Junior Certificate
History
D raf t s y l l a bus
f o r co n s u ltat i on
April 2008
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Junior Certificate - Draft History Syllabus
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Contents
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Aims of the syllabus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Objectives of the syllabus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Syllabus overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Topics and learning outcomes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Section 1: How we find out about the past. . . . . . . . 7
Section 2: Studies of change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Section 3: Understanding the modern world. . . . . . 11
Statement of links. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
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Junior Certificate - Draft History Syllabus
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History
Introduction
and technological. Complementing the variety of
subject matter, the syllabus encourages a variety
of approaches to the teaching of history, such as,
use of different types of historical sources, field
trips, biographical studies and comparative studies.
Within many of the topics that make up the
syllabus, a significant element of choice is allowed
so that individual teachers may choose those areas
most suitable to their cohort of students.
History is the study of the experience of human
life in the past. That study is based on available
evidence which the historian interprets so that
we may develop our understanding of those who
have gone before us and, thereby, gain a greater
understanding of ourselves and the times in
which we live. It also helps us to see how human
institutions change over time and how people
interact with circumstances to bring about change.
Living in a changing world themselves, it helps
to give students a unique perspective on human
experience of change.
A substantial part of the syllabus deals with Irish
history, since an awareness of one’s own historical
inheritance is fundamental to the formation of
an historical understanding. History is recognised
as an essential medium for the transmission of
a cultural inheritance. It also has a key role to
play in preparing students for an informed and
participative citizenship. The study of Irish history
is presented as an integral part of the wider themes
of the syllabus.
The Junior Certificate History syllabus has been
designed to allow students at all levels of ability to
develop their understanding of these fundamental
aspects of history. It introduces students to the
work of the historian and to the sources and
procedures that historians use to find out about
the past. It provides young people with a wide
tapestry of past events, issues, people and ways
of life through which they can be enabled to see
patterns of change and to explore the causes and
consequences of that change. Through its focus on
key developments in human history—not least,
its coverage of the twentieth century—it helps
students to identify and develop understanding of
the roots of the contemporary world.
Rationale
The syllabus reinforces and builds on the
knowledge, understanding, attitudes and skills
acquired through the study of history at primary
level. It extends and deepens the range and quality
of the young person’s educational experience of
historical study and, thus, prepares them for the
requirements of further programmes of study, of
employment and of life outside full-time education.
As an integral element in a broad, well-balanced,
general education it helps young people to develop
a tolerance and respect for the values, belief and
traditions of others, and to prepare themselves for
the responsibilities of citizenship in a national,
European and global context.
While the subject matter of the syllabus spans a
wide range of periods (from pre-history to the
contemporary world), the approach is selective
and thematic within a chronological framework.
This approach allows for special in-depth studies
as well as the general study. The syllabus is also
developmental in nature, moving from the simple
and the concrete to the more complex and abstract.
It is presented in three sections which reflect this
progression. The subject matter of the syllabus
is also varied in the different aspects of life that
it explores—cultural, economic, political, social
The syllabus provides students with the
opportunity to achieve many of the intended
outcomes of junior cycle education, including
knowledge and appreciation of their social and
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Junior Certificate - Draft History Syllabus
cultural heritage, understanding and appreciation
of some of the central concepts of citizenship,
understanding and appreciation of the value of
thinking and learning, competence in literacy,
experience in many domains of activity.
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critically, students are acquiring transferable skills
that will help them to meet many of the challenges
of the modern world with its accelerating growth
in the use of information and communication
technologies. The enhancement of students’ ability
to locate, evaluate and communicate a body of
evidence is a key contribution of history to the
Junior Cycle students’ preparation for life, work
and further education.
The syllabus also has a strong practical dimension
and the skills it fosters are of fundamental
importance to life and work in today’s world. In
developing research skills and the ability to think
Aims of the syllabus
Junior Certificate History aims to
• provide opportunities for students to investigate how the interaction of individuals, groups,
and institutions creates human history and shapes the world of succeeding generations
• develop in students the knowledge, understanding, concepts, skills and values that are
fundamental to the study of history
• foster in students’ an interest in the work of the historian and an enjoyment of the study of
human activity in the past
• provide students with a historical perspective that improves their understanding of the
contemporary world
• encourage a recognition that historical narratives must be based on evidence, that evidence
may be open to more than one interpretation, and promote a commitment to the pursuit of
objectivity and fair-mindedness.
