Four Letters to Parents Four
Letters to Parents
about Children’s Writing Impairments
Cynthia J. Johnson, Ph.D., Colleen Fahey, Kaitlin Soukup, Kathleen Walsh, Rachel Einck Jenna Gale Christine Jakob
Rachel Einck, Jenna Gale, Christine Jakob, Kathryn Nollin, Lisa Przybysz, Mary‐Kelsey Coletto, Carly Sullivan, and Amanda Zerull
and Amanda Zerull
Dept. of Speech & Hearing Science
University of Illinois at Urbana‐Champaign
University of Illinois at Urbana
Champaign
Annual Convention of the American Speech‐Language‐Hearing Association
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November 21, 2009
New Orleans, LA
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Abstract
Four letters to the parent of a child with a writing impairment were Four
letters to the parent of a child with a writing impairment were
fashioned after a 2000 series by Penelope Hall, but addressing a different impairment, in this case writing difficulties. As per Hall's format, Letter 1 addressed "Characteristics" of a writing impairment; Letter 2, "Nature and Causes" of a writing impairment; Letter 3, "Other Problems Associated" with a writing impairment; and Letter 4, "Treatment" for a writing impairment.
Introduction and Method
Four letters to the parent of a child with a writing impairment were Four
letters to the parent of a child with a writing impairment were
created by a class of 11 M.A. students, as a class project in an advanced seminar on Writing Development and Disorders in Children, taught by the first author. The letters were fashioned after a series of letters about The
letters were fashioned after a series of letters about
developmental apraxia of speech (DAS), published by Penelope Hall in Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools in 2000. As in the DAS letter series, each letter addressed a different aspect of the targeted disability, in this case, developmental writing g
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impairments. The information about clinical practice for writing impairments contained in each letter is based on evidence from the current literature. Reference
Hall, P. (2000). Part I: Speech characteristics of the disorder, Part II: The nature and causes of DAS Part III Other problems often associated
nature and causes of DAS, Part III, Other problems often associated with the disorder, and Part IV: Treatment of DAS. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 31, 169‐181.
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Letter 1: Characteristics of a Writing Impairment
Dear Parent(s),
This letter is intended to address your thoughts and concerns about your child’s writing skills. We are writing to you as speech‐language pathologists to assist in identification and remediation of your child’s writing difficulties. The American Speech‐Language‐Hearing Association (ASHA, 2001) defines it as a role of the speech‐language pathologist to address the needs of children with writing difficulties. Perhaps you are worried that your child is at risk for developing writing difficulties, you have noticed that p y
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your child struggles with the writing process, or your child is having academic problems related to writing. Data from the US Department of Education indicate that “a large majority of school children, including those without obvious disabilities, experience writing difficulties” (Puranik, Lombardino, and Altmann, 2008, p. 107). Children who find writing difficult early in their education often perform poorly on academic measures (Nancollis, Lawrie, and Dodd, 2005). Therefore, it is important for parents to be informed of some of the characteristics exhibited by children who are at risk or have writing difficulties. This letter will outline common characteristics of children with writing difficulties. By first identifying exactly what is involved with the writing process, from brainstorming ideas to getting them down on paper, we hope to help you recognize that a lot goes into the complex task of writing. Furthermore, by providing characteristics common to children with writing difficulties, our goal is to aid you in understanding what is involved in a writing impairment. Table 1 is an outline of what we will discuss in this letter:
Table 1. Characteristics of a Writing Impairment
__________________________________________________________________________
Introduction to the Writing Process
Difficulty with Self‐Regulation
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Difficulty with the Mechanics of Writing
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Minimalistic Writing
Ineffective Revision
Overemphasis on Text Production Skills
A High Risk Population
__________________________________________________________________________
Introduction to the Writing Process
Puranik, Lombardino, and Altmann (2008) define writing as a complex process that requires coordination of printing or handwriting, and several language skills, including: vocabulary, sentence structure, grammar, spelling, and writing conventions. The American Speech‐Language‐Hearing Association (ASHA, 2001) further defines writing as: planning, organizing, drafting, reflecting, revising, (
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and editing. Writing involves the physical process of forming letters and sequences of letters into words and using appropriate writing mechanics, such as punctuation and capitalization (ASHA, 2001). You can see that there are many skills required for the task of writing. Graham and 3
Harris (1999) identify five characteristics typical of children with writing difficulties. These characteristics include: (1) reduced self‐regulatory processes—planning, monitoring, evaluating, and revising; (2) difficulty with writing mechanics; (3) minimalistic writing, or not producing enough content; (4) being unproductive with revisions; and (5) emphasizing text production skills (such as grammar, spelling, and punctuation) more than content
punctuation) more than content.
Difficulty with Self‐Regulation
Graham and Harris (1999) define self‐regulation skills in writing to include planning, monitoring, evaluating, and revising work. Children with writing difficulties often have trouble with these skills. If your child does not adequately plan for what he or she will be writing, it often results in limited content and poorly organized writing (MacArthur, 2000). Monitoring what you are writing is important for creating a well‐formed written piece that follows a theme. Children with writing difficulties often do not adequately monitor what they are writing. They have been described as having a “stream of consciousness” writing style (Graham & Harris, 1999). They tend to write about what they know, with each idea building directly on the one before (Roth, 2000). Because of this, children with writing d ff l
difficulties demonstrate text‐structure problems (with paragraph organization, transitions between d
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paragraphs, and story plots). They do not think about the structure of their text and have difficulties making adjustments depending on what is required for different “genres” (styles of writing), such as stories, factual reports, or persuasive writing (Scott, 2005). Because of this lack of self‐monitoring, children with writing difficulties often do not recognize and correct errors as they write (Roth, 2000).
