tactics were inflexible
Was vulnerable to archers, slingers and
javelin throwers
Displayed a lack of skill in attacking fortified
positions and cities
Manpower shortages – especially by 4 BC
Failures
• At the battle of Platai, an officer in the army questioned orders and refused to stage a strategic
withdrawal to a safer place as Spartans do not surrender – was forced to move or be left behind
(Herodotus)
• During Pelopennisian War, they found themselves in an impossible situation to overcome thus forcing
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them to surrender – rather than face death (Thucydides)
o Athenians had isolated them on an island and when the trees/bushes burnt leaving them
exposed, they were attacked by missiles and archers
o They were captured and displayed at the agora in Athens – a 20th century excavator found a
Hoplon with Athenian punched inscriptions there
Control of the helots: the military
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A proclaimed duty of a Spartiate was to protect the Spartan state against Helot insurrection
When at war, Spartiates held Helots as Military servants
Syssitia
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Were public dining groups or messes where food was produced by the Helots which was then
provided by the Spartiate members of each Syssitian monthly contributions
o Included 77L of barley, olive oil and 39 litres of wine, 3kgs of cheese, 1.5kg of fig (etc)
Ate in groups of about 15 with each man contributing barley, wine, cheese and a sum of money for
fish or meat (Plutarch)
Ate their evening meals with their army comrades
Groups were mixed in ages to allow boys to learn from elders
Served as a promotion of conformity
Joining process (Plutarch);
• They have a peace of soft bread and throw it into the bowl a helot carried on his head.
• Those in favour, threw the bread in as it was, while those against squeezed it hard into a ball.
• Even one of these and they would not be granted entry as “all should be happy in each other’s
company”.
krypteia
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This functioned like “secret police” force as functioned to keep the Helot population subjugated
o Used to terrorize the Helots and by harsh example, remind them of Spartan dominance
At the age of 18 young men in the Agoge were co-opted by the Krypteia to murder those Helots who
were out at night and to take their food Plutarch says this happened annually
It is not clear whether this was part of a “rite of passage” to adulthood for young Spartiates
No doubt part of the rigorous Spartan training and may have been part of a series of initiations that
the young men had to pass through before manhood
Were so feared that Plutarch refused to believe that the force could have been instituted by Lycurgus
Artisans, helots
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Artisans and merchants were Periokoi
Armour and weapons making were also done by the periokoi
While Helots contributed to food production through agriculture, Periokoi included fisherman
Household tasks usually performed by slaves in other Greek Polis were done by Helots in Sparta
Educational system: agoge
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The Agoge was the educational system where the sons of the Spartiates based on age groups (boys
enrolled from age of 7) in army barracks to provide physical and military training
There were 3 stages:
o Paides (roughly speaking, ages 7-17)
o Paidkeso (18-19)
o Hebontes (20-29)
Agoge was designed to produce loyal and courageous citizens
It was no designed as a normal school as in modern terms – had no set hours
Aside from athletics, fitness and weapons training, the program included dance and music
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Food was deliberately rationed to encourage theft and if caught, boys were “severely beaten”
(Plutarch)
From the age of 7 boys were put into “packs” within a prefect system – each attached to an older
youth (Eiren- 16 years to 20 years) supervised by an older male called Pananos
From the age of 12 boys would enter into an institutionalised relationship with a young adult male
Spartan (this was considered adolescent)
o Strict rules now governed their bearing and behaviour (Xenophon)
o when in public, were expected to walk in silence with hands under cloaks & eyes on the ground
Once a year, during this phase, they were tested for their endurance by having to run a goglet of being
severely whipped while having to steal cheeses from the temple of arthus offia (Plutarch and
Xenophon)
From the age of 18, students became reserved members of a Spartan army they also in a group of
promising ones, were taken into the Krypetia, testing their skills by declaring war on the Helot
population which encouraged the students to murder those who were out at night and to take their
food
From the age of 20, they became fully part of the Syssitia and the Spartan army although they
continued to live in barracks and continued to compete for a place among the Spartan royal guard of
honour, the Hippeis
o At this age they and grew their hair long and completed the agoge
o As a symbol of change, they played a ritual ballgame in the city’s theatre (rite of passage or
“type of graduation ceremy” as per Kennell) – in teams of sphaireis (ball players) – victors
sacrificed to Herakles
The core objective was the discipline of the Phalanx:
o To serve the Polis (city state)
o Endure hardship
o Show obedience to superiors
o Prefer death to defeat
Academic Education
• Greek city states usually taught differed subjects in a circle of learning that produced well-rounded
Greek scholars
• Sparta however was narrow and specialised in their education and some historians argue that Spartan
