PHILO 107 Moral Philosophy CHAPTER 1 Ethics: Its Meaning, Nature, and Scope Ethics and morality are two words which are oftentimes used interchangeably. Etymology • Derived from the Greek word “ethos” which means custom or a particular way of acting and behaving • Custom would also mean as a form of behavior or character • Latin equivalent of custom is “mos” or ”mores” which the word morality has as its root • The other name of ethics is morality, given its synonymity Ethics and Morality Distinguished • Ethics specifically studies morality • Ethics is a set of standards set by a community • Morality gives ethics a particular perspective of what to study about—the rectitude of whether an act is good or bad, right or wrong • Morality provides a quality that determines and distinguishes right from wrong conduct A Philosophy of Action • There is a difference between knowledge and action or knowing and doing • Knowledge is not always performed—it does not lead to or results to practical action • “Learning” ethics does not actually guarantee morality on the part of the person’s concrete and practical conduct and behavior • Ethics is the word while morality is the flesh • Morality is the application or praxis of ethics A Practical Discipline • Ethics should be a way of life—a discipline which has an intimate connection with the daily lives of man • There should be an interaction between knowledge and practice • One can become adept at the theories and principles concerning morality without ever being moral The Importance of Studying Ethics • Ethics is an area of knowledge which is indispensable in the living of life which is “truly human” • The idea of right and wrong has been a major dominant theme of various religions, cultures, and societies throughout human civilization • Ethics and morality served as the very foundation of every human society • Ethics can guide us in determining what’s right or wrong in moral dilemmas • It can enable us to reason out our moral beliefs and why we hold them and to critically examine the ground and foundation of our moral beliefs and claims whether valid or not • Ethics broadens our understanding and makes us appreciate the richness and diversity of ethical views held by various thinkers through the ages The study of ethics is not only instrumental but also valuable. It is satisfying to have knowledge of important matters for its own sake. Ethics can deepen our reflection on the ultimate questions of life—what it means to be human, what makes life worth living. Ethics vs. Law Why do we still need ethics if we have laws to guide us on how to be good? Are the laws not enough to tell us what’s right and wrong? • • • • Ethical rules are necessary even though laws are implemented by civil authorities. Legality is not identical with morality (and vice versa)—what is moral may not be legal and what is legal may not be moral. Laws are only concerned with public actions— those harmful to those around us and generally the common good Ethics goes beyond the concern and parameters of law because it includes human motivations in its investigation—it includes the thoughts and feelings of • • • • • • individuals and subjects them to moral analysis and evaluation Morality and ethics cover those actions that we do in private or those actions that do not directly harm others—it concerns our innermost motives and intentions albeit not carried out concretely Laws are usually the product of a collective agreement or social contract—of a majority vote more often Morality is not about how many people favor and decide if something is right or wrong. Ethics serves as the foundation of our laws— laws are not morally sensible without ethics The only way for a law to be enacted or repealed is for more people to make mature, conscious, and reflective discussions and decisions about right and wrong. Making a decision as to what’s good and bad is not a popularity contest Morality precedes legality Definition In Philosophy: Ethics is defined as the practical science of the morality of human act or conduct and of the good life. It is also known as moral philosophy. It deals with how we ought to live, the idea of good and with concepts as right and wrong. In Science: Ethics is a body of knowledge systematically arranged and presented in such manner that it arrives at its conclusions coherently and logically. • • Ethics vs. Religion • Ethics has an intimate relationship between religion or theology—an area of knowledge which is normative like law. While people identify morality with religion, most religions have a long history of internal arguments and interpretations about the nature and content of moral law. • • Ethics solely relies on natural reason, logic, and experience while religion relies primarily on supernatural reason—divine revelation or authority Morality does not necessarily need to be grounded in divine revelation because some can examine their views using reason, reflection, and common sense Ethics tries to investigate and examine critically (as well as systematically through the use of natural reason) certain principles and codes of right or wrong pertaining to human action It tries to ask fundamental questions like “What constitutes the good life for human beings?,” “What is the basis or standard by which human actions can be judged as good or bad, right and wrong?,” etc. It deals with ultimate principles and truth concerning the morality of human conduct through human reason and experience, not supernatural or divide means. Essentially, ethics deals with the study of the right conduct of the human person. Material Object Human conduct or the act done by a human person which they are conscious of— proceeding from one’s deliberation and free will—for which one is held morally responsible for Formal Object Morality or the moral rectitude or goodness of human act or conduct. It deals with the human person’s right conduct, whether their actions conform to right reason which is the norm of morality This makes ethics a critical normative and prescriptive discipline— explaining how one ought to behave not how one actually behaves. Divisions of Ethics 1. General Ethics • The basic course in the study of ethics • Mainly deals with the morality of human acts—major elements or modifiers, the norms of morality— law and conscience, and determinants of morality—major sources 2. Special or Applied Ethics • Applies the specific and fundamental norms and principles of general ethics in areas of human life in the individual and social domain i. Family ii. State iii. The church • Applies to other societal issues and concerns i. Rights and duties ii. Ecology/environment iii. Labor and work ethics iv. Sex and marriage v. Bioethics vi. Politics and government Kinds of Valuation and Types of Norms Norms are elements by which human conduct is determined and assessed. A norm is a rule, standard, or measure—something by which an act or conduct is measured as good or bad, right or wrong, moral or immoral. 