Children with writing difficulties also are less likely to evaluate what they have written or to think about the reader’s point of view while they are writing. They often assume that a reader “just knows” what they are thinking. Related to this, children with writing difficulties show deficits in grammatical skills such as using a pronoun to clearly refer to a character and shifting between first and third person (“I” vs. “he” or “she”) in their narratives (Scott, 2005). Once a child with writing difficulties has finished writing, he or she shows deficits in going back and effectively revising his or her work to correct errors. Thi ill b di
This will be discussed more later on. d
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Difficulty with the Mechanics of Writing
Graham and Harris (1999) observe that children with writing difficulties struggle with writing mechanics, including: spelling, capitalization, punctuation, and handwriting. According to MacArthur
mechanics, including: spelling, capitalization, punctuation, and handwriting. According to MacArthur (2000), children with writing difficulties often have less knowledge of what makes a good writer in general. As a consequence of their limited knowledge of good writing, their revisions often focus on correcting mechanics such as spelling, rather than improving the content of their written composition (MacArthur, 2000). Writing mechanics are often associated with the transcription
Writing
mechanics are often associated with the transcription phase of the writing process. Besides phase of the writing process Besides
the generation of ideas for writing, children with writing difficulties may experience trouble with the process of transcribing, or the physical process of handwriting a text or typing it onto the computer (Scott, 2005). Handwriting and spelling, both aspects of the transcription process, predict the fluency and quality of writing in elementary school children. Handwriting involves the ability to write or transcribe letters of the alphabet. In order to write letters, your child must access and 4
retrieve the representation of a letter from memory and then plan and form the letter by hand. Children who are unable to retrieve, plan, or form letters may exhibit writing difficulties. Similarly, handwriting may be slow and laborious for some children While they are caught up in getting their
handwriting may be slow and laborious for some children. While they are caught up in getting their ideas written onto paper, they often forget what they wanted to say and how they wanted to say it. There are even some children who do not have the fine motor skills to hold a pencil well; these children are also at risk for writing difficulties because of their inability to transcribe words onto the page (Scott, 2005). The ability to spell also predicts a child’s ability to write. Therefore, if your child exhibits difficulty with spelling, he or she may in turn demonstrate difficulty with writing. Spelling requires a child to with
spelling he or she may in turn demonstrate difficulty with writing Spelling requires a child to
recognize that letters represent the sounds of words. Once this recognition is achieved, the child can begin to print short words. If a child is unable to make connections between sounds and letters, he or she will be unable to write the necessary words in a composition (Scott, 2005). Students with writing difficulties have specific trouble with grammar in their writing (Roth, 2000). Grammar problems include using few complex sentences. In complex sentences, the child puts two g
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verbs into one sentence to create longer sentences. Children with writing difficulties often write sentences that are shorter and simpler than what is typical. They have fewer clauses per sentence, and they overuse and to begin sentences in their stories. They often omit grammatical word endings, such as the –s suffix (to create subject‐verb agreement) or the –ed suffix (to express past tense). Overall, their written work is less developed, has more redundant information, and has more abrupt endings than the writing of typically developing children (Scott, 2005). Furthermore, children with writing difficulties write more sentence fragments and use pronouns less clearly to indicate characters in their stories (Roth, 2000). (For example, they may write about several “he”s.) This makes their writing harder for readers to follow.
for readers to follow. Minimalistic Writing
Graham and Harris (1999) state that another characteristic of children with writing difficulties is minimalistic writing. Children who struggle with writing often find it to be a chore; therefore, they write less and get less practice writing. The increased effort in translating ideas into writing often causes the children to write shorter compositions (Wong 2000) With shorter pieces there is less
causes the children to write shorter compositions (Wong, 2000). With shorter pieces, there is less opportunity for detail, resulting in simplified and less richly developed texts (Roth, 2000). Furthermore, students with a writing difficulty often lack vocabulary. While writing a piece, they may not have the right word to express their thoughts. Instead, they rely on words they do know, so that their writing may not even convey the idea they wanted (Wong, 2000). Graham and Harris (1999) found that children with writing difficulties stopped composing a text y
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before they accessed all the information they knew on a topic. This led to incomplete knowledge about a topic, presented in short fragments. It was common for these children to forget an idea, the plan, or the structure of their text, because they got stuck on the mechanical process of writing (Graham & Harris, 1999). Additionally, the authors state that once an idea is generated, children with writing difficulties are very reluctant to discard it, even if it is not consistent with the rest of the text. These findings were confirmed by Scott (2005), who states that problems with thinking through and controlling the steps of writing create difficulty in excluding unimportant 5
material. Furthermore, when children with writing difficulties are prompted to write more, they often include information that is not useful to the topic (Scott, 2005). Ineffective Revision
Ineffective revision is a fourth characteristic of children with writing difficulties (Graham & Harris, 1999). Children with writing difficulties tend to view revising as proofreading. Revisions are typically made at the sentence level, without considering changing content (Roth, 2000). For example, when children with writing difficulties reviewed their classmates’ writing, only a fourth of the children made suggestions related to the quality of the content; all other revisions dealt with surface aspects of writing, such as spelling and neatness (Roth, 2000; See also Graham & Harris, 1999). Furthermore, ii
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only half of all the suggestions made by children with writing difficulties were real improvements (Scott, 2005). Overemphasis on Text Production Skills
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Children with writing difficulties overemphasize the importance of text production skills (Graham & Harris, 1999). They tend to stress the form of writing, such as word choice, spelling, and punctuation. Information from memory is required for spelling. Children have to be able to recall rules of sound‐
letter correspondence and grammar when writing (Scott, 2005). With most of their effort going to mechanical aspects of writing such as spelling, they have little stamina left for putting content and substance into their composition. Memory deficits make it difficult to retrieve and organize multiple components in the planning and revising steps of writing. Children with writing difficulties may have trouble using long‐term memory to call upon prior experiences to use as content in their written work (Roth, 2000).