children were therefore unable to read or write – that these were not valued at Sparta
o This was an exaggeration as Plutarch says that Spartans ‘learned only enough to serve their
needs’ in terms of reading and writing
• Music both vocal and instrumental was a branch of mathematics and philosophy which was important
o music was believed to be character-forming listening to music in Dorian mode would make
a Spartan manly and brave – encouraging martial attitudes to become good soldiers
Social Education
• was concerned with, above all, with the teaching of social values
• through the Agoge, boys learned what it was to be a ‘Spartan’
• education was ‘calculated to make them obey all commands well, endure hardships and be victorious
in battle’ (Plutarch)
Role and status of women
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Women were owned by their father and later on husband – kyrios (Lord)
Had no public roles (administration/politics) – women’s place was in the home (oikos)
o But may have played a role behind the scenes – Gorgo (wise daughter) advised King Kleomenes
against a bribe (Herodotus)
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land ownership/inheritance
• The Kleros could be passed down within families and in cases where there was no son to inherit,
daughters would be heiresses
• Spartan women were able to acquire wealth – inheriting from fathers and husbands
• Upon marriage women would be able to tend both their husbands and their own land
• Women had responsibility for overseeing the running of the Klero in the absence of men at war
• They did not lose control of their inherited property after marriage
• Spartan emphasis on fitness meant even when Dowries were given, these became the property of the
bride
• In 4th century, 2/5 of land were in the hands of women (Aristotle)
• These were viewed by other Polis as too liberal and with men away and women controlling Kleroi,
some feared this would lead to Gynaikokratia (“government by women”) (Aristotle)
education
• Spartan girls were generally educated separately – presumably around the home (oikos)
• Girls lived at home with their mothers until marriage (around 18)
• They were forbidden to weave or spin – these were done by Helots
• Physical training included running and athletics – sometimes with boys in the Agoge (Plutarch)
• Whilst training, they were allowed to compete in the Gymnopaedia with Spartan youths
• Performed the Bibos – strenuous dance involving jumping and touching the buttocks with the heel
• Physical fitness was seen as essential to produce sons who would be warriors (Plutarch)
• Most specifically female festivals or ceremonies
• Spartan girls were renowned for their beauty, athleticism and independence – ridiculed Spartan boys
who were skinny and underdeveloped (Partheniai)
• Horse ownership and equestrian sports were among wealthy/high-class women
• Women could have horse-related names (eg. Eupolia = well horsed) was often flattering to be
compared to a horse (poet Alkan)
Motherhood
• Most valued as mothers of warriors
• Cult of Artemis Orthia – protectors of women in childbirth
• Maintained fitness to ensure healthy pregnancy and childbirth
• Women were encouraged to “exercise themselves with wrestling, running, throwing the quoit, and
casting the dart, to the end that the fruit they conceived might, in strong and healthy bodies, take
firmer root and find better growth… they, with this greater vigour, might be the more able to undergo
the pains of child-bearing” (Plutarch)
• Spartan babies weren’t restricted by swaddling clothes or irritable, whinny or afraid of the dark – also
weren’t fed “fussy” foods (Plutarch)
• Mothers promoted courage and obedience rather than soothe children’s fears
• Women were responsible for rearing children in early years until boys live in barracks from 7 years
• Mothers can shame and sometimes kill sons who had shown cowardice/disgrace in battle (Pausanias)
• “Spartans value motherhood so highly that there were only two ways a Spartan would receive their
name on a gravestone: death in battle or death in childbirth” (Xenophon)
• despite high status given to motherhood and policies encourage larger families, women had a low
birth rate perhaps with the freedom they enjoyed they did not want to sacrifice for child rearing
• “wife lending” – women could have intercourse with males in order to produce healthy children
(Xenophon) demonstrates how the state is more important than individual
o these children belonged to the state rather than biological parents
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Upon birth, the Ephors would examine the child and determine whether they were allowed to live or
would be left at Mt Taygetos to die
o Infanticide was done privately by other Greek states however Spartan women had no say
Famous Spartan women
• Kyniska
o Known as ‘little hound’, daughter of the King Archelaos ll
o Was wealthy enough to breed, train and compete with horses
o Her horses won a chariot race at Olympia in both 396 and 392BC
o “Kings of Sparta are my brothers and fathers. Kyniska, conquering with a chariot of swift footed
horses, set up this statue, and I declare myself to be the one and only woman in all of Greece
to have gain this crown” (inscription at Olympia 4 BC)
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Helen of Troy
o Was made famous in Homer’s lliad (700BC) not possible to authenticate
o King Agamemnon of Mycenae, a city rich in gold, was able to raise ships to sail to Troy to
recover his sister in law, Helen, who had been stolen by the Prince of Trojan
o Her surpassed beauty made her a Spartan woman icon of beauty and womanhood
Spartan weddings