Objectives of the syllabus
The objectives of Junior Certificate History are to
• investigate the concept of historical evidence and the different types of sources of evidence
• develop students’ ability to interrogate and evaluate a range of historical sources
• enable students to distinguish between fact and opinion, detect bias and identify propaganda
• explore the principal trends, issues and events in the historical topics studied
• examine the concept of change and some of the important types of historical change
• enable students to carry out some basic historical research at a level appropriate to their age
and abilities and communicate their research findings in a variety of ways.
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Syllabus overview
Section 1
Section 2
Section 3
How we find out about
the past
Studies of change
Understanding the
modern world
General introduction to
the job of the historian
and the methods s/he uses
which will inform the rest
of the course.
General introduction to
the job of the historian
and the methods s/he uses
which will inform the rest
of the course.
General introduction to
the job of the historian
and the methods s/he uses
which will inform the rest
of the course.
Study, based on
archaeological evidence,
of pre-Christian and early
Christian Ireland and one
ancient civilisation under
these headings: houses,
food, family life, work,
art, crafts, tools and burial
customs.
Change in European view
of the world (15th/16th
c.): Exploration by sea—
causes and consequences.
Studies of political
developments in Ireland
in the 20th century
which helped to shape
contemporary Ireland.
Study, based on buildings,
settlements and other
material sources, of
medieval society,
specifically: city, manor,
castle, monastery and
parish.
Study, based on visual
sources and biography,
of Renaissance art,
architecture, printing
and learning in various
countries across Europe.
Religious change (16th c.):
Activities of reformers—
causes and consequences.
Changes in land ownership
in Ireland (16th/17th
c.): Ulster and Munster
Plantations—causes and
consequences.
Political change (late
18th /early 19th c.):
Revolutionary movements
in Ireland—causes and
consequences.
Social change (19th c.):
Industrial England and
rural Ireland—contrasting
living and working
conditions in the first half
of the 19th century.
The Great Famine is the
area of special study.
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Analysis of social change
in Ireland from c.1900 to
2000.
Studies of international
history in the 20th
century; sources of conflict
and strategies to resolve
conflict.
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Junior Certificate - Draft History Syllabus
Differentiation
n
curriculum for exceptionally able students, as well
as guidelines for teachers of students with general
learning disabilities. Differentiation at the point
of assessment is described more fully in the next
section.
Students learn at different rates and in different
ways. Differentiation in teaching and learning and
in the related assessment arrangements is essential
in order to meet the needs of all students. In
junior cycle syllabuses, differentiation is primarily
addressed in three areas: the content and learning
outcomes of the syllabus; the process of teaching
and learning; the assessment arrangements
associated with examinations. For exceptionally
able students, differentiation may mean extending
and/or enriching some of the topics or learning
outcomes. This should supplement, but not replace
the core of work being undertaken. For students
with general learning difficulties, this may mean
teaching at a different pace, having varied teaching
methodologies or having a variety of ways of
assessing students.
Assessment
General principles
Assessment in education involves gathering,
interpreting and using information about the
processes and outcomes of learning. It takes
different forms and can be used in a variety of
ways, such as to test and certify achievement, to
determine the appropriate route for students to
take through a differentiated curriculum or to
identify specific areas of difficulty (or strength)
for a given student. While different techniques
may be employed for formative, diagnostic and
certification purposes, assessment of any kind
should improve learning by exerting a positive
influence on the curriculum at all levels. It must,
therefore, reflect the full range of curriculum goals.
By involving students in planning their own
learning, and by establishing classroom routines
that encourage students to act as independent
learners, teachers can provide many opportunities
for differentiated learning. In this way, the
learning outcomes in the syllabus can be achieved
to different extents by individual students in the
same class. The demand on each student can vary
depending on the level of understanding that
the student brings to the situation. In some cases
learning outcomes are made more demanding
by involving more factors and building on more
extensive background knowledge. The extent to
which a learning outcome is achieved will depend
on the level at which the student engages with it.