(Roth, 2000). A High Risk Population
Children with speech‐language disabilities are at risk for writing difficulties. According to Puranik, Lombardino, and Altmann (2008), children with language‐based disabilities have trouble being productive writers: They write fewer words and utterances, and include fewer ideas in their written compositions Children with speech‐language
compositions. Children with speech
language disabilities often demonstrate difficulty with vocabulary, disabilities often demonstrate difficulty with vocabulary
as well (MacArthur, 2000), over‐relying on simple, very general words (such as “thing” for many nouns, or “go,” “put,” and “do” for many verbs). Their limited repertoire of words and sentence types does not allow them to convey their ideas in multiple ways or to vary their sentences (from simple to complex). Having many errors in spelling, grammar, or writing mechanics (such as capitalization or punctuation) may also indicate writing difficulties. Conclusion
If you notice or your child’s teacher or school speech‐language pathologist identifies any of the characteristics we have covered in this letter, it is important to consider intervention. Writing problems do not diminish with age and performance gaps may even widen (Roth, 2000). Speaking to your child’s teacher or the school’s speech‐language pathologist about the difficulties your child is having is the first step in solving the problem. 6
Sincerely,
Colleen Fahey, B.S.
Kaitlin Soukup, B.S.
Kathleen Walsh, B.S.
Cynthia Johnson, PhD, Associate Professor, Instructor, CCC‐SLP
References
We have provided here the sources we used to prepare this letter, so that you or your child’s speech‐language pathologist may read more about “Characteristics of a Writing Impairment.”
American Speech‐Language‐Hearing Association. (2001). Roles and responsibilities of speech language pathologists with respect to reading and writing in children and
speech‐language pathologists with respect to reading and writing in children and adolescents (position statement, executive summary of guidelines, technical report). ASHA Supplement 21, 17‐27. Rockville, MD: Author.
Apel, K., & Masterson, J. (2001). Theory‐guided spelling assessment and intervention: A case study. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in School, 32, 182‐195.
Berninger, V. (2000). Development of language by hand and its connections with language by ear mouth and eye Topics in Language Disorders 20 65‐84
language by ear, mouth, and eye. Topics in Language Disorders, 20, 65
84.
Graham, S., & Harris, K. (1999). Assessment and intervention in overcoming writing difficulties: An illustration from the self‐regulated strategy development model. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in School, 30, 255‐264. MacArthur, C. (2000). New tools for writing: Assistive technology for students with writing difficulties. Topics in Language Disorders, 20, 85‐100.
Nancollis A Lawrie B & Dodd B (2005) Phonological awareness intervention and the
Nancollis, A., Lawrie, B., & Dodd, B. (2005). Phonological awareness intervention and the acquisition of literacy skills in children from deprived social backgrounds. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in School, 36, 325‐335.
Puranik, C. Lombardino, L., Altmann, L. (2008). Assessing the microstructure of written language using a retelling paradigm. American Journal of Speech‐Language Pathology, 17, 107‐120.
Roth, F. (2000). Narrative writing: Development and teaching with children with writing
Roth, F. (2000). Narrative writing: Development and teaching with children with writing difficulties. Topics in Language Disorders, 20, 15‐28.
Scott, C. (2005). Learning to write. In H.W. Catts & A.G. Kamhi (Eds.), Language and reading disabilities, second edition (pp. 233‐273). Boston: Pearson.
Wong, B. (2000). Writing strategies instruction for expository essays for adolescents with and without learning disabilities. Topics in Language Disorders, 20, 29‐40. 7
Letter 2: Nature and Causes of a Writing Impairment
Dear Parent(s):
Earlier we sent you a letter about characteristics that are commonly seen in children with writing impairments. Some of your child’s learning and behavior may be consistent with this diagnosis. In addition to the information we presented in that letter, we feel it is important that we tell you about the nature and causes of writing difficulties. First though, we would like to consider the relation between spoken and written language. In an online report (2008), the American Speech‐Language‐
Hearing Association (ASHA) explains that reading and writing develop from spoken language, and that a reciprocal relation exists between spoken and written language Therefore these two means of
a reciprocal relation exists between spoken and written language. Therefore, these two means of communication or “modalities” build on one another. Instruction in each area can result in literacy growth. Table 1 is an outline of the topics we will cover in this letter.
Table 1. The Nature and Causes of a Writing Impairment
___________________________________________________________________________________
Writing Processes
Written Products
Genetics Causes
Environmental Causes and Influential Factors
Environmental
Causes and Influential Factors
• Phonological or phonemic awareness
• Word recognition
• Concepts about print
• The alphabetic principle
• Language comprehension
___________________________________________________________________________________
Writing Processes
According to another ASHA report (2001), writing may be viewed from two perspectives—the process and products of writing. Writing processes include “planning (prewriting), organizing, drafting, reflecting, revising, and editing…as well as forming letters and sequences of letters into words” (2001). These processes can be viewed as steps writers follow when they write a composition In this letter
These processes can be viewed as steps writers follow when they write a composition. In this letter, the primary focus will be on the drafting process in children’s early writing development, when they are just beginning to try to put ideas down on paper. Writing is a unique form of communication. During conversation, your communication partner can provide immediate feedback to your verbal thoughts and ideas; and when speaking, communicators are capable of planning and revising the message conveyed. With writing, however, individuals are not necessarily provided this sort of immediate feedback. Children who have the symptoms of a writing
necessarily provided this sort of immediate feedback. Children who have the symptoms of a writing impairment may need additional support from teachers, 8
classmates, parents, and professionals, such as a speech‐language pathologist, to facilitate the writing process.
Written Products
The ASHA report (2001) also discusses written products or compositions that result from writing processes. We might evaluate written products for their word choice and spelling (at the word level); grammar and sentence complexity or style (at the sentence level), and paragraph organization and transitions, flow of ideas, and clarity of meaning (at the composition or “text” level). Cheryl Scott (2005) describes the middle, drafting step in the writing process as putting pen to paper, resulting in
(2005) describes the middle, drafting step in the writing process as putting pen to paper, resulting in creation of text (a written composition). Once text has been produced, the last step in the writing process—revising—should begin. Scott describes the revision process as changing words in the original composition; adding punctuation; or adding, cutting, or moving parts of the text. This revision step is often neglected by individuals with writing difficulties.
Genetic Causes
Genetic Causes
It is crucial to understand the nature and cause of writing difficulties because appropriate treatment is tied to suspected causes. In other words, what is thought to be causing a disorder should influence how it is treated. Lyon (1996) reports that we currently do not know much about causes, growth, eventual outcomes, and effective treatments for writing impairments. Additionally, it is extremely rare for writing difficulties to occur independently of other learning disorders Despite the
extremely rare for writing difficulties to occur independently of other learning disorders. Despite the lack of information and the rarity of writing impairments occurring alone, there are specific factors that place a child at risk for developing writing difficulties. We will discuss these now.