• Marriage was a crucial rite of passage for Greek women
o Was every woman’s social and anatomical destiny
• Only between 2 Spartans was it deemed legal
• Was considered the perquisite to having children
• Courting husband would approach nubile women’s fathers
o Women without fathers were looked after by the kings
• Women were ready for marriage once they had reached puberty (13/14) normal Greek age
o However Plutarch argues that it happened later at about 18-20 (men were about 25)
• After 500BC it was the law that all men should marry
• Dowries existed at the latest by end of 5th century (Pomeroy) helped to increase the wealth of
families and impoverish others
o A wife with no dowry may have ended up as a spinster
o Fiancés of Lysander’s daughters attempted to renege on the wedding when they discovered
the daughters were poor
• Marriage was often a bleak ritual; “symbolic and ritualised rape”
• Was abducted in the night by her suitor and conveyed to the home of her husband
• Preparation began with cutting the woman’s hair and was to maintain the length closed to cropped
o Women could be forced to where a veil in public (contrast to males who had long hair)
o Plutarch said that the head was shaved
• She was clothed simply; men’s clothing and a simple belt to aid the man’s swift unveiling
• Marriages were kept secret until the wife fell pregnant (Pomeroy)
• Would from then on, meet her husband mostly for procreative reasons
• Men who married under 30 years (generally common) were still part of the agoge and lived in
barracks would need to sneak during the night to see their wives
• Children who came from parents who lusted each other were perceived as stronger to those coming
from parents who frequently saw each other (Xenophon)
• The first years of marriage at Sparta may have been meant to teach the wives and husbands to see
each other mainly as sexual partners and to produce a merely a canine affection (George Orwell)
3. THE ECONOMY
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Land ownership: Agriculture
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Sparta was an agricultural economy due to the fertility of the land of Laconia and Messenia
Fertile valleys of Eurethos and Parmos allowed production of all cultivated food needs
Since Spartan males were full-time soldiers, the state supported them by granting basic allotment of
land known as kleros and Helots to farm and cultivate it
kleroi
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Wealth was in theory derived entirely from landed properties
Basic land holding (Kleros), was cultivated by the Helots who had to annually give a fixed proportion of
produce (possibly half) to the Spartiate owner of the Kleros they worked (Tyrtacus)
distribution of Kleros was traditional and older families had larger holding resulting in marked
differences of wealth within the state
land division also included Periokoi – lykurgus reputedly gave 30 000 alotments to periokoi and details
are unclear (Plutarch)
some Spartans had quite small properties while others had very large ones and women held two-fifths
of the land (Aristotle)
Spartans with smaller kleroi who were unable to keep their contribution to the syssition lost their
citizenship (chief cause in reduction of citizens) (Aristotle)
Economic roles of the periokoi and helots
Periokoi
• Periokoi were the only ones involved in craftwork, trade, commerce, mining, manufacturing and
fishing (these were forbidden to Spartans by the Lycurgan reforms)
• Provided Spartans with furniture, leather goods, fine wool, patterned textiles and purple dye
• Traded for resources that Sparta lacked (copper and tin)
• Manufactured metal products, weapons and armour
• Provided seafood
Helots
• Were state-owned agricultural labourers working the lands of their Spartan masters
• Required to pay a portion of their produce to their masters and the state
• Were expected to provide a rent of 70 medimni of barley for a man and 12 for his wife, along with
proportionate quantities of fresh produce (Plutarch)
• Women did spinning, weaving and domestic chores to allow Spartan women to live luxurious lives
Technology: weapons/armour
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Engaged in a process of ‘smelting and casting metals’
periokoi made hopolite armour and weapons – leather, copper, tin and iron were insufficient supply
as natural resources of Lykurnia and Messene
Spartans were hoplitai (armed men) who fought in formation (the Phalanx) – their armour and
weaponry consisted of: Aspida – Spartan equivalent Hopolon was a large, round wood and metal
shield (large enough to act as a stretcher to be carried on if wounded): covered the Hopolite from Chin
to mint fire – usually emblazoned with the Greek letter (lambda) for Lacaedaemon
Dory – a pike or thrusting spear – wooden handle (4 cm thick and between 1.5 – 3m long) with a metal
iron spear head helmet (Corinthian style) – mainly bronze but reinforced with iron and decorated with
horse hair
Kopms – short slashing sword made of Casytece of bronze or iron (about 60cm in length)
Curiass – body armour made from leather – glued layers of linen and metal in form of a padded corset
Graves – usually bronze
Phoiniks – red wool cloak
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pottery
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Laconian (black figure ware) pottery was highly valued by other Greek setters in the 7 th century BC
along with Bronze work vases (Herodotus)
Potters material came from clay found alone Eurotas river still found there today
Spartan may have included craftsmen, potters, apinters, bakers and musicians up until the start of the
6th century BC (Herodotus)
Potteries have been found at Kynosoura and Mesoa parts of the town