1. Technical Norm • Man’s needs which come from bodily space-time limitations • Has something to do with survival, health, and well-being • Concerned with problems of effecting change, of transforming the natural forces • Concerned with the techniques of how certain things should be done or not done • e.g.: right way of planting rice, correct way of constructing the roof of a house, not the proper way of washing the dishes, being coerced into doing a presentation in a certain way 2. Societal Norm • Has something to do with the need for group cohesion and for strengthening the bonds that keep communities together • Deviating from such norms merit criticism because of being disruptive to societal relations • e.g.: certain manners of attire, speaking, and conducting oneself, certain rituals, knocking first before opening the door, not picking one’s nose in public, • This is also branded as etiquette 3. Aesthetic Norm • Refers to typical perceptual forms regarding color, shape, space, movement, sound, feeling and emotion, touch and texture, taste, scent, and odor • Considered by the community to be beautiful, cathartic, or heightening man’s existence because it celebrates the human spirit • e.g.: the new Star Wars movie is bad, country music is good, the food sold in the cafeteria, RuPaul was a disgrace at the Met Gala, Sasha Velour’s fashion sense is impeccable, Jasmine Masters’ is hilarious, and I oop— 4. Ethical or Moral Norm • Some ideal vision of a human person • An ideal state of perfection that serves as the ultimate goal and norm • Actions are judged as right or wrong • Communities develop nonnegotiables which they consider with the ultimate worth and consideration as the sense of direction for human life • All of the above norms are subordinated to this moral or ethical norm Identifying and differentiating the different types of norms allows us to pinpoint accurately and consistently what type of valuation we are making in a given context. In this way, we can make meaningful, relevant, and critical assessments on moral issues and actions that we encounter. us. Morality may not take the form of clear moral rules or precise moral actions—more so of being an awareness that allows us to subtly evaluate a given situation. This also allows us to have a rough guide as to what belongs to a discussion of ethics—characterizing each by gravity and concern of the human wellbeing or life itself. There should be a balance in our lives without neglecting any areas, since the complexity of human life allows us to not only focus on one but give justice to other areas of life. However, distinction is not always so clearly defined. The question of what is grave and trivial is debatable, and some heated discussions revolve around whether certain human activities belong to such distinctions. (e.g.: dress code being a question of taste, Duterte’s manner of speaking being a matter of ‘culture’) Characteristics of Moral Principles The Moral Dimension of Human Existence The experience of morality is part of every person’s life, finding its way into obligations, experience of actions which should either be performed or avoided, and even in human conversations. However, it can be asked whether the whole of the human experience falls under the domain of morality or not. Three positions arise out of these questions: 1. Morality is understood as occupying only one area among the many in human life, hence the term “A-morality”. Other areas called “non-moral” have their own meanings, rules, and goals which are independent from moral or ethical evaluation. Morality’s scope is confined to a limited area in human experience. 2. The second position states that all of human life is under the domain of morality. Morality—recognizing and following its rules—is ever present and necessary for man to be truly human. This would affirm that there are clear-cut moral rules for every situation in life. 3. A middle ground position presents that morality is not just limited to a few areas of life, is found in every situation in various ways, and is more in the background while not being explicitly thought about to guide Moral principle is an important feature of morality. A consensus has been reached to describe certain moral principles in particular and morality in general: 1. Reasonability • Moral judgments must be backed by good reasons and not be clouded by emotions and feelings • Those not appealing to reason and common sense merit suspicion and reservation 2. Impartiality • An ethical or moral rule should be neutral when it comes to its recipients • Moral standards should apply to everyone regardless of one’s status of living and situation in life • These should not serve the interest of a few • e.g.: condemning discrimination like sexism and racism 3. Prescriptivity • Moral principles should be practical or action-guiding • Put forth as imperatives and commands that intend to direct people on what to do and avoid • e.g.: do not kill, love your neighbor, do not lose your wig during lip syncs 4. Overridingness • Moral standards must have hegemony and control • These should reign supreme and override other principles and have precedence over other standards (including technical, legal, etc.) e.g.: morality over legality, morality over technicality, people over doctrine Autonomous from Arbitrary Authority • Moral standards should stand on their own logic independent of the arbitrariness of the majority • We can always logically challenge the tyranny of numbers and the tide of public opinion on matters of right and wrong • Moral rules only bow before right reason even if there are undue pressure from the mob • To follow where the better argument leads is morality’s sole guiding light Publicity • Moral rules must be made public to serve as clear guidelines for our actions • It would be self-defeating to keep these moral standards from public knowledge—demanding accountability and impartiality Practicability • Moral rules should not be impossible to achieve Universalizability • Moral rules and principles must be applicable to everyone • 5. 6. 7. 8.