There is evidence to support that genetics and environment play a critical role in the development of language and language‐related abilities, such as reading. Results from twin studies and studies of parents and children have shown that reading disorders may run in families (DeThorne, Petrill, Hayiou‐
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Thomas, & Plomin, 2005; Flax, Realpe‐Bonilla, Hirsch, Brzustowicz, Bartlett, & Tallal, 2003). Having a relative with a language disorder increases a child’s risk of having a language disorder. The same may be true of writing difficulties. If you are aware of a family member who has a language disorder or writing difficulties, this could increase the chance of your child having similar problems. While genetic factors largely account for the tendency of language problems to run in families, environmental factors can also be responsible for influencing language development Therefore even if your child does have
can also be responsible for influencing language development. Therefore, even if your child does have a genetic tendency for language difficulties, positive environmental factors could offset any genetic component to his or her writing difficulties. For example, by enriching your child’s environment through early exposure to reading and writing materials, he or she may overcome genetic tendencies for writing difficulties.
Environmental Causes and Influential Factors
Environmental Causes and Influential Factors
Environmental factors are influences that affect development, both physically and cognitively; independent of genetic components. Environmental factors might be things such as a mother’s illness, poor nutrition, or use of alcohol or cigarettes during pregnancy; a child’s 9
illnesses such as ear infections or meningitis, exposure to toxins such as lead, or head trauma from being shaken or having accidents; or a parent’s or babysitter’s interaction with a child (see also DeThorne et al., 2005). These examples are not meant to be an all‐inclusive list of environmental risks, but only to serve as suggestions of factors that could negatively affect typical development. Additional factors such as a family’s socioeconomic status, the mother’s education level, and language and literacy stimulation in the home also play a role in child development. If language disabilities run in your family and you notice your child has difficulties, environmental conditions can influence his or her language growth, either positively or negatively.
During early literacy development, environmental factors can significantly impact a child’s emergent literacy skills, including writing. Parette, Hourcade, Dinelli, and Boeckmann (2009) identify five key abilities that are be vital to early literacy development: phonemic awareness, word recognition, concepts about print, the alphabetic principle, and comprehension. These five abilities are called “emergent literacy” and will be described in a moment. The earliest stage of writing might be called “prewriting,” in the same way that we talk about “prereading.” At this stage, children have some k
knowledge of writing, even though they cannot actually write meaningful phrases or sentences. They l d
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do try to get ideas down on paper, however—an attempt at the “drafting” step used by more mature writers. Any breakdown in one of the five key areas can hamper writing development.
Phonological or Phonemic Awareness. Schuele and Boudreau (2008) describe phonological awareness as “a critical skill that contributes to literacy acquisition” (p. 116). A child’s skills in this area can be highly predictive of his or her reading abilities and also may affect his or her writing. “Phonological awareness” is a general term; “phonemic awareness” is more specific. Phonemic awareness is the first key literacy ability noted by Parette and colleagues (2009). The National Reading Panel (2000) defines phonemic awareness as the recognition of individual sounds in words. For example, in the word “cat” there are three sounds: “c,” “a,” and “t.” This is an example of segmenting a word into its component sounds. Another example of phonological awareness, called blending, would be telling o r child the so nds of a ord and then ha ing him or her state the ord (e g sa the
be telling your child the sounds of a word and then having him or her state the word (e.g., say the individual sounds: “c,” “a,” “t” and then have your child tell you the word “cat”). Some children may experience breakdowns in phonological or phonemic processing. This may ultimately affect their writing abilities.
Word Recognition. Another key emergent literacy skill is word recognition. Parette and colleagues (
(2009) define word recognition as “quick identification of the form, pronunciation, and meaning of )d f
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words previously met in print or writing” (p. 356). This means that your child can easily identify and say words he or she sees in his or her environment (e.g., McDonalds, his or her own name, etc.), as well as high frequency words (e.g., a, the, and, etc.). You may be more familiar with the term “sight words,” used by your child’s classroom teacher. Children will be able to read and write more fluently if they are able to recognize sight words instantly. If they struggle in this area, it can affect their future writing skills
writing skills.
Concepts about print. The next key emergent literacy skill that Parette and colleagues (2009) list is concepts about print. This skill is defined as “conventions and characteristics of 10
written language, including directional movement, one‐to‐one matching of spoken and printed words, and the proper way to hold and open a book” (p. 356). To clarify, directional movement is related to d th
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the child’s knowledge that in English we read and write from the left side of the page to the right, and from the top of the page to the bottom. Additionally, the one‐to‐one matching of spoken and printed words means a child is continuing to develop his or her repertoire of sight words. Lastly, it is also important that a child understands there is a proper way of holding a book, so that the words are upright. Concepts about print can be developed through environmental exposure (e.g., having printed material, writing utensils, and paper accessible to your child) and practice (e.g., reading to your child, allowing your child to draw and pretend to write, etc.). This exposure and practice may help to prevent any breakdowns that might occur and lead to future writing difficulties.
The alphabetic principle. The alphabetic principle is the next key emergent literacy skill, which Parette and colleagues (2009) define as “distinctive written representations of speech sounds or phonemes of a language” (p. 356). The alphabetic principle might be more easily understood as letter to sound correspondence. For example, in the word “cat” a child should recognize that the “c” in “cat” makes a /k/ sound. The alphabetic principle can be difficult for children because one letter can have more than one sound (e g “c”
more than one sound (e.g., c can make a hard sound like in the word can make a hard sound like in the word “cat”
cat or it can make a soft or it can make a soft
sound like in the word “celebrate”). Again, going back to your child’s environment, activities such as alphabet books and alphabet puzzles could enrich your child’s alphabetic awareness and help prevent future breakdowns in reading and writing.