Textiles
• Wool and flax were woven into fabric for Spartan clothing highly prized in other Greek states
• Distinctive red woollen cloaks worn by Spartan soldiers made from dye from a shellfish
Economic exchange:
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Exchange (in earlier times) was by means of barter one good for another
Adopted coinage in 6th century however Lycurgus reforms prevented Spartans from using silver and
gold coinage (Plutarch)
o Used to discourage trading among themselves, hoarding money, ostentatious displays of
wealth and importing goods from outside Sparta
Currency consisted of iron spits (ugly bundles of iron rods) Pelanors
Neither perioki or helots were prohibited from silver or gold, so personal acquisition of such wealth
among these groups was probable
Spartan insistence on use of iron severely restricted trading opportunities with other Greek states
o Reinforces the Xenophobic nature of the society
Despite restrictions on currency, Spartans had other ways of accumulating wealth such as paying fines
or through bribery (Herodotus)
Perioikoi were able to hold gold and silver coins and were able to conduct trade
Imported goods:
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Ivory from Syria
Copper
Lead from Athens
Tin
Disputing the Spartan mirage (economy)
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From Pausanias we gain insight into Gitiadas as an architect and sculptor who built the temple of
Athena Chalkioikos and the cult statue made for it Brian Brennan said he was “definitely Spartiate”
Brennan also argues that if there was a ban on these occupations, “common sense tells us that they
were in fact doing these things originally” and “some specialized work may have continued”
Carteledge also argues the existence of Spartan craftsmen as the Lycurgan reforms may have taken a
while to revolutionise the whole society
o Also argued the existence of cooks and flute players as citizens
Chr Christou interpreted the potter’s kiln found at Mesoa within the city of Sparta as related to
Spartan citizens who were practising a manual craft
Pausanias writes that Teletas and Ariston made a monumental bronze statue of Zeus at Olympia and
there is no other suggestion that they were anything other than citizens – Brennan
Brennan disputes Plutarch’s account of economic exchange “probably used the currency of Aigina”
o Highly influential within allies
Figueira argues that Spartans held secret stocks of precious metals in their homes (in terms of
monetary units of Aigina)
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o Collected an inscription from Sparta (Spartan Museum 6656) that shows during the
Pelopennesian war, Sparta’s supporters made contributions to the Lakedaimonians in coins
4. RELIGION, DEATH AND BURIAL
Gods and goddesses
• Spartans worshipped the Greek pantheon of gods as did all Greeks
• Zeus: Zeus Uranios (King of the Skies/Patron God of the Eurypontids Family) and Zeus Lakedaimonios
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(patron of Lacedaemon/Patron God of the Agiads family) The kings were the chief priests of Zeus
Apollo was worshipped at a sanctuary at Amyclae which contrained a statue of Apollo armed with a
bow and a spear
Artemis Orthia was a combination of two deities
o Sanctuary stood near the Eurotas River
o Artmies; goddess of fertility, women, childbirth and a protector of children to whom Spartan
women prayed for children and aid in pregnancy
o Orthia; early Spartan goddess about whom little is known
Athena Chalkioikos of the Bronze House; main goddess of the city
o Worshipped at a temple with large bronze doors
Poseidon and his wife Amphitrite were featured in bronze reliefs in the Temple of Athena of the
Bronze House
o Poseidon was also worshipped at a temple near Cape Taenaron
Demeter; guardian of women
Religious practices associated with gods included: Prayers/hymns, making votive offerings and
sacrifices, pouring libations of wine, oil or honey into the ground
Athena
• Athena Poliouchos (Athena of the City) was the protector of the polis with her sanctuary on the
acropolis
o Women dedicated 4/10 bronze bells found inscribed and dedicated to Athena
o Over 40 bronze and 80 terracotta bells without inscriptions were dedicated to her
o Bells were seen as military in nature but could have been for musical performances
• In some places she was a war goddess and patron of arts
o Along with protection of city
Apollo
• The most sacred object in Lakonia was an ancient statue of Apollo at Amyklai (Kathryn Welch)
o Pausanias considered the statue to be “ancient and without artistry”
o No tomb has been uncovered
o Tsountas found roof tiles with inscriptions saying they belonged to Apollo at the Amyklaion
and later identified a circular altar that has been excavated
• Represents sun and hence divine life giving force
• Patron of poets and musicians and divination
• Apollo was associated with Hyakinthos
Artemis Orthia Cult
• Was the patron goddess of Sparta; fertility, childbirth and protector of women/children health
• Sometimes called the ‘mistress of the wild thing’ and is shown in art as woman with wings holding
animals was an earlier Spartan goddess little is known about her
• Her sanctuary stood near the Eurotas River outside the centre of Sparta (one of few physical evidence)
• Was the sister of Apollo (Children of Zeus and Leto)
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Ancient nature goddess associated with plant and animal life excavations have found many
figurines of lead depicting men and women playing flutes and lyres and grotesque masks (terracotta)
Spartan interest in this cult reflected their nurturing of and investment in the young (Pomeroy)