Assessment should be used as a continuous part of
the teaching-learning process and involve learners,
wherever possible, as well as teachers, in identifying
next steps. In this context, the most valuable
assessment takes place at the site of learning.
Assessment should also provide an effective basis
for communication with parents in a way that
helps them to support their children’s learning.
Assessment must be valid, reliable and equitable.
These aspects of assessment are particularly relevant
for national assessment for certification purposes.
Each syllabus provides opportunities for students
to learn in ways that most directly meet their
needs, interests, and learning styles. As a result,
a wide range of teaching and learning activities
is appropriate. Schools have a responsibility
to provide a broad, balanced and appropriate
curriculum for all students. There is a range
of materials available to support schools in
meeting this responsibility. These include further
information on extending and enriching the
Assessment for certification
The History syllabus will be assessed at two levels,
Ordinary level and Higher level, by means of
terminal examination papers. Students will be
allocated 1½ hours to complete the Ordinary level
paper and those taking the Higher level paper
will have 2 hours to complete it. The language
on papers at both levels will be simple, clear and
unambiguous. Particular care, however, will be
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taken to ensure that the language at Ordinary level
will reflect the reading abilities of the candidates at
that level.
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The examination paper at Ordinary level will
only assess learning outcomes for those parts of
the syllabus studied by all candidates. The paper
at Higher level will assess both those parts of the
syllabus studied by all candidates and those parts
designated for Higher level only.
Within the syllabus, the range of topics to be
studied is broadly the same at both levels. At
Higher level, a deeper treatment of some syllabus
topics is required, as outlined in the extended
content and learning outcomes. There is some
differentiation of content for Higher and Ordinary
levels in Sections 2 and 3 of the syllabus.
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Topics and
learning outcomes
Section 1: How we find out about the past
Section 2: Studies of change
Section 3: Understanding the modern world
Learning outcomes designated for Higher level students only, appear in bold in the text.
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Section 1: How we find out about the past
This section introduces students to the ways in
which historians find out about the past. Using the
basic concepts of ‘source’ and ‘evidence’, it explores
how different types of evidence help us to create a
picture of past societies, from the Stone Age to the
Renaissance period.
Topic 1.1 General study comprises an introduction
to historical methods and its learning outcomes
should receive attention throughout the section.
Section 1: How we find out about the past
Topic
Description of topic
Learning outcomes
1.1 General
study
Students should be able to
A study of the job of the historian
-- describe the job of the historian, and be able to
distinguish between the work of the historian and the
work of the archaeologist
-- demonstrate competence in basic research and
communication skills
General introduction to historical
methods
-- recognise that the study and writing of history involves
the interpretation of evidence
Exploration of different types of
sources and evidence
-- identify different types of historical sources such as
written sources, visual sources, artefacts, buildings and
other material sources, oral sources
-- distinguish between a primary source and a secondary
source
-- select relevant points of evidence to answer historical
questions
1.2 Our roots
in ancient
civilisation
1.3 Castle,
church and
city
A study based on archaeological
evidence of
-- houses, food and family life
-- work, art, crafts, tools
-- burial customs
in pre-Christian and early Christian
Ireland and in ONE ancient civilisation
outside of Ireland
-- describe the specified aspects of life in Pre-Christian and
Early Christian Ireland and in one ancient civilisation
(outside of Ireland) as revealed to us by archaeological
evidence
A study based on buildings, settlements
and other material sources of
-- medieval society
-- the medieval city and manor
-- the medieval castle
-- the medieval monastery and parish
-- describe the specified aspects of life in medieval times as
revealed to us by surviving buildings and other material
sources.
(The specified aspects are: houses, food and family life;
work, art, crafts, tools; burial customs)
Local, national and European examples
can be used as appropriate
(Medieval may be defined as dating
from the 12th century approximately,
until the 15th century)
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(The specified aspects are: Medieval society; the
medieval city and manor; the medieval castle; the
medieval monastery and parish)
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Junior Certificate - Draft History Syllabus
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Section
Section
1: How1:we
Jobfind
of the
out historian
about the past
Topic
Description of topic
Learning outcomes
1.4 Renaissance
Students should
Students
should
bebe
able
able
to to
A study based on visual sources and
biography of
-- art
-- architecture
-- printing and learning
in various countries across Europe
-- recognise and describe the main features of Renaissance
art, architecture, printing and learning
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Section 2: Studies of change
This section explores different kinds of historical
change. Using the concepts of cause and
consequence, it examines—with the help of
appropriate documentary sources—a series of
historical phenomena between the 15th and mid19th centuries, from the Portuguese and Spanish
voyages of exploration to the Industrial Revolution.