Language comprehension. The last key emergent skill listed by Parette and colleagues (2009) is comprehension. These authors define comprehension as “understanding of spoken and/or written language” (p. 356). This is important because if a child cannot understand what he or she has read, language
(p. 356). This is important because if a child cannot understand what he or she has read,
then he or she will struggle with doing written work, to respond to reading material. Comprehension of spoken and written language is important for communication as a whole, and a breakdown in this area can significantly impact your child’s ability to express himself or herself through writing.
Conclusion
As children grow as writers they pass through many developmental stages including emergent
As children grow as writers, they pass through many developmental stages, including emergent writing or prewriting. Although writing difficulties can occur at any developmental stage, we have reviewed the main components and possible areas of breakdowns in the prewriting stage. Additionally, it is important to remember that a relation exists between genetic and environmental factors for children with writing difficulties. Writing difficulties may be evident in the written products that children create, or in the writing processes they try to use. The information presented in this letter is not all‐inclusive, but is supported by published evidence about language and literacy development and disorders. This letter summarizes the nature and some of the possible causes of writing difficulties Further research is necessary to more fully understand the underlying causes of
writing difficulties. Further research is necessary to more fully understand the underlying causes of writing difficulties. 11
Sincerely, Rachel Einck, B.S.
Jenna Gale, B.A.
Christine Jakob, B.S.
Cynthia Johnson, PhD, Associate Professor, Instructor, CCC‐SLP
References
We have provided here the sources we used to prepare this letter, in case you or your child’s speech‐
language pathologist would like to read more about the “Nature and Causes of a Writing Impairment.”
American Speech‐Language‐Hearing Association. (2001). Roles and responsibilities of speech‐language pathologists with respect to reading and writing in children and adolescents [Technical Report]. Retrieved May 23, 2008 from www.asha.org/policy
American Speech‐Language Hearing Association. (2008). Communication facts: special populations: Literacy – 2008 Edition. Retrieved May 23, 2008 from http://www.asha.org/members/research/reports/literacy.htm
DeThorne, L., Petrill, S., Hayiou‐Thomas, M., & Plomin, R. (2005). Low expressive vocabulary:Higher
heritability as a function of more severe cases. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 48, 792‐804.
Lyon, G.R. (1996). The future of children: special education for students with disabilities. Learning Disabilities, 6, 54‐76.
National Reading Panel (2000) Teaching children to read An evidence‐based
National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read. An evidence
based assessment of the assessment of the
scientific literature. Retrieved May 23, 2008, from http://www.nichd.nih.gov/ publications/nrp/smallbook.cfm
Parette, H., Hourcade, J., Dinelli, J., & Boeckmann, N. (2009). Using clicker 5 to enhance emergent literacy in young learners. Early Childhood Education Journal, 36,355‐363.
Schuele, M. & Boudreau, D. (2008). Phonological awareness intervention: beyond the basics. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 39, 3‐20.
Scott, Cheryl. (2005). Learning to write. In H.W. Catts & A.G. Kamhi (Eds.), Language and
Reading Disabilities, second edition (pp. 233‐273). Boston: Pearson.
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Letter 3: Other Problems Associated with a Writing Impairment
Dear Parent(s):
Now that your child has been diagnosed as having a writing impairment, you may have other concerns about his or her language and learning Other parents have similar concerns because children
concerns about his or her language and learning. Other parents have similar concerns, because children with writing disabilities are often at risk for other problems. All your concerns will be assessed during the evaluation process by the speech‐language pathologist and will be taken into consideration in choosing appropriate treatment. Please refer to Table 1 as an outline of the components of this letter.
Table 1. Other Problems Associated with a Writing Impairment
_______________________________________________________________________________
Spoken Language Problems
• Speech sound disorders
• Reduced vocabulary size and errors in grammar (morphology)
Memory Problems
Memory Problems
Academic Problems
• Reading
• Handwriting and spelling
_______________________________________________________________________________
Spoken Language Problems
Speech sound disorders. Children with writing difficulties may also have spoken language difficulties. These two manners of communicating (called “modalities” of language) are different in several ways. Speaking abilities may be limited by a student’s ability to process language while he or she is speaking. Time pressures during speaking require a person to organize his or her thoughts first hand, without the opportunity to go back and edit what he or she intends to communicate before presenting it Writing is
opportunity to go back and edit what he or she intends to communicate before presenting it. Writing is often restricted by the student’s specific abilities to use language (linguistic abilities), think about what to write (conceptual abilities), and handle writing mechanics (such as capitalization and punctuation). Your child may face challenges with the physical part of handwriting (called “motor abilities,” such as holding a pencil), writing for an audience, or learning writing style, such as including emotions or varying the kinds of sentences in his or her writing (Gillam & Johnston, 1992). Speaking and writing can be distinguished further by their kind of output or “modality”: writing is graphic and speaking is oral. g
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Regardless of their differences, written and spoken language difficulties appear to co‐occur in some students. There are many linguistic interconnections between speaking and writing processes. We use the same sounds to create the same words and word meanings for both, and grammar conventions are equivalent in each (though slang shows up more frequently and tends to be more accepted in spoken language).
Writing development follows spoken language development; therefore, there is always the possibility that any difficulties in spoken language may transfer into the written modality. You may notice your child having difficulties with articulation of speech sounds. The presence of a speech sound disorder in spoken language may put a student at risk for having writing difficulties later on,
13
even if the speech sound disorder no longer exists (Lewis, O’Donnell, Freebairn, & Taylor, 1998). In order to spell, a student must know how to choose on paper the appropriate alphabet letter for each sound (sometimes called knowledge of “letter‐sound correspondence” or “encoding”). Without good knowledge and perception of speech sounds, it may be unrealistic for the child to learn the appropriate alphabet letters used in writing. Difficulty with spelling may also interfere with the process of writing l h b t l tt
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fluently and automatically, creating even more difficulties in other areas of writing, such as writing longer and more complex sentences. The results from a study done by Lewis and her colleagues (1998) support this view and demonstrate that students with a history of speech sound disorders often use shorter sentences and less complex writing.