Importance demonstrates how highly Spartans valued the need to produce healthy offspring
A ritual, associated with Artemis Orthia involved Spartan youths trying to steal cheeses from her altar
o Older youths with whips defended the altar against them
o This was a rite of passage for boys to display bravery, physical prowess, teamwork and
determination
o This test of courage and pain took place in front of family and friends
o The bloodletting from the whipping was a substitute for human sacrifice (Pausanias)
Archaeological evidence:
o Many small votive offerings in the form of lead figurines have been found at her sanctuary
o Little carved figures that are left by people who pray there: giving in the hopes of good returns
o Over two hundred ivory objects have been found here
o Small statuettes of animals such as sheep, stags and lions
o Brooch plates depicting the goddess or animals
Myths and legends
Spartan Mirage
• There are no actual witnesses of the overall operation of Spartan society (Plutarch)
• Laws of Lycurgus were no longer enforced by his time (Xenophon)
• Spartan state was seen as a model of patriotism and military discipline that was greatly admired by the
Nazis –preserving blood lines, racial superiority, xenophobic culture (Brian Brennan)
• In years leading up to mid 1900s, French Historian Francois Ollier published a book ‘Le Mirage
Spartiate’ which catalogued the distorting effect of the idealization of Sparta that is founded in ancient
writers what we know is merely a literary construct rather than historical reality
Herakles; semi-divine hero from whom the Spartan kings claimed descent
• Noble families traces their ancestry to the hero Herakles
• Spartans referred to themselves as Herakleidai
• According to mythology he:
o returned to Laconia with the Dorian invaders
o entered the underworld at Cape Taenaron at the tip of the Laconian peninsula to fulfil the last
of his 12 labourers; to bring back Cerbeus (the black dog who guarded the underworld)
Dioskouri; Castor and Polydeuces (pollux) twin sons of Zeus
• legendarily half human and half divine (their mother was human)
o another legend claimed they were shared divinity and immortality on alternate days
• their sister was Helen of Troy
• had a special following in Sparta due to their association with the kings
• according to legend, they protected soldiers who fell peril during battle
• were associated with athletic contests
Menelaos and Helen; involved in the legend of the Trojan War
• Sparta was the home of Helen of Troy and her famous twin brothers Castor and Polydeuces
o All three were children of Zeus
o Twin brothers were strongly associated with the region of Therapne
• When Paris, son of the Priam King, kidnapped Helen, Menelaos convinced his brother, King
Agamemnon of Mycenae to raise an army of Greek forces to attack Troy and avenge the abduction
o this memory is commemorated at the shrine referred to as the Menelaion
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o Agamemnon (Menelaus brother) and Cassandra from Troy were honoured at Amyklaion shrine
Lycurgus; ancestral lawmaker hero who supposedly gave Sparta its political and social institutions
• also received ritualistic worship as he supposedly one who gave meaning to what Spartans should be
• As per Herodotus, the oracle of Apollo at Delphi recognised Lycurgus’ divinity and when he died a
temple was constructed in his honour
• As per Plutarch in ‘Life of Lycurgus’, he was venerated for his wisdom and virtue
o Was awarded the highest honour upon death
o Was gifted sacrifices every year
• Ancient historians viewed him as a real person, while modern historians view him as a shadowy,
mythological figure
Festivals
• Religious festivals were significant to Spartan life; apart from honouring gods they were useful in
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o The kings served as chief priests, reinforcing the amalgamation of religion/government/values
Participated in big Hellenic festivals at Olympia and Delphi but had their own distinctive festivals
Inferiors were excluded from some festivals;
o Agamoi (those who didn’t produced sons as state required) were excluded from Gymnopaedia
o Tresantes (shown cowardice at battle) were allowed to attend but had to endure humiliation
such as giving up their seats to younger men
Karneia
• An extremely important festival for Spartans; it was a harvest festival held in late summer
o Was held over nine days during August
• It is supposed that a prophet called Karnos who could see the future once lived in Sparta but was killed
by sons of Herakles this prophet was considered to be a manifestation of Apollo (Pausanias)
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the festival was concerned with divination and finding out the Will of Apollo
• It celebrated the history of Sparta, including the migration of the Doric people
• Celebrations included:
o Nine men, representing Spartan brotherhoods lived for nine days in basic shelters near the
Temple of Apollo
o A ram or ‘Karnos’ was sacrificed and musical contests were held in honour of the god of music
o ‘catch the runner race’ Included a foot-race in which young men chased a man wearing a
garland, resembling the chasing of prey (5 runners were chosen from each of the three tribes)
▪ if he was caught it was a good omen for the coming year
• During this time, Spartans could not participate in wars or battle this was why they arrived late to
the Battle of Marathon
• Has been an interpreted reflection of the agoge although it has been associated with earlier
agricultural activities
Hyakinthia
• Named after Hyakinthos, lover of God Apollo who died when Apollo accidently hit him with a discus
o Hyacinth flower believed to have sprung from his blood