The learning outcomes contained in Topic 2.1
General study, should be seen as permeating the
study of all of the topics in the section.
Students studying this syllabus at Ordinary level
may concentrate on the Special studies.
Section 2: Studies of change
Topic
Description of topic
Learning outcomes
2.1 General
study
Students should be able to
A study of the job of the historian
-- demonstrate research skills in their understanding and
communication of history
General introduction to historical
methods
-- show understanding of key concepts that they will
encounter in their study of this section: change,
comparison and contrast, cause and consequence,
conflict, power, technology, revolution
-- show understanding of the concepts of propaganda,
bias and objectivity
Exploration of different types of
sources and evidence
-- show understanding of the nature and use of historical
sources
-- identify historical evidence from a variety of sources
-- select relevant points of evidence to answer historical
questions
2.2 Exploration
Changes in European views of the
world:
-- why people wanted new sea routes
-- what made the voyages possible
-- the main consequences of the
voyages
-- identify the main causes and consequences of
voyages of exploration in the 15th and 16th
centuries
An account of one voyage of
exploration
-- give an account of one voyage of exploration
A study of religious change:
-- why the Reformation occurred
-- how different people went about
reform: Luther, Calvin, Henry VIII,
Ignatius Loyola
-- the main consequences of the
Reformation
-- identify the main causes and consequences of
the Reformation in the 16th century
Special study
2.3 Reformation
-- describe how the following people went about
reform: Luther, Calvin, Henry VIII, Ignatius Loyola
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Section 2: Studies of change
Topic
Description of topic
Learning outcomes
Students should be able to
2.3 Reformation
contd.
Special study
2.4 Plantation in
Ireland
Changes
in land
ownership
Special study
Life of one of the named reformers
and the effect he had
-- give an account of the life of one of the named
reformers and the effect he had
--- identify the main causes, features and
consequences of plantation policies in Ireland in
the 16th and early 17th centuries, with reference
to the Munster and Ulster Plantations
Munster and Ulster Plantations under
the following headings:
-- why the land changed hands
-- how the land changed hands
-- main consequences, immediate
and long-term, of the changes in
ownership
One of the named plantations
-- give an account of one of the named plantations in
Ireland (either the Munster Plantation or the Ulster
Plantation)
2.5 Revolutionary Sources of discontent in late 18th
century Ireland. The influence of
movements
A study of
political
change
Special study
2.6 Industrial
England and
rural Ireland
revolutionary movements in America
and France on Ireland in the late 18th
and early 19th centuries. The activities
and impact of the Irish revolutionary
movements
-- identify the main causes, features and
consequences of revolutionary activity in Ireland
during the late 18th century
A study of the life of one revolutionary
in Ireland in the late 18th and/or early
19th centuries
-- give an account of the life of one revolutionary in Ireland
in the late 18th and/or early 19th centuries
Living and working conditions in
industrial England in the first half of
the 19th century
-- describe the contrasting living and working
conditions in industrial England and rural Ireland
in the first half of the 19th century
Living and working conditions in rural
A study of
social change Ireland in the first half of the 19th
century
Special study
The Great Famine and its impact up to
1850
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-- give an account of the Great Famine and its impact up
to 1850
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Junior Certificate - Draft History Syllabus
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Section 3: Understanding the modern world
This section explores developments in Irish
politics and society and in international relations
that have helped to shape the country and the
world in which we live. It combines the study of
selected, significant developments with the analysis
of change and the study of conflict and conflict
resolution.
Students studying this syllabus at Ordinary Level
will study 3.4 International history in the 20th
century, and one of the other two topics i.e. either
3.2 Political developments in Ireland, or 3.3 Social
change in the 20th century.
In studying 3.4 International history in the 20th
century, Ordinary level students should focus on
either A or B.
The learning outcomes contained in Topic 3.1
General study, should be seen as permeating the
study of all of the topics in the section.