Reduced vocabulary size and errors in grammar (morphology). Spoken (“expressive”) language deficits in vocabulary and grammar may also negatively impact writing ability. Grammar or “morphology” consists of rules for correct plural use, appropriate and consistent use of tense, noun‐
verb agreement, prefixes and suffixes, and other specific patterns for making words and putting them together. If a student has a small expressive vocabulary, we might expect he or she would also use only a limited vocabulary when writing. Although a small vocabulary itself does not cause a writing disorder we might assume that the quality of the child’s writing would be diminished For example
disorder, we might assume that the quality of the child’s writing would be diminished. For example, without a full repertoire of exciting words for emotions, that capture an audience’s interest and add variety to a written composition, the student could be at risk for becoming a poor writer. Additionally, if a student shows weakness in using or choosing “grammatical morphemes” when speaking (for example, suffixes and small words of grammar, such as “a, the” or “in, on”), he or she may show similar error patterns in “morphology” when writing (Rubin, Patterson, & Kantor, 1991). Errors in morphology give the impression of more immature writing abilities because they are more common in young
give the impression of more immature writing abilities, because they are more common in young writers. If these errors are not overcome, a student is at risk for writing deficits.
Memory Problems
Another area that may also co‐occur with writing difficulties is memory weakness. Writing is a complex activity that requires the student to do a great deal of linguistic processing in order to generate a clear, fluent composition with appropriate word choices. Writers must include all the information that the reader will need; unlike speech, where listeners (in the speaking “context”) can ask questions and contribute information when needed. Therefore, compared to speech, writing is often said to be “de‐contextualized.” Writing relies on short‐term memory to temporarily store information, working memory to provide space for short‐ and long‐term memory to interact, and long‐
t
term memory of events to select the content that the child wants to write (Berninger, 2000). f
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Coordinating these different kinds of memory must be taught and practiced over and over until they become more automatic for beginning writers. Teachers and adults can assist the student with this by using pictures to organize writing (called “graphic organizers”), teaching phrases or sayings that aid memory (called “mnemonic devices”), or modeling writing steps by saying them out loud (called “think aloud strategies”). A mnemonic device might be SPACE (setting, problem, action, consequences, emotions) a saying a student can use to remember to put these parts into his or her written story
emotions), a saying a student can use to remember to put these parts into his or her written story (Graham and Harris, 1999). A child learns and stores information about spelling, vocabulary, grammar, and punctuation in long‐
term memory. Therefore, as the child gets older and more familiar with the writing process, 14
he or she relies less on short‐term memory to get through a writing activity. Using working memory eventually requires less effort as well. A breakdown at any level of memory may lead to deficits in the quality or quantity of writing.
Academic Problems
Listening, speaking, reading, and writing are the four systems that make up language, according to Berninger (2000). She does not consider these aspects of language to be separate abilities: Instead, all four systems are interconnected. If a child has difficulty with one of the systems, the other systems will most likely be affected, too. For example, if a child has problems with writing, he or she may have
most likely be affected, too. For example, if a child has problems with writing, he or she may have difficulties with reading. All four systems should build on and strengthen each other. If your child has a writing disability, you may notice that he or she has difficulty with at least one of the other language systems (listening or speaking) as well. Furthermore, children with writing disabilities typically struggle with the academic subjects of handwriting, spelling, and reading. Reading. One way that writing and reading are interrelated is that children with writing disabilities Reading
One way that writing and reading are interrelated is that children with writing disabilities
have trouble knowing which sound goes with which letter and vice versa (called “letter‐sound correspondence,” Berninger, 2000). This makes it difficult for the child to sound out words (a kind of “phonological awareness” called “decoding”). This difficulty may lead to reading problems because phonological awareness is a stepping stone for reading ability. For example, if a child has difficulty breaking down words into syllables or sounding out individual sounds in a word, this may make it difficult to read. Phonological awareness is a necessary skill for both writing and reading. g
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It has been reported that children who have writing disabilities often have more difficulty with reading comprehension (Berninger, 2000). A child may not fully understand what he or she reads, because of difficulty understanding the way the author organized the written composition or “text.” Difficulties with reading can appear at different times in a child’s life. Writing is the last language system to fully develop, so you may notice your child’ss reading difficulties before his or her writing system to fully develop, so you may notice your child
reading difficulties before his or her writing
difficulties. Children who experience difficulties with reading (whether in decoding and or reading comprehension) along with writing difficulties may need extra support services at school, in order to succeed.
Handwriting and spelling. According to Hengst and Johnson (2008) and Berninger (2000), children with writing disabilities may have difficulty with handwriting spelling or both Handwriting and
with writing disabilities may have difficulty with handwriting, spelling, or both. Handwriting and spelling are the “tools” we use to transform spoken language into writing. Good handwriting and accurate spelling make a student’s writing legible. Children who have difficulty with handwriting may write letters of the alphabet incorrectly or write papers that appear sloppy. Children with problems with handwriting may need services that are provided by an occupational therapist, as well as a speech‐language pathologist.
In typical spelling development, children first use invented and perhaps only partial spelling. Later, accurate conventional spelling appears and becomes automatic. In children with writing disabilities, spelling does not reach the automatic stage. They continue to have spelling problems. If your child is experiencing difficulties with spelling, he or she may spell words phonetically,
15
meaning he or she spells them the way they sound, and the results are often not correct. Kamhi and Hinton (2000) explain that in order for children to be good spellers, they need to know how printed words should look. Knowing how words look is called “orthographic knowledge.” If children with writing disabilities do not know how a word should look, their spelling ability often suffers. In this case, children may spell words incorrectly by choosing the wrong letters or not following English spelling
children may spell words incorrectly by choosing the wrong letters or not following English spelling rules.
Conclusion
Your child may or may not show the difficulties we have discussed in this letter, however, it is beneficial to know if your child is at risk for other problems related to his or her writing difficulties. Along with the diagnosis of a writing disability, your child may have related difficulties with speech, memory, and academics. Being aware of this possibility allows you not only to assist your child with writing activities at home, but to advocate for him or her at school. Sincerely,
y,
Kate Nollin, B.S.
Lisa Przybysz, B.S.