o discus with inscribed dedication to Apollo has been recovered – now at Athens museum
• Festival of Hyakinthia took place in the Summer (dying vegetable cult)
o Celebrated at Amyklai where a huge statue of Apollo and the tomb of Hyakinthos was situated,
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As per Athenaeus;
o There were rites of sorrow and mourning in Hyakinos’ honour
o No wearing of wreaths or singing joyful songs were allowed
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o Eating of bread and cakes were forbidden: there was a special funeral meal then a day of ritual
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grief offerings were places at the dead youth’s tomb
This was followed by rejoicing the honour of Apollo, wearing wreaths, singing of songs, sacrificing to
Apollo, a communal feast, a procession to Amyclae, choral songs and dance
The festival combined a commemoration for the dead with a thanksgiving for life (Hooker)
Gymnopaedia
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Considered the most solemn of all Laconian festivals (Pausanias)
Was held during the height of summer (JULY) and involved gymnastic displays, athletic competitions
and musical events for every age group
o Choral and dance competitions
o Young naked unarmed boys of not military age performed athletic dances to the flute and lyre
The festival’s music was written to commemorate Sparta’s defeat by Argos at the Battle of Hysiae in
669BC (Oswyn Murray)
o The festival became a method to stop evil for his defeat
Others suggest this festival was to appease the gods after the defeat by Argos and to commemorate
the event for future generations
Lycurgus emphasised social obedience at the festival and those who did not follow the standards were
excluded from events (especially the agamoi)
Was a festival important for demonstrating prestige and the seating at the festival was of great
importance
Funerary customs and rituals
Funerary Customs
• Little physical evidence of funerary customs has been uncovered
• Lycurgus decreed that only men who died in battle or women in childbirth should be given marked
graves and were mourned for 10 days (Plutarch)
o On 12th day, mourners were to sacrifice to Demeter and abandon their grief
o Tomb and cenotaph were a soldier’s reward for bravery in battle
• Large pottery amphora from 7th century BC, now in museum of Sparta, marked the grave of a Spartan
warrior
o Reliefs around the amphora show a hunting scene and a procession of men and chariots
• Unlike Athens, where cemeteries were outside the city, Spartan burials and mortuary temples were
allowed within the city Greeks were typically fearful of the dead
• In the 2nd century AD, he remarked that Sparta was packed with the memorials to the city’s battle
heroes and that every year Spartan made speeches to them or play funerary games (Pausanias)
• “his fame and good name will never perish utterly for he is immortal in his grave” – Tyrtaeus
• Herodotus describes the funeral rites for the kings;
o “when one of their kings dies, not only the Spartans, but a number of people from every part
of Laconia are forced to attend the funeral. So these persons and the helots and Spartans
themselves, flock together to the number of several thousands, men and women intermingled,
saying always their last king was the best. If a king died in battle, then they make a statue of
him and place it upon a couch and carry it to the grave. After the burial, by the space of 10
days, there is no assembly nor do they elect magistrates but continue mourning”
o eg. Statue of King Leonidas found in the Temple of Athena Chalkioikos (battle of Thermopylae)
• graves have been excavated at Mesoa by Chr Christou uncovering evidence that wild boars and oxen
were sacrificed and eaten at the time of burials bones were found
• graves have shown a man’s pithos (bones in pottery container) burial had iron weapons, a sword, a
dagger and bronze ornaments – women had bronze cylinders and spiritual rings
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Prayers and hymns
• fragments of Alkman’s poetry was sung as a hymn preserving some elements of prayer forms such as
INVOCATION which was the calling down of a god or goddess to take note of prayer and worship
Libations: ritual in which wine/oil/honey is poured into the ground as an offering to a god
• took place at banquets
• before the revellers drank the wine themselves they poured some for the gods
• libations were also made at tombs and funerals intended for those who now lived in the underworld
Divination: predicting the future by supernatural means
• gods might provide warnings through oracles
• kings had his own mantis on military campaign who interpreted supernatural signs or omens
o Thucydides states that on 4 occasions, invasion of territory at Argos was abandoned due to
unfavourable omens from sacrifices
o Brennan suggests that divination could be assumed to be manipulated by kings to avoid going
to battle with low success prospects
• ephors engaged in this process through star gazing if they saw a shooting star once every nine
years on a clear moonless night, this was interpreted as the kings committing a religious sin (Plutarch)
5. CULTURAL LIFE
Many accept the negative assessment of the Athenian historian Thucydides that the city looked like a mere
collection of villages that were simple and idealised by Plutarch. However, early Sparta had a vibrant culture
and appeared powerful, wealthy and otherwise a normal aristocratic community (A.R Burn)
Art
Sparta produced sculpture in stone and marble, large and small bronze artefacts, carved ivories and an
original and confident style of ceramics exported around the Mediterranean.