Section 3: Understanding the modern world
Topic
Description of topic
Learning outcomes
Students should be able to
3.1 General study A study of the job of the historian
-- demonstrate research skills in their understanding and
communication of history
General introduction to historical
methods
-- show understanding of the concepts of propaganda,
bias and objectivity
show understanding of how the contemporary world has
been shaped by the interaction of people and events in
the past
-- show understanding of chronology
Exploration of different types of
sources and evidence
-- identify historical evidence from a variety of sources
-- select relevant points of evidence to answer historical
questions
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Section 3: Understanding the modern world
Topic
Description of topic
Learning outcomes
3.2 Political
developments
in Ireland
in the 20th
century
Students should
Students
should
bebe
able
able
to to
A study of some of the main political -- outline the significant political developments in Ireland
developments which influenced
between 1912-1945 that are specified in the description of
contemporary Ireland under the
topic
following headings:
A. 1912-1945
-- Home Rule crisis, 1912-1914
-- 1916 Rising
-- independence struggle,
1919-1921
-- Treaty and Civil War, 1921-1923
-- political evolution of the two
states, 1922-1932
-- dismantling the Treaty,
1932-1938
-- World War II, North and South,
1939-1945
B. Post-1945
Ireland in
the UN and
EEC
or
Political
developments
in Northern
Ireland
or
Politics and
social issues
-- Ireland’s peacekeeping missions
in the Congo and Cyprus
3.3 Social
change in
20th century
Ireland
Changing life-styles in Ireland from
c.1900 to 2000. A study of changes
in the local area or a national study
under the following headings:
-- role of women
-- work and leisure
-- urban and rural life
-- transport and communications
-- Ireland and the EEC, 1973-1985
or
-- rise of the civil rights movement
-- describe those aspects of Ireland’s international involvement
in the UN and the EEC that are specified in the description
of topic
-- describe those aspects of political developments in Northern
Ireland that are specified in the description of topic
-- political violence and attempts at
political resolution, 1969-1974
or
-- politics and health issues,
-- describe those aspects of the interaction of politics and
1948-1951
social issues in twentieth century Ireland that are specified in
the description of topic
-- politics and developments in
education, 1966-1970
-- identify the main causes and consequences of social change
in Ireland, from c. 1900 to 2000, in respect of each of the
following: the role of women; work and leisure; urban and
rural life; transport and communications
-- demonstrate an understanding of key concepts such as
home, family, work, leisure and technology
-- demonstrate the use of oral sources in social history
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Section 1: Job of the historian
Topic
Description of topic
Learning outcomes
3.4 International
history in the
20th century
A. Peace and
war in
Europe
B. 1945-1990’s
Cold War
or
Moves
towards
European
unity
or
African
and Asian
nationalism
Students should be able to
The origins of conflict and strategies to
resolve conflict:
-- peace settlement and the League
of Nations
-- Fascist states in Italy and Germany
-- drift to war, 1933-1939
-- World War II in Europe
-- Berlin Blockade
-- Korean War
-- Cuban Crisis
-- explain the main causes of international conflict
in Europe between 1919 and 1945, and the main
strategies to resolve conflict during that period,
with specific reference to the factors specified in the
description of topic
-- identify the main causes of international conflict
between the Superpowers during the period 1945 to
the 1990s and the main strategies to resolve conflict
during that period with specific reference to the factors
specified in the description of topic
or
-- Treaty of Rome
-- Growth of the European Union
-- Maastricht Treaty
-- identify the main causes and consequences of the moves
towards European unity between 1945 and the 1990s
with specific reference to the factors specified in the
description of topic
or
-- Colonial background
-- Independence Movement (of the
country chosen)
-- Post-Colonial Experience
-- identify the main causes and consequences of an
independence struggle in either Africa or Asia between
1945 and the 1990s with specific reference to the
stages identified in the description of topic
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Statement of links
n
Junior Certificate history builds on the Primary
School Curriculum:
Junior cycle education seeks to reinforce and
further develop in the learner the knowledge,
understanding, attitudes, and skills acquired at
primary level. It should also extend and deepen
the range and quality of the learner’s educational
experience by creating connections both within the
junior cycle programme itself, and with the senior
cycle.