Cynthia J. Johnson, PhD, Associate Professor, Instructor, CCC‐SLP
References
We have provided here the sources we used to prepare this letter, in case you or your child’s speech‐
language pathologist would like to read more about “Other Problems Associated with a Writing Impairment.”
Berninger, V. W. (2000). Development of language by hand and its connections with language by ear, mouth, and eye. Topics in Language Disorders, 20, 65‐84.
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20 6 8
Gillam, R. B., & Johnston, J. R. (1992). Spoken and written language relationships in language/learning‐
impaired and normally achieving school‐age children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 25, 1303‐1315.
Graham, S., & Harris, K. R. (1999). Assessment and intervention in overcoming writing difficulties: An illustration from the self‐regulated strategy development model. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 30, 255‐264.
Hengst, J., & Johnson, C. J. (2008). Writing and communication disorders across the life span. In C. Bazerman (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Writing: History, Society, School, Individual, Text (pp. 471‐484). New York, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Kamhi, A. G., Hinton, L. N. (2000). Explaining individual differences in spelling ability. Topics in Language Disorders, 20, 37‐49.
Lewis, B. A., O’Donnell, B., Freebairn, L. A., & Taylor, H. G. (1988). Spoken languae and written expression—Interplay of delays. American Journal of Speech‐Language Pathology, 7, 77‐84.
Rubin, H., Patterson, P. A., & Kantor, M. (1991). Morphological development and writing ability in children and adults. Language, Speech, and hearing Services in Schools, 22, 228‐235.
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Letter 4: Treatment for a Writing Impairment
Dear Parent(s):
Now that you have experienced the assessment process with your child, you are likely concerned about where to go next Many school service personnel can contribute expertise to your child’ss writing about where to go next. Many school service personnel can contribute expertise to your child
writing
intervention. Specifically, the speech‐language pathologist and general and special education teachers may have the most active roles in this process. Table 1 is a an outline of the intervention or treatment issues we will cover in this letter.
Table 1. Treatment for a Writing Impairment
___________________________________________________________________________________
Using Computer Software to Promote Writing Mechanics
Planning, Composing, and Revising
• Planning and composing
• Revising
Home Strategies
Home Strategies
___________________________________________________________________________________
There are several approaches to writing intervention that speech‐language pathologists may adopt based on their personal philosophies, as well as your child’s individual needs. For example, different approaches are appropriate for children who have difficulty with writing mechanics than for children who have difficulty with composing: that is, generating a plan for writing, producing lengthy and grammatically correct compositions, and revising their writing in various “genres” (Graham & Harris, 1999; Scott & Windsor, 2000). “Genres” are kinds of written work, such as stories (fiction), or persuasive and opinion essays or science reports (nonfiction). Your child may have difficulty in both writing mechanics and composing. In this case, the speech‐language pathologist may employ two approaches to intervention to meet your child’s needs.
Using Computer Software to Promote Writing Mechanics
Children who have specific difficulties with writing mechanics may demonstrate poor handwriting skills, may fatigue or experience hand cramps quickly when writing, and may be “poor spellers.” If this is the case for your child, the speech‐language pathologist may suggest the use of assistive technology y
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in intervention. Word processing can be utilized effectively to reduce the fine‐motor demands of handwriting (MacArthur, 2000). Your child will likely require training in and development of keyboarding skills, however, before this intervention can be successfully used for writing compositions for classroom work. Even if your child’s mechanics and spelling difficulties are not directly addressed with the use of word processing, word processing still may be particularly motivating for him or her, because he or she can produce a neat copy and easily revise without rewriting an entire composition (MacArthur, 2000; Wong, 2000). In addition, the spell check function in a typical word processing program can be helpful for a child who experiences difficulty with writing mechanics and spelling (MacArthur, 2000). 17
This feature can recognize your child’s misspelled words and provide suggestions for the appropriate target word in a list. Your child would be able to choose the desired word and insert it into his or her composition However drawbacks exist for the child who depends on the spell check function to
composition. However, drawbacks exist for the child who depends on the spell check function to correct his or her errors. If your child uses a homonym for the target word or a word that is not recognizable to the spell check function, the computer may not make any suggestions or may make suggestions that are not matched to your child’s intended word. A homonym is a word that sounds the same as the target word, but does not mean the same thing and has a different spelling, such as “to” or “two” typed for “too.” Spell checkers will not catch a substitution like this, because the substitute is a real word. Your child can be taught in therapy how to become a good consumer of the spell check g
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function. For example, your child’s speech‐language pathologist might work with him or her to attempt multiple spellings of a target word using his knowledge of sounds and corresponding alphabet letters, in an attempt to elicit more suggested spellings from the computer. Working with word prediction software in intervention is also an option for children with problems in writing mechanics. This software predicts the word your child wants to type, based on what he or
in writing mechanics. This software predicts the word your child wants to type, based on what he or she has spelled so far, words he or she often uses or has recently used, and common sentences. If you choose to purchase software like this, it has been found to be effective for children with spelling problems (MacArthur, 2000). Similar to the suggested spellings from a spell check function, word prediction provides several options of words to insert into the composition based on the first letter of the word. Your child would then choose the appropriate word option from the list of suggestions. The speech‐language pathologist would work with your child to determine which, if any, of these computer programs or combination of programs would be most effective for your child’s needs.
Planning, Composing, and Revising
Planning and composing. If your child also has difficulty planning, composing, and revising (Graham & Harris 1999; Scott & Windsor 2000) then additional intervention strategies may need to
(Graham & Harris, 1999; Scott & Windsor, 2000), then additional intervention strategies may need to be employed. One such strategy is Self Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD; Graham, Harris & Troia, 2000). SRSD was developed to give children a way to regulate and think about their own writing (Graham, Harris & Troia, 2000). There are six “stages” in the SRSD model: (1) Develop Background Knowledge; (2) Initial Conference: Strategy, Goals, and Significance; (3) Modeling of the Strategy; (4) Memorization of the Strategy; (5) Collaborative Practice; and (6) Independent Practice (Graham, Harris, and Troia 2000) In Stage 1 your child will work with his or her teacher or speech‐language
and Troia, 2000). In Stage 1, your child will work with his or her teacher or speech
language pathologist to form ideas about story elements for a narrative or ideas about specific topics for opinion essays. Following that, students work with teachers (and/or speech‐language pathologists) to develop specific goals for the story or essay writing assignment and strategies to help complete the assignment (Stage 2). The instructor then models for the student the strategies they developed for the assignment (Stage 3) and facilitates the student’s memorization of the strategies (Stage 4). In Stage 5, the student and instructor work together to complete an assignment before the student works independently in Stage 6, integrating the skills he or she has acquired.