1 Sculptures
o Sculpture in stone and marble was mostly associated with religion
o Little remains of sculpture in stone because for centuries the site of Sparta was used as a
quarry
2 Bronze work
o Second half of 6th century was a golden age for bronze work
o Small figures of female goddesses and worshippers, male craftsmen, Spartan soldiers in
armour, naked and running athletes, small mirrors, elaborate mixing bowls, water jars and
tripods
o masterpiece called the Vix Krater found in a Celtic Princess’s burial in northern France
▪ Is 1.64m high with a diameter of 1.4m and shows 23 groups of figures in relief: warriors
and chariots most impressive bronze to have survived from the ancient world
o Huge bronze statue of Apollo was found in Amyklai
o Statue of Athena Chalkiokos who Pausanias speaks that Gitiadas made it
o Bronze vessels: Pesaro hydria, Grächwil hydria a status statement to impress
3 Ivory
o Well established in the 7th century
o Reflected an Eastern influence as Syrian and Phoenician traders sourced the ivory from Africa
and both countries had a rich tradition in ivory work
o Over 200 carvings were found in sanctuary of Artemis Orthia (one that was 24cm showed a
complex scene of the arrival/departure of a warship)
o An ivory plague has been found depicting the arrival or departure of a warship
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o Ivory combs have also been found from the shrine of Artemis Orthia depicting two horses and
a fallen soldier or two sphinxes flanking a man they are attacking
4 Paintings
o Laconian I – geometric decoration 7th century
o Laconian II – ornate style of Friezes featuring animals, fish and birds
o Laconian III – pottery featuring human subjects that told stories (mythologies) 6th century
▪ Are valuable sources as they record scenes of riding, hunting, fighting and banqueting
▪ A laconian vase known as the Arkesilas Cup is unique as it depicts a contemporary
scene of a king supervising the loading of cargo on a ship
Architecture
No remains of Spartan houses have been excavated and our chief sources for Spartan public buildings
are a number of excavated sites as well as Pausanias’ A guide to Greece
A number of details from buildings suggest that Sparta
Within 6th century, there was an assembly hall known as the skias (canopy) constructed by an architect
from the island of Samos, with a massive stoa greatly admired by those who were permitted to visit
Was also the commemorative Persian Stoa built after the Greek victory over the Persians (5 th century)
Temple of Artemis Orthia (700BC) was rebuilt in 580BC after its destruction by a flood
▪ had doric columns and a gabled roof with a stone lion on top of the pediment
Menelaion was located at Therapne, 5km north-east of Sparta
▪ Rebuilt in 5th century of blue and white limestone 8m high
Amyklaion located 5km south of Sparta a building that served as a throne for an ancient cult statue
of Apollo
Music/Writing and literature
• During 7th century, Sparta attracted famous poets and musicians from all over the Greek World
• Spartan poetry and music were closely linked
o Poetry was recited by groups or sung by dancing choruses
• Songs were accompanied by stringed instruments (Kithera) and wind instruments (auloi)
o 6th century drinking cup ‘kylix’ shows a figure playing the aulos
• Songs included those for praise, battle songs, drinking, politics or consolation
o Three men most associated with poetry and music were Alcman, Tyrateus and Terpander
• Alcman (middle of 7th century) is best known for:
o lyric poetry which evokes the seasons
o The melodies of the birds
o The towering mountains of Laconia
o He wrote the Partheneion or Maiden Song, sung by young girls at festivals while he
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Tyrtateus – ‘the soldier’s poet’
o Wrote at least 5 books of propaganda addresses and military songs urging courage, manliness
and discipline
o Eunomia (good order) was a poem written to inspire the flagging spirits of the Spartan soldiers
during their war against the Messenians and to soothe the passions of the people in political
upheaval after war
Terpander is believed to have been the first to establish music in Sparta
o He was an innovator, changing the form of music to one more suited to the elaborate drilling
and dancing practised in Sparta
Greek writers’ views of Sparta
Most contemporary Greek writers knew little about Sparta as:
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no Spartan chose to share his knowledge with the outside world
Sparta had an oral tradition of heroes of a founder of their way of life and of warrior society which
may have not been accurate as storytellers had the agenda to continue the tradition
Foreigners were no longer welcomed in Sparta from 6 th century
Greek writers included:
❖ Herodotus – praised Sparta for its Battles (particularly Thermopylae and Plataea) during the Persian
Wars but told scandal about the kings and a few pieces about the constitution and history
❖ Thucydides – wrote the History of the Peloponnesian War and from personal observation that was not
detached and objective. He found the Spartans, slow and backward-looking, inflexible, suspicious and
secretive (did not trust them)
❖ Xenophon – Athenian soldier who lived among the Spartans for many years and turned to heroworship of the contemporary military machine and its military leaders. He believed their success was
the product of an unchanging system imposed by Lycurgus.
❖ Plato – a Greek philosopher who believed Spartan disciplined, austerity and authoritarianism was the
‘good life’
❖ Aristotle – a Greek philosopher who lived when Sparta was in decline was extremely critical of the
system. Unfortunately, most of his writings on the constitution in the 330s has disappeared.