• There is an emphasis in the Primary School
Curriculum on working as an historian by
engaging with historical evidence and learning
to communicate one’s interpretation of that
evidence. The Junior Certificate History
syllabus in its opening section focuses on How
we find out about the past, and, throughout the
syllabus, there is a concentration on the concept
of evidence and the development of skills in
the interrogation and evaluation of evidence.
The syllabus also involves the development of
research skills and the ability to communicate
research findings.
This syllabus reflects these aspirations by including
a statement describing some of the points of
connection between these components of the
young person’s educational experience. This should
inform the teacher’s planning in that it describes
how the study of Junior Certificate History
• The Primary School Curriculum places an
emphasis on the everyday lives of ordinary
people. While the roles of significant historical
personalities are also investigated, the Junior
Certificate History syllabus continues the
investigation of everyday life across the span of
human history with a focus in each section on
some aspects of social/societal change, from the
Stone Age to the twentieth century.
• builds on the learning at primary level
• supports the different areas of experience that
comprise the wider educational context at junior
cycle
• links with other junior cycle subjects
• supports progression to senior cycle.
Progression from the Primary School
Curriculum
• The Primary School Curriculum aims to
develop understanding of the concept of change.
This concept permeates the Junior Certificate
History syllabus, not least Section 2 entitled
Studies of change, which examines different types
of historical change through a series of patch
studies within a chronological framework.
History is an integral part of Social, Environmental
and Scientific Education in the Primary School
Curriculum. Many of the key emphases in the
Primary School Curriculum are repeated and
reinforced in the Junior Certificate History
syllabus. The following are some examples of how
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Connections to the junior cycle areas of
experience
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• Arts education
• Physical education
The curriculum at junior cycle is made up of eight
areas of experience. These are
• Religious and moral education
• Language, literature and communication
• Guidance, counselling and pastoral care.
• Mathematical studies and applications
A combination of experiences across these areas
contributes to the holistic development of the
learner and supports the integration of learning.
History makes a particular contribution to the
following areas of experience in junior cycle:
• Science and technology
• Social, political and environmental education
Language, literature and communication
The development of cultural awareness is
dependent upon an historical perspective.
Science and technology
In examining some major scientific and
technological developments, students
learn valuable lessons about the capacity
of humankind to adapt to changing
circumstances and to extend the range of
human possibilities.
Social, political and environmental
education
Students learn about the social, political
and cultural forces that have shaped the
world in which they live.
Arts education
In examining the art and crafts of people
of the past during selected periods, the
student’s perceptual sense is sharpened and
aesthetic development promoted.
Religious and moral education
The syllabus provides the opportunity
to examine how previous generations
have engaged with questions of meaning,
purpose and value.
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Links with other junior cycle subjects
Progression to senior cycle
The work undertaken by students of Junior
Certificate History has relevance beyond the
history classroom. The following are just some of
the links that History has with other subjects in the
Junior Certificate curriculum:
The study of Junior Certificate History should
equip the student for the more rigorous demands of
the curriculum at Leaving Certificate level. Those
choosing to study history at Leaving Certificate
level will encounter a range of familiar concepts,
such as evidence, interpretation, and research, and
will further develop their understanding and their
abilities. The study of other Leaving Certificate
subjects will also be enhanced by the study of
Junior Certificate History. This is especially the
case in the area of the humanities, where the focus
is on human actions and human culture and where
the application of an historical perspective adds an
important dimension to the student understands.
The development of research skills will assist
students in meeting the general demands of the
Leaving Certificate programmes with their focus on
independent learning and critical thinking.
• As with History, Junior Certificate Geography
also aims to develop students’ research
skills. The same map may be studied from a
geographer’s or an historian’s perspective and
evidence of human settlement is examined in
both classrooms.
• The study of art and architecture in ancient,
medieval and Renaissance societies provides a
valuable historical context for students of Junior
Certificate Art, Craft, Design.
• The communication skills fostered in the
history classroom complement and reinforce
the development of the various forms of written
discourse in Junior Certificate English.
• The knowledge, understanding, and sense of
historical perspective acquired in the history
classroom provide an essential backdrop to the
study of civic, social and political institutions in
Civic, Social and Political Education (CSPE).
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National Council for Curriculum and Assessment
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