As a part of the memorization process in SRSD, or separate from this program altogether, your child’s speech‐language pathologist may introduce certain “tricks” to make the writing 18
process easier. Such tricks can include memory aids or sayings (called “mnemonic devices”) to help outline and organize essays. One such mnemonic is DARE, which is used to help students remember the aspects of a good essay (Graham, Harris, & Troia, 2000). In this strategy, your child will be reminded to Develop topic sentences Add support to their topics Reject opposing ideas and End with reminded to Develop topic sentences, Add support to their topics, Reject opposing ideas, and End
with
a strong conclusion (Graham, Harris, & Troia, 2000). Revising. Revision can be a difficult aspect of the writing process for children with writing disorders. If your child has particular difficulty revising the content of his or her compositions—
consistent with characteristics of writing impairments—he or she may benefit from the use of assistive t h l
technology in a different way from the uses we mentioned previously (MacArthur, 2000). Speech i diff
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synthesis software allows the computer to read your child’s composition aloud to him or her, while highlighting the words being spoken. As your child listens, he or she can use his or her oral language skills to make revisions to the content and structure of his or her composition.
Another strategy that may help your child control his or her writing may be collaborating with classmates or teachers (MacArthur, 2000; Wong, 2000). Classmates (peers) may be a helpful resource when revising and editing a rough copy of written work. Within the classroom, students can be broken into small groups for peer revisions. Each child would be instructed to provide, for example, two positive comments and two suggestions for improvement for their classmates’ compositions. The students might also ask questions about unclear or underdeveloped aspects of compositions (Wong, 2000). This type of small‐group peer revision process may be implemented by your child’s speech‐
language pathologist during group intervention
language pathologist during group intervention. Visual aids and representations may be helpful tools for your child when writing independently. Visual outlines in the form of flow charts and maps (“webs”) can help your child organize his or her thoughts in a logical progression (Hyerle, 2004). These can be used as a basis for creating a more formal composition. For example, if your child needs to write an essay comparing and contrasting two categories (land animals vs. sea animals), he could use a “double‐bubble map” to plan his or her essay, i (l d i l
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where one large circle (labeled “land animals”) is surrounded by and connected to smaller circles, listing distinct characteristics (walk on legs, breathe air). A second large circle is placed next to the first (labeled “sea animals”). Again, it is surrounded by smaller circles listing distinct characteristics (swim with fins, have gills to get oxygen from water). In between the two large circles is a set of small circles listing shared characteristics (eat food, live in groups). Speech‐language pathologists can work with your child to teach him or her how to use visual tools such as the double bubble map to help bridge
your child to teach him or her how to use visual tools, such as the double‐bubble map, to help bridge the gap between the visual aids and formal compositions. Home Strategies
In addition to strategies used by speech‐language pathologists, special education teachers, and regular education teachers at school, there are strategies that can be used to enhance literacy both at school and at home (Lanter & Watson, 2008). By reading familiar books repeatedly together with your child, he or she will learn to recognize different writing structures. This recognition is important for children’s comprehension of stories (fiction or “narratives”) and 19
reports (nonfiction, factual information, or “expository text”). Familiar writing structures from reading are good models for writing. Other activities that can be done both at school and home include encouraging your child to retell stories, talking about storybooks as you read them, and labeling objects and pictures to promote sight word recognition (Lanter & Watson, 2008). By retelling stories, children continue to become familiar with story plots (sometimes called “schemas”) and gain practice in organizing spoken stories. Talking about storybooks allows your child to become a critical thinker, which can be carried over into his or her writing skills. Finally, sight words learned during reading together can be transferred to your child’s written work.
Conclusion
We hope the strategies outlined in this letter and the information provided in the previous letters will be useful to you, your child, and your intervention team. We encourage you to continue to take an active role in your child’s education. Sincerely.
Mary‐Kelsey Coletto, B.S.
Carly A. Sullivan, B.S.
Amanda M. Zerull, B.S.
Cynthia Johnson, PhD, Associate Professor, Instructor, CCC‐SLP
References
We have provided here the sources we used to prepare this letter, in case you or your child’s speech‐
language pathologist would like to read more about “Treatment for a Writing Impairment.”
Graham, S., & Harris, K. (1999). Assessment and intervention in overcoming writing difficulties: An illustration from the self‐regulated strategy development model. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in the Schools, 30, 255‐264.
Graham, S., Harris, K., & Troia, G. (2000). Self‐regulated strategy development revisited: Teaching , ,
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writing strategies to struggling writers. Topics in Language Disorders, 20, 1‐14.
Hyerle, D. (Ed.). (2004). Student successes with thinking maps: School‐based research, results, and models for achievement using visual tools. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Lanter, E., & Watson, L. (2008). Promoting literacy in students with ASD: The basics for the SLP. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 39, 33‐43.
MacArthur C (2000) New tools for writing: Assistive technology for students with writing difficulties
MacArthur, C. (2000). New tools for writing: Assistive technology for students with writing difficulties. Topics in Language Disorders, 20, 85‐100.
Wong, B. (2000). Writing strategies instruction for expository essays for adolescents with and without learning disabilities. Topics in Language Disorders, 20, 29‐44.
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Conclusions
Taken together, the four letters should provide parents with better understanding of their child’s writing impairment, allowing them to better advocate for their child and take action to prevent academic problems from snowballing We hope that speech
academic problems from snowballing. We hope that speech‐
language pathologists will find these letters useful in advising teachers and counseling parents about children with writing impairments.
21