The Sparta created by these writers was based on Plutarch’s extensive writings in 1st century AD
6. EVERYDAY LIFE
Daily life and leisure activities
Spartan men and women had more time for leisure than any other Greeks (Helots to farm land and
Perioikoi to engage of trade and crafts as well as slaves to attend to household duties)
Ancient sources reveal that Lycurgus did not want them to waste their time in idleness but rather in
choral dances, festivals, banquets, hunting trips and physical exercise of conversation
Males were predominantly devoted to military training and drill; conversing, telling stories and jokes
with their peers in barracks/syssitia and political duties once over 30 years
Athletics was a favoured leisure activity – men engaged in sports, running and wrestling
Many of the winners of the stadion (running) at the Olympics were Spartans
Females were also known for their running and jumping
Spartans had a passion for horses: breeding, horse racing and four horse chariot racing at the PanHellenic competitions in which they had great success
o Those who could not afford horses would spectate
o Women could also breed, train and enter horses in major competitions (but did not drive their
own chariots except around Sparta during the Hyakinthia)
Hunting on the slopes and forests of Mt Taygetus was popular for males
o Developed a man’s courage and agility and make him a better soldier
o Even those without hunting dogs and equipment could hunt and share equipment (Xenophon)
o Quarry was chased on horseback or stalked on foot with helot beaters carrying nets and dogs
o Killing of animals were done up close with a javelin and spear
o Hunting boars was dangerous – thus killing one was marked with distinction
Cockfighting was also popular in Sparta as the aggressive cocks who fought to death were symbols of
the hoplite soldiers with their crested helmets
Wild boar hunting was evident in which Pausanias provides insight into how they were raised in
captivity and matched against others at an area known as ‘The Plane-Trees’ this was annual
tradition where men separated into two teams and boars would fight to the death
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Enjoyed music and dancing to the flute or lyre (they represented battles, military drills or simulated
wild animal hunts – religious dances were also common)
o Songs offered stimulus to rouse the spirit and encouragement for energetic, effective actions
(Plutarch)
Banquets or ‘symposions’ were associated with religious occasions but unlike other cities, were more
sober celebrations due to Spartan ‘prohibition of drunkenness’
o Can be evidenced by a Lakonian kylix found in Etruria which shows a symposia
Clothing
Modern historians suggest that there was a ‘language of dress’ to distinguish between free citizens, young in
training, disgraced and those enslaved
Spartiates
• According to Plutarch and Xenophon, Lykurgus laid down rules for dress
• depicted in a kilt style wrapped in cheap and coarse cloak called tribon
• Simplicity and austerity was to mask the differences of wealth and power
o Most distinctive and famous garment was the purple/red battle cloak (phoinikis) made from
finest Laconian wool to mark them as soldiers
• Soldiers wore their hair long and grew a beard (sign of maturity) but moustaches were banned
o Means of conformity
Young Boys in the Agoge
• Wore a chiton all over body garment made from a rectangle of cloth wrapped around the body
from the right back to the right
• Was then pinned to shoulders and tied around the waist
• At twelve, boys wore a himation which was a cloak made from a large oblong of material
• Boys had their hair cut short when they entered the agoge
Social outcasts
• Spartans disgraced for fleeing or failing in battle wore a cloak of coloured patches and shaved off half
their beards
• “a uniform of exclusion” – Ehpraim David
• those men who did not marry at the certain age were humiliated and stripped of Spartan status by the
Ephors in winter when they would be forced to run naked in a circle parading in the agora singing a
special song
Helots
• Helots wore dog skin caps and animal skins (Myron of Priene)
• Used to degrade, humiliate and dehumanize them
• “a bestial uniform” – Ephraim David
Females
• Women dressed modestly in a Dorian peplos (woollen rectangular garment) – opened on the right to
reveal their thigh as they walked formal wear
• Everyday tunic was known as a chitton
• Wore little jewellery and no makeup or expensive perfume
o Bronze pins and brooches worn by women to pin the pelos were found to be highly decorative
with scenes carved from mythology
• Exercised in short slit skirts
• ‘there was nothing disgraceful in the light clothing of the girls for they were modest’ (Plutarch)
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• ‘no Spartan girl could lead a respectable life even if she wanted to: they leave their house in loose
dresses showing naked thighs’ (Euripides)
Food
• recorded as having moderate eating habits to prevent them becoming fat and listless (Plutarch)
• while food was basic, was nutritious even though other Greeks regarded it as plain & unappetising
• food consisted of:
o black broth – made from pork, vinegar and blood
o barley – made into porridge and bread
o wheat – made into bread and cakes
o fruit – particularly figs
o vegetables – radishes, beans, celery, olives, olive oil
o honey
o goat’s milk cheese
• usually only small portions of meat such as pork, poultry and fish were eaten but occasionally hunting
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provided game meat such as wild boar, deer and hare
wine was drunk but were in small amounts to avoid getting intoxicated
Marriage customs
• marriage was taken seriously but customs seemed strange to other Greeks
• rationale behind customs was to produce healthy babies and to increase citizen numbers
o there was evidence (FROM POEMS OF ALCMAN) of feelings of love
• men and women were not permitted to marry until they had reached a physical prime (18 for girls and
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20 for a man) - Xenophon
‘bride and capture’ – Plutarch
o shaving the bride’s head first then dressed her in a man’s cloak and sandals
o laid her down alone on a mattress in the dark
o groom was first have dinner at the mess then would slip in an undress the bride
o after a short time, would depart discreetly and this custom continued
until they were 30, men slept in barracks only visiting wives by stealth at night
o Xenophon and Plutarch suggested that this practice created self-control, increased fertility,
heightened their desire at the next meeting and made offspring stronger
no adultery was recorded in Sparta – but wife sharing was evident
o men were able to approach another man to seek permission to sleep with his wife
nothing known about divorce – lack of can be explained by women owning their dowry and if divorce
it would need to be repaid
men who weren’t married were excluded from the Gymnopaedia
Spartan government gave exemptions from the military service and taxation for those who produced
three or four sons (Aristotle)
occupations
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All Spartiates between 4th and 6th century BC were full time soldiers – during their absences, women
supervised the management of their estates
Typically;
o Perioikoi were craft workers, manufacturers, fishermen & traders (little known about women)
▪ Women guessed to be involved in textile production
o Helots were the agricultural workers and nurses in Spartan families
o Both perioikoi and helots played a part